GUIDE 


Y  A  X  0  K  7 

/'K6s> 

.4  9 v  r 


FOR 

WRITING  LATIN 


CONSISTING  OF 


RULES  AND  EXAMPLES  FOR  PRACTICE. 


BY 

JOHN  PHILIP  KREBS, 

DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY  AND  PRINCIPAL  SCHOOL  DIRECTOR  IN  THE 

DUTCHY  OF  NASSAU. 


FROM  THE  GERMAN, 

BY  SAMUEL  II.  TAYLOR, 

PRINCIPAL  OF  PHILLIPS  ACADEMY. 


SECOND  EDITION. 


ANDOVER: 

ALLEN,  MORRILL  &  WARD  WELL. 

NEW  YORK:  M  H.  NEWMAN. 

1845. 

pisroF  o mzmis  znmninr 

©EBSTNUT  HIU*  MASS* 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1843,  by 
ALLEN,  MORRILL  &  WARDWELL, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


131216/ 


ANDOVER : 

ALLEN,  MORRILL  AND  WARDWELL, 
PRINTERS. 


PREFACE 


TO  THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


John  Philip  Krebs,  the  author  of  the  following  work,  was 
born  in  Glauchau,  in  Prussia,  near  Halle,  in  the  year  1771.  In 
1800,  he  w7as  appointed  Professor  in  the  Gymnasium  at  Weil- 
burg.  The  duties  of  his  office  he  continued  to  discharge  with 
great  success  till  1837,  when  he  became  Professor  Emei'itiis. 
He  was  then  appointed  priic'pal  School  Director, — and  for 
this  service  he  receives  his  former  salary. 

Besides. the  present  work,  he  has  published  several  others 
of  much  value.  His  Manual  of  Philological  Works,  illustra¬ 
tive  of  the  classics,  wras  published  in  1822 — 3,  in  two  volumes. 
He  also  edited  an  edition  of  Ovid.  He  is  likewise  the  author 
of  a  Greek  and  Latin  Grammar,  Greek  Lessons  for  beginners, 
and  a  treatise  on  Greek  Accents.  In  1842,  he  published  the 
third  edition  of  his  Antibarbarus  of  the  Latin  Language,  which 
contains  a  clear  exhibition  of  those  words  and  constructions 
which  are  not  approved  by  the  best  classical  writers.  This 
is  a  book  of  great  value  to  the  classical  scholar,  and  shows  that 
the  author  has  studied,  with  care  and  discrimination,  the  best 
Latin  writers. 

The  following  work  has  passed  through  nine  editions  in 
Germany.  The  plan,  as  will  be  seen,  is  somewhat  different 
from  any  which  has  been  used  in  this  country.  A  principle  or 
idiom  of  the  language  is  first  stated  and  explained,  and  then 
examples  are  given  for  practice.  The  author  has  made  it  his 


IV 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


object  to  guard  against  giving  the  student  too  much  or  too  little 
assistance.  By  the  latter,  he  would  leave  him  in  constant  doubt 
respecting  the  various  idioms  ;  by  the  former,  he  would  give 
but  little  occasion  for  the  exercise  of  the  nicer  powers  of  dis¬ 
crimination.  A  middle  course,  therefore,  has  been  wisely 
adopted.  Examples  for  practice  are  not  always  given  at  the 
close  of  every  rule  ;  if  so,  neither  memory,  reflection  nor  judg¬ 
ment  would  be  required.  Often  several  rules  are  stated,  and 
then  the  examples  for  practice  are  given  promiscuously.  Such 
an  arrangement  makes  it  necessary  to  study  the»  rules  atten¬ 
tively. 

The  book  has  been  very  favorably  noticed  by  many  of  the 
leading  classical  journals  of  Germany.  Flattering  opinions  of 
it  have  also  been  expressed  by  distinguished  classical  scholars, 
in  private  letters  to  the  author. 

The  principal  argument  for  writing  Latin,  in  our  own  coun¬ 
try,  is  the  more  thorough  knowledge  of  it,  which  is  thereby 
acquired.  Those  best  qualified  to  judge  on  this  subject,  think 
that  the  Latin  must  be  written,  before  it  can  be  fully  under¬ 
stood.  In  Germany,  where  the  classics  are  more  thoroughly 
and  extensively  studied  than  in  any  other  country,  the  exercise 
of  writing,  and,  in  many  instances,  even  of  speaking  Latin 
and  Greek,  is  considered  of  the  first  importance.  Within  the 
last  twelve  years,  not  less  than  forty  different  treatises  have 
appeared  from  the  German  press,  to  facilitate  the  writing  of 
Latin. 

The  exercise  of  .writing  Latin  makes  the  knowledge  of  it 
definite.  Years  are  often  spent  in  the  loose  and  general  study 
of  the  language,  with  little  or  no  profit.  But  few  of  its  princi¬ 
ples  are  understood,  and  its  force  and  beauty  cannot  be  appre¬ 
ciated.  Now,  if  the  study  of  Latin  is  to  be  made  useful  in 
disciplining  the  mind,  in  giving  it  strength  and  energy,  in  mak¬ 
ing  it  capable  of  close  application  and  nice  distinctions,  or,  if 
we  would  open  its  richest  fountains  and  draw  from  them  their 
sweetest  waters,  we  must  study  it  radically.  There  is  choice 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


V 


gold  in  the  mine,  but  it  is  found  only  by  hard  digging.  The 

% 

complaints,  which  are  often  made  against  the  study  of  the 
classics,  originate,  in  a  great  measure,  from  the  want  of  a  pro¬ 
per  method  of  study.  A  language  like  the  Latin  cannot  be 
supposed  to  be  understood  by  a  few  misdirected  efforts.  The 
forms  and  force  of  its  words,  the  nice  use  of  its  modes  and 
tenses,  the  emphatic  position  of  its  words,  the  euphonic  balanc¬ 
ing  and  arrangement  of  its  sentences,  together  with  its  varied 
idiomatic  features,  must  become,  as  it  were,  vernacular  to  the 
student,  before  the  proper  advantage  can  be  derived  from  it. 
It  is  not  assumed,  however,  that  the  writing  of  Latin  will  alone 
secure  such  a  result.  This  is  but  one  of  the  means  to  be  used. 
The  more  the  language  is  read,  the  more  easily  and  correctly 
will  it  be  written,  provided  the  reading  be  rightly  directed ; 
and  the  more  it  is  written,  the  more  easily  and  understandingly 
will  it  be  read.  In  selecting  a  particular  Latin  word  to  express 
the  corresponding  English,  the  attention  is  directed  more  closely 
to  it  than  if  the  same  word  was  merely  to  be  read.  And  should 
there  be  doubt  respecting  its  exact  use,  it  will  be  more  care¬ 
fully  observed,  every  time  it  occurs  in  reading,  until  the  classi¬ 
cal  usage  is  definitely  fixed. 

So  in  regard  to  a  particular  construction  ;  if  any  question  is 
raised  respecting  its  correctness,  the  mode  of  solving  the  doubt 
will  be  the  same  as  before.  In  this  way,  a  knowledge  of  all 
the  usages  of  the  language  may,  in  a  short  time,  be  acquired. 
The  student  who  knows  that  he  has  a  Latin  exercise  to  pre¬ 
pare,  will  watch,  with  double  attention,  the  form,  the  force  and 
position  of  every  word,  the  construction  of  every  sentence, 
every  new  idiom,  and  every  departure  from  the  common  usage. 
Thus  the  mind  will  ever  be  on  the  stretch  of  investigation, — 
and  the  study  of  the  Latin  be  attended  with  pleasure  and  profit. 

In  writing  Latin,  the  student  will  also  acquire  a  more  exact 
knowledge  of  his  own  language.  Before  he  can  translate  an 
English  sentence  into  Latin,  he  must  have  a  precise  idea  of 
the  thought  it  contains.  Then  he  must  mark  the  different 


VI 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


usages  of  the  two  languages,  to  see  wherein  they  are  alike, 
and  wherein  they  differ.  One  must  employ  a  preposition, 
where  the  other  does  not;  one  requires  one  mode,  the  other 
a  different  one ;  the  arrangement  of  the  sentences  is  different  in 
each ;  one  uses  interrogatives,  where  the  other  dispenses  with 
them.  Thus,  all  the  more  striking  differences  between  the  two 
languages  will  be  subjects  of  careful  observation,  and  each  be 
more  fully  understood. 

It  may  be  safely  affirmed,  therefore,  that,  in  the  time  usually 
devoted  to  the  study  of  Latin,  a  more  accurate  and  extensive 
acquaintance  with  it  can  be  acquired,  by  uniting  the  constant 
habit  of  writing  with  that  of  reading.  Nor  will  the  benefits  of 
this  thorough  study  of  the  Latin  be  confined  to  this  language 
alone  ;  the  same  habits  of  discrimination  will  be  readily  trans¬ 
ferred  to  any  other, — and  the  mind  which  has  been  accustomed 
to  mark  the  resemblances  and  differences  between  the  English 
and  the  Latin,  will,  at  once  and  naturally,  trace  the  analogies 
between  other  languages,  and  will  be  prepared  for  the  close 
and  successful  investigation  of  whatever  subjects  may  be  pre¬ 
sented. 

It  may  be  thought  that  the  sentences  in  the  examples  for 
practice  are  too  short.  They  do  not  generally  contain  whole 
fables  or  anecdotes.  The  author  justly  remarks  on  this  point, 
“  That  the  habit,  adopted  in  some  schools,  of  giving  the  begin¬ 
ner  sentences  involving  several  distinct  principles,  is  a  wrong 
one.  He  should  first  learn  single  rules  and  then  apply  them 
to  practice.  The  landscape  painter  does  not  begin  by  drawing 
a  whole  landscape  that  is  made  up  of  many  distinct  objects  ; 
he  first  sketches  the  trunks  of  trees  and  the  foliage,  accustoms 
himself  to  represent  stones,  cliffs,  grottos,  streams,  waterfalls, 
and  all  other  possible  objects  which  belong  to  a  landscape. 
Then,  when  he  has  acquired  skill  in  representing  these  single 
objects,  he  attempts  a  full  picture.  The  same  method  should 
be  pursued  in  writing  Latin.  Let  the  student  begin  with  short 
detached  sentences,  let  him  use  the  rules  given  to  illustrate 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION 


Vll 


these,  and,  when  he  has  acquired  a  facility  in  rendering  these 
grammatically  and  correctly  into  Latin,  let  him  pass  to  com¬ 
pound  sentences,  and  then  let  him  write  full  compositions  in 
Latin.  But  before  this  can  be  done,  much  practice  will  be 
necessary.” 

In  preparing  the  present  work,  the  translator  has  been  under 
the  necessity  of  making  many  changes.  In  the  original,  the 
Latin  is  throughout  compared  with  the  German.  Of  course, 
much  that  was  said  respecting  the  agreement  and  disagree¬ 
ment  between  the  German  and  Latin,  would  not  be  applicable 
to  the  English  and  Latin.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  to  omit 
a  number  of  sections,  which  could  have  no  application  to  the 
English,  and  also  to  make  changes  in  others,  and  often  to  omit 
or  change  single  sentences.  The  translator  has,  moreover,  ad¬ 
ded  remarks  of  his  own,  where  they  seemed  to  be  needed. 
For  what  is  said,  therefore,  respecting  the  usage  of  the  English, 
so  far  as  it  agrees  with,  or  differs  from  the  Latin,  the  translator 
alone  is  responsible. 

All  the  examples  for  practice  have  not  been  translated,  as  it 
was  thought,  that  no  more  would  ordinarily  be  used,  than  will 
be  found  in  the  present  edition.  The  small  Antibarbarus,  at 
the  close  of  the  German  edition,  has  not  been  translated,  from 
the  fear  that  it  would  make  the  present  volume  too  large  and 
expensive.  Should  this  work,  however,  be  favorably  received, 
it  is  the  intention  of  the  translator  to  prepare  the  Antibarbarus 
to  accompany  it. 

The  exercises  for  practice  are  designed  to  be  written,  till  the 
student  has  acquired  an  ease  in  Latin  composition.  Then, 
after  the  portion  to  be  translated  has  been  thoroughly  studied, 
it  should  be  rendered  immediately  into  Latin.  It  will  also  be 
useful  for  beginners,  to  translate  extempore  what  they  had  writ¬ 
ten  at  the  previous  exercise. 

After  the  translation  was  finished,  the  manuscript  was  read 
to  Dr.  Charles  Beck,  Professor  of  Latin  in  Harvard  University, 
whose  critical  knowledge  of  both  the  German  and  Latin,  ena- 


Vlll 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


bled  him,  at  once,  to  detect  any  inaccuracies  and  to  suggest 
such  changes  and  additions  as  were  required.  The  special  ac¬ 
knowledgments  of  the  translator  are  due  to  Dr.  Beck  for  his 
valuable  services  thus  rendered,  and  for  the  interest  he  has 
taken  in  the  work. 

The  translator  would  also  express  his  thanks  to  Mr.  R.  D.  C. 
Robbins,  Abbot  Resident,  Theological  Seminary,  for  his  highly 
valuable  assistance  in  correcting  the  proofs  and  also  for  several 
useful  suggestions. 

Andover ,  August,  1843. 


PREFACE 

TO  THE  SECOND  AMERICAN  EDITION. 

The  present  edition  of  this  work  has  been  carefully  revised 
and  compared  with  the  last  German  edition.  Some  additions 
have  also  been  made  by  the  translator,  where  the  illustration  of 
any  idiom  had  been  omitted,  or  where  a  more  full  statement  of 
it  seemed  to  be  required.  The  principal  alterations  and  addi¬ 
tions  may  be  found  on  pages  16,  48  note,  89 — 95,  99,  114  note, 
117,  122,  124,  169,  183—189,  247,  294,  301  note,  319,  324—329, 
336,  337,  346,  350,  356,  357,  380,  381,  396,  397,  400,  401,  406, 
417,  418,  433,  457,  458  ;  also  the  synonymes  on  pages  477 — 483. 
In  making  these  additions,  the  best  works  accessible  have  been 
freely  used,  particularly  the  Latin  Grammars  of  Kruger,  Rams - 
horn,  Zumpt ,  Kuhner  and  Reisig. 

As  the  duties  of  the  translator  in  the  institution  with  which  he 
is  connected,  did  not  allow  him  sufficient  time  to  prepare  the 
present  edition  as  soon  as  it  was  called  for,  he  has  been  assisted 
by  Mr.  John  N.  Putnam,  of  the  Theological  Seminary,  whose 
critical  and  extensive  acquaintance  with  the  Latin  language  had 
given  him  unusual  qualifications  for  such  a  work. 

Andover,  December,  1844. 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS 


FIRST  PART. 

The  English  Articles,  §  1 — 2. 

Agreement  of  the  adjective,  participle  and  pronoun  with  the  substan¬ 
tive,  3 — 11. 

Agreement  of  the  subject  and  predicate,  12 — 17. 

Cases  of  declinable  words,  IS — 24. 

Connection  of  prepositions  with  cases,  25 — 30. 

Adjectives,  comparative  and  superlative,  31 — 36. 

Pronouns,  37. 

The  verb.  Persons.  Numbers.  Classes  of  verbs,  active  and  passive. 
Tenses.  Modes.  Conjunctions  followed  bj^  the  subjunctive.  Im¬ 
perative.  Infinitive,  with  its  Gerunds.  Supines.  Participles.  Ver¬ 
bal  adjective  in  andas  and  endus ,  38 — 54. 

Position  of  some  words,  55 — 59. 


SECOND  PART. 

A.  General  Remarks. 

The  praenomen  and  name  of  the  gens  joined  to  a  noun  in  the  plural, 
when  two  persons  are  spoken  of,  60. 

Agreement  of  the  subject  and  predicate,  61 — 65. 

Apposition,  66. 

Use  of  cases  to  designate  place,  67 — 74. 

Use  of  cases  to  denote  relations  of  time,  75 — 78. 

Adjectives  and  participles,  79 — 97. 

The  Comparative,  85 — 94. 

The  Superlative,  95 — 97. 

Numeral  Adjectives,  98 — 101. 

Pronouns,  102 — 127. 


X 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 


B.  Particular  Rules. 

I.  Government  of  the  cases  of  declinable  words. 

Tlie  Nominative,  128 — 130. 

The  Genitive,  131 — 161. 

Genitive  with  substantives,  131 — 139. 

Genitive  of  quality,  140,  141. 

Genitive  with  esse ,  142,143. 

Partitive  genitive,  144 — 149. 

Genitive  after  adjectives  and  participles,  150,  152. 

Genitive  after  verbs,  153 — 160. 

Genitive  after  certain  adverbs,  161. 

The  Dative,  162 — 178. 

Dative  after  adjectives,  163 — 167. 

Dative  after  verbs,  168 — 178. 

The  Accusative,  179 — 189. 

Some  general  rules  respecting  the  accusative,  180, 181. 

Accusative  after  verbs,  182 — 189.. 

The  Vocative,  190. 

The  Ablative,  191 — 213. 

Ablative  of  quality,  192,  193. 

Ablative  of  price,  194,  195. 

Ablative  after  adjectives  and  verbs,  196 — 207. 

The  ablative  to  denote  several  relations,  such  as  cause,  manner  and 
instrument,  etc.,  208 — 213. 

II.  Construction  of  verbs. 

Number,  214. 

Persons,  215—217. 

The  indefinite  one ,  we,  they ,  218. 

Different  classes  of  verbs,  transitive,  intransitive,  passive  and  de¬ 
ponent,  219 — 221. 

Tenses  of  verbs,  2;22 — 251.  Additional  remarks  on  the  tenses,  (251. 
a — h.). 

Periphrastic  conjugation  in  the  active,  252,  253. 

Dependence  of  tenses,  254 — 267. 

Modes  of  verbs,  268 — (270.  h.). 

Indicative,  269 — (270.  b.). 

Subjunctive,  (270.  c.) — (270.  h.). 

Conjunctions  which  influence  the  modes  of  verbs,  (270.  i.) — 298. 
Relative  words  (qui,  unde,  ubi,  etc.)  in  reference  to  their  influence 
upon  the  modes,  299 — 314. 


SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 


XL 


Interrogati ves  and  their  connection  with  the  verb,  315 — 334. 
Answers  to  questions,  335 — 340. 

Imperative  mode,  341 — 344. 

Infinitive  and  Gerunds,  345 — 358. 

Verbal  adjective  in  audits  or  cndus ,  359 — 372. 

The  conjunction  that,  373 — 418. 

Oratio  obliqua,  419 — 434. 

Supines,  435 — 442. 

Participles,  443 — 467. 

Position  of  words,  468 — 514. 

Arrangement  of  sentences,  515 — 518. 

Connection  of  sentences  by  qui,  quae,  quod ,  519 — 523. 
Several  particular  rules  for  writing  Latin,  524 — (541.  e.). 

Use  of  prepositions,  542 — 544. 

Construction  of  several  verbs,  545. 

Difference  between  some  words,  546 — 550. 

Choice  of  certain  forms,  55 1, 

Brevity  and  copiousness  of  expression,  552. 

Periods,  553. 


♦ 


i 


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•  ' 


GUIDE  FOE.  WRITING  LATIN. 


PART  I. 

EXERCISES  FOR  BEGINNERS. 


THE  ARTICLES  THE  AND  A. 

1.  The  definite  article  the,  is  not  expressed  in  Latin ;  e.  g. 
The  man,  homo;  the  woman,  femina;  the  animal,  animal. 
And  so  in  the  remaining  cases  of  the  singular  and  plural. 

2.  The  indefinite  article  a ,  is  not  expressed  in  Latin  ;  e.  g. 
A  man,  vir;  a  woman,/««fl!;  a  house,  tectum. 

AGREEMENT  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE,  PARTICIPLE  AND 
PRONOUN  WITH  THEIR  SUBSTANTIVE. 

3.  Every  word  which  is  united  with  a  substantive,  and  de¬ 
fines  it  more  fully,  especially  in  relation  to  a  quality,  may  be 
called  a  qualifying  word.  In  English  it  usually  stands  be¬ 
fore  the  substantive;  e.  g.  A  benevolent  Deity.  Here  bene¬ 
volent  qualifies  the  substantive  Deity.  Further:  A  kind 
mother,  a  high  house,  the  present  day,  this  year,  the  singing 
birds.  Such  a  qualifying  word  may  be  an  adjective,  numeral, 
pronoun  or  participle. 

4.  In  English,  the  adjective  is  not  varied  on  account  of  the 
gender  or  number  of  the  substantive ;  e.  g.  A  good  father,  a 
good  mother,  a  good  animal ;  and  so  in  the  plural,  good  fa¬ 
thers,  etc.  But  in  Latin  the  adjective  is  varied  so  as  to  agree 

1 


2  AGREEMENT  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE  [§§  5 - 7. 

in  gender,  number  and  case  with  the  substantive;  e.  g.  Pater 
bonus ,  mater  bona,  animal  bonum,  patres  boni. 

In  respect  to  gender  and  number,  there  is  a  difference  be¬ 
tween  the  English  and  the  Latin. 

5.  (1)  The  gender  of  the  substantives  in  the  two  languages 
is  often  different;  e.  g.  Stella  (a  star)  is  feminine;  liber  (a 
book)  is  masculine;  corpus  (the  body)  is  neuter,  and  so  very 
many  others;  while  in  English  these  are  all  neuter.  Hence 
in  Latin  before  we  unite  an  adjective  with  its  substantive,  we 
must  ascertain  the  gender  of  the  substantive,  and  then  put 
the  adjective  in  the  gender  which  the  substantive  requires ; 
e.  g.  A  little  book,  liber  parvus ;  a  little  star,  stella  parva ;  a 
little  body,  corpus  parvum. 

6.  (2)  Also  the  number  of  English  and  Latin  substantives 
sometimes  differ ;  e.  g.  A  camp,  castra  (plural);  a  letter, 
litterae  (plural);  courage,  animi;  great  courage,  magni 
animi. 

Remark.  In  English,  the  adjective,  participle  and  pronoun  usually 
stand  before  their  substantive.  In  Latin,  they  can  stand  before  and  af¬ 
ter  the  substantive.  To  prevent  frequent  mistakes  in  translating  from 
English  into  Latin,  it  is  advisable  for  beginners  to  place  the  substan¬ 
tive  first ;  then  they  can  put  the  adjective  after  it  in  the  gender,  num¬ 
ber  and  case  it  requires. 

The  following  examples  are  designed  to  exercise  the  stu¬ 
dent  in  uniting  the  adjective  with  the  substantive. 

7.  First  Declension. 

These  and  the  following  examples  are  to  be  written  in  the  nomina¬ 
tive  plural  also.  The  Latin  adjectives  standing  under  the  exercises 
are  always  given  only  in  the  masculine  form. 

The  long1  tail2.  The  moist3  earth4.  The  white5  paper6. 
Human7  life8.  The  level9  way10.  The  dense11  forest12.  The 
robust13  husbandman14.  The  renowned15  poet16.  The  fear¬ 
ful17  sailor18.  The  proud19  Persian20.  The  new21  flint-stone22. 
The  wild23  Scythian24. 

1  longus.  2  cauda.  3humidus.  4  terra.  5  albus.  6  charta.  7  humanus. 
8  vita.  9  planus.  10  via.  11  densus.  12  silva.  13  robustus.  14  agricola. 
15  clarus.  16  poeta.  17  pavidus.  18  nauta.  19  superbus.  20  Persa.  21  novus. 
22  pyrites.  23  ferus.  24  Scytha. 


§§  8—10.] 


WITH  ITS  SUBSTANTIVE. 


3 


8.  Se  cond  D  eclension  . 

A  sharp1  nail.2  A  white  horse3.  A  broad4  furrow5.  A 
small6  field7.  A  renowned  man.  A  sharp  knife8.  A  pater¬ 
nal9  house10.  An  ancient11  dialect12.  A  long  period13.  A 
small  meadow14.  A  long  neck15.  A  cruel16  war17.  A  great 
sea18.  An  odoriferous19  laurel20.  A  high21  cherry-tree22. 

Acutus.  2  clavus.  3  equus.  4  latus.  5  sulcus.  6  parvus.  7  ager.  8  cul¬ 
ter.  9  paternus.  10  domus.  11  antiquus.  12dialectus.  13  periodus.  14  pra¬ 
tum.  15  collum.  18  saevus.  17  bellum.  18  pelagus.  19  odorus.  20  laurus. 
21  altus.  22  cerasus. 

9.  T  hir  d  Declension. 

A  beautiful  flower1.  A  great  labor2.  A  little  goose3.  A 
black4  coal5.  A  broad  foot6.  The  ancient  order7.  Good 
flesh8.  A  painted9  image10.  A  high  tree11.  A  beautiful 
woman12.  A  long  journey13.  A  sharp  bone14.  White  mar¬ 
ble15.  The  second16  legion17.  Pleasant18  spring19.  Tender20 
age21.  New  peace22.  Great  praise23.  A  little  bird24.  A  broad 
bridge25.  A  great  herd26.  A  great  fire27.  A  little  stone28. 
A  sharp  tooth29.  A  high  sea30.  A  broad  forehead31.  A 
clear32  fountain33.  A  pleasant  summer34.  A  worthy35  re¬ 
ward36.  A  renowned  name37.  A  broad  head38.  A  great 
tribute39.  An  ardent40  youth41.  Wet42  weather43.  A  brave44 
breast45.  A  renowned  city46.  A  long  winter47.  A  little 
mouse48.  A  beautiful  turtle-dove49.  The  right50  side51.  A 
white  swallow52.  A  deep53  bog54.  The  high  grass55.  Cruel56 
death57.  A  good58  mother59.  Good  parents60.  A  new  priest61. 
A  new  priestess61.  A  faithful62  companion63.  Faithful62 
companions63.  A  great  contest64. 

1  fios.  2  labor.  3  anser.  4  ater.  5  carbo.  6  pes.  7  ordo.  8  caro.  9  pictus. 
10  imago.  11  arbor.  12  mulier.  13  iter  (profectio).  14  os.  15  marmor.  16  se¬ 
cundus.  17  legio.  18  jucundus.  19  ver.  20  tener.  21  aetas.  22  pax.  23  laus. 
24  avis.  23  pons.  26  grex.  27  ignis.  28  lapis.  29  dens.  30  mare.  31  frons. 
32  liquidus.  33  fons.  34  aestas.  35  dignus.  36  merces.  37  nomen.  38  caput. 
29  vectigal.  40  fervidus.  41  juventus.  42humldus.  43  tempestas.  44  ro¬ 
bustus  (fortis).  45  pectus.  46  urbs  (oppidum).  47  hiems.  48  mus.  49  tur¬ 
tur.  50  dexter.  51  latus.  52  hirundo.  53  profundus.  54  palus.  55  gramen. 
56  acerbus.  57  mors.  58  benevolus.  59  parens.  60  parentes.  61  sacerdos. 
62  fidus.  63  comes.  64  certamen  (dissensio). 

10.  Fourth  and  Fifth  Declension. 

A  deep  lake1.  A  great  carriage2.  A  small  house.  A  long 
hand3.  A  high  tide4.  A  sharp  needle5.  A  beautiful  face6 
A  long  row7.  A  festive8  day.  A  broad  knee9.  A  long  horn10. 


4 


AGREEMENT  OF  THE  SUBJECT  [§§  11 - 13. 


That11  old12  oak13.  The  warm  noonday14.  The  old  cus¬ 
toms15.  The  painted16  porches17.  The  Indian18  fig-tree19. 

1  lacus.  2  currus  (vehiculum).  3  manus.  4  fluctus.  5  acus.  6  facies. 
7  series.  8  festus.  9  genu.  10  cornu.  11  ille.  12  annosus.  13  quercus. 
14  meridies.  15  ritus.  j6  pictus.  17  porticus.  18  Indicus.  19  ficus. 

11.  s  om  e  Substantives  used  in  the  plural. 

The  renowned  wedding1.  The  nightly2  watch3.  Uncer¬ 
tain4  riches5.  Hidden6  treachery7.  The  new  calendar.8  The 
holy9  bible10.  Demolished11  Jerusalem12.  Renowned  Del¬ 
phos13.  High  walls14.  A  great15  camp16.  My  house17.  These 
entrails18.  Egyptian19  darkness20. 

1  nuptiae.  2  nocturnus.  3 excubiae.  4  incertus.  5  divitiae.  6  occultus. 
7  insidiae.  8  fasti.  9  sacer.  10  litterae.  11  dirutus.  12  Hierosolyma, 
-orum.  13  Delphi.  14  moenia, -ium.  15  ingens.  16  castra, -orum.  17  ae¬ 
des, -ium.  18  exta, -orum.  19  iEgyptius.  20  tenebrae. 

AGREEMENT  OF  THE  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 

12.  A  subject,  predicate  and  copula  are  necessary  for  the 
formation  of  a  sentence  which  expresses  an  idea. 

The  subject  is  a  person  or  thing ,  or  in  general,  that  of 
which  something  is  said ;  e.  g.  I,  thou,  the  father,  we,  ye, 
the  parents,  life,  death,  etc. 

The  predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  some  subject ; 
e.  g.  Active,  teacher,  sleeping,  industrious,  scholars,  etc. 

The  copula,  i.  e.  that  which  binds  together,  is  the  word 
which  unites  the  subject  and  predicate.  The  most  usual 
word  for  this  is  the  verb  to  be. 

These  three  words  together  form  a  sentence ;  e.  g.  I  am 
active ;  thou  art  a  teacher ;  the  father  is  sleeping ;  we  are 
industrious  ;  ye  are  scholars  ;  the  parents  are  good. 

13.  The  subject  is  not  only  a  substantive,  an  adjective 
used  as  a  substantive  (e.  g.  the  sweet,  the  bitter,  the  future), 
and  a  pronoun,  but  also  an  infinitive,  and  a  whole  sentence ; 
e.  g.  to  die  (i.  e.  death)  is  our  lot ;  to  die  for  one's  country 
(i.  e.  death  for  one’s  country)  is  glorious;  that  we  all  die 
(the  death  of  us  all)  is  certain  ;  when  we  die  (the  time  of  our 
death)  is  uncertain.  When  a  whole  sentence  is  the  subject, 
as  in  the  last  two  cases,  it  is  called  a  'periphrastic  subject. 


AND  PREDICATE. 


5 


§§  14-16.] 

14.  The  predicate  is  either  a  substantive,  an  adjective,  or 
a  participle ;  e.  g.  I  am  a  man  ;  thou  art  active ;  the  mother 
is  mourning. 

15.  The  predicate  is  connected  with  the  subject  chiefly 
by  the  verb  to  be,  as  the  previous  examples  show,  and  a  sen¬ 
tence  is  first  formed  by  means  of  this  connection,  as  without 
it,  the  two  words  would  stand  separate ;  e.  g.  I  —  man ; 
thou  —  active. 

But  the  copula  is  very  often  expressed  in  the  predicate, 
i.  e.  the  predicate  contains  both  the  predicate  and  the  copula. 
This  is  the  case  with  such  verbs  as  have  a  complete  idea  in 
themselves,  and  are  not  mere  auxiliary  verbs;  e.  g.  1  teach , 
is  the  same  as  I  am  a  teacher ;  I  desire,  as  I  am  desirous ; 
I  conquer,  as  I  am  a  conqueror. 

Hence,  a  simple  sentence  generally  consists  of  but  two 
words,  a  subject  and  a  predicate-copula,  which  is  usually 
called  simply  the  predicate ;  e.  g.  The  father  sleeps ;  I  sing ; 
thou  writest ;  we  labor  ;  ye  sing ;  the  parents  eat. 

16.  When  the  predicate  is  an  adjective  or  a  participle,  it 
must  agree  with  its  subject  in  gender,  number  and  case. 
The  subject  pater  requires  the  predicate  bonus ;  mater  the 
predicate  bona;  consilium  the  predicate  bonum.  So  also, 
patres  —  boni ;  matres  —  bonae ;  consilia  —  bona ;  sol  — 
lucidus ;  soles  - —  lucidi ;  stella  —  lucida ;  stellae  —  lucidae ; 
sidus  —  lucidum ;  sidera  —  lucida. 

If  the  predicate  is  a  substantive,  it  can  be  either  a  per¬ 
sonal  substantive  (e.  g.  king,  companion),  or  a  substantive 
denoting  a  thing  (e.  g.  cause,  book).  The  former  must  be 
in  the  same  number  and  gender  as  its  subject,  the  latter  is 
unchanged  in  both.  On  this  see  more  under  §  62. 

Further:  not  only  the  copulative  verb  esse,  but  also  the 
predicate  verbs  (e.  g.  amare,  to  love,  canere,  to  sing, 
etc.),  have  particular  forms  for  the  different  persons  of  the 
subject,  in  the  singular  as  well  as  in  the  plural ;  therefore,  the 
person  of  the  subject  must  determine  the  person  of  the  verb ; 

1* 


6  AGREEMENT  OF  THE  SUBJECT  WITH  THE  VERB.  [§  17. 

e.  g.  I  am,  ego  sum;  thou  art,  tu  e  s  ;  the  father  is,  pater 
e  s  t ;  we  are,  nos  sumus;  ye  are,  vos  estis. 

When  the  subject  is  singular  in  English,  but  plural  in 
Latin,  then  the  verb  must  agree  with  the  subject  in  number 
also ;  e.  g.  The  house  burns,  aedes  ardent;  a  house  is 
built,  aedes  sunt  extructae. 

When  by  the  pronouns,  I,  thou,  we,  ye,  they,  females  are  denoted, 
the  predicate  is  in  the  feminine  gender.  Hence,  ego  beata  sum  ; 
nos  beatae  sumus  ;  tu  benevola  es  ;  vos  benevolae  estis. 

17.  Examples  fo r  practice . 

(These  are  all  to  be  written  in  the  plural  also.) 

(1)  I  am  in  good  health1.  Thou  art  attentive2.  The 
girl3  is  attentive.  The  ice4  is  cold5.  The  mind6  is  sound1. 
The  fish7  is  great.  The  river8  is  broad9.  The  gift10  is  great. 
The  winter11  is  severe12.  The  sun13  is  bright14.  The  part15 
is  small.  The  horn16  is  curved17.  The  month18  is  past19. 
The  body20  is  weak21.  The  law22  is  good.  The  shore23  is 
low24.  The  head25  is  great  and  broad. 

1  sanus  (in  good  health).  2  attentus.  3  puella.  4glacies.  5  frigidus. 
6  mens.  7  piscis.  8  fluvius  (flumen,  amnis).  9  latus.  10  munus  (donum). 
11  hiems.  12  saevus.  13  sol.  14  lucidus.  15  pars.  16  cornu.  17  curvus. 
18  mensis.  19  praeteritus.  20  corpus.  21  caducus.  22  lex.  23  littus.  ^hu¬ 
milis.  25  caput. 

(2)  The  leaf1  is  narrow2.  The  tail3  is  long.  The  race4 
is  different5.  Strong6  is  the  breast7,  small  is  the  head,  and 
great  the  neck8.  The  night  is  long  and  the  day  is  short9. 
The  honey10  is  sweet11.  The  sea12  is  deep13.  The  tree  is 
high.  The  mountain  is  steep14.  The  ship15  is  long  and 
broad.  The  time16  is  good.  The  occasion17  is  convenient18. 
The  wish19  is  heard20.  The  journey21  is  wearisome22.  Not 
every23  wound24  is  curable25.  The  judgment26  is  different. 

1  folium.  2  angustus.  3  cauda.  4  genus.  5  diversus.  6  robustus.  7  pec¬ 
tus.  8  collum.  9  brevis.  10  mei.  11  dulcis  12  mare.  13  profundus.  14  ar¬ 
duus.  15  navis.  16  tempus.  17  occasio.  18  commodus.  J9  optatum.  20  ex¬ 
auditus.  21  iter.  22 molestus.  23  omnis.  24  vulnus.  25  sanabilis,  ^judi¬ 
cium. 

(3)  Long  is  the  day,  short  is  the  night.  Wonderful1  is  the 
dream2.  Wealth3  is  great.  The  camp4  is  pitched5.  The 
wall6  is  demolished7.  The  calendar8  is  old9.  The  guard10 
is  attentive.  The  wedding11  is  small.  The  treachery12  is 


THE  USE  OF  CASES. 


7 


§18.] 


apparent13.  Jerusalem14  is  now15  small.  The  birds  fly16. 
The  fish  swim17.  We  sleep18.  Ye  run19.  The  lion20  roars21. 
The  lions  roar.  The  friend22  despairs23.  The  friends  de¬ 
spair.  Thou  art  near24.  Ye  are  near.  The  tree  blossoms25. 
The  trees  blossom.  We  travel26.  The  swallows27  travel. 
We  dispute28.  The  masters29  dispute.  The  boy30  weeps31. 
The  boys  weep.  Virtue  and  knowledge32  are  the  most  cer¬ 
tain33  riches.  Cicero  and  Demosthenes  are  illustrious34  ora¬ 
tors35.  Virgil36  and  Horace37  are  two38  great  poets39. 

1  mirus.  2  somnium.  3  divitiae.  4  castra.  5  positus.  6  moenia.  7  di¬ 
rutus.  8  fasti.  9  vetustus.  10  excubiae.  11  nuptiae.  12  insidiae.  13  aper¬ 
tus.  14  Hierosolyma  (plural).  15  nunc.  18  volare.  17  natare.  18  dormire. 
19  currere.  20  leo.  21  rugire.  22  amicus.  23  desperare.  24  instare  (to  be 
near)  25  florere.  26  migrare.  27  hirundo.  28  disputare.  29  magister. 
30  puer.  31  lacrimare.  32  doctrina.  33  certissimus.  34  clarus.  35  orator. 
36Virgilius.  37  Horatius.  38  duo,  ae,  o.  39  poeta. 


CASES  OF  DECLINABLE  NOUNS. 

18.  A  substantive  or  pronoun  can  be  used  in  a  sentence 
as  the  subject  or  predicate,  and  consequently  is  the  principal 
word  of  the  sentence,  e.  g.  The  friend  is  kind,  thou  art  my 
friend;  but  in  other  sentences  it  can  be  considered  only  as 
a  subordinate  word,  which,  however,  stands  in  a  nearer  or 
more  remote  connection  with  the  principal  word  of  the  sen¬ 
tence  ;  e.  g. 

Thou  hast  read  the  letter  of  the  friend. 

Thou  br ingest  a  letter  to  the  friend. 

He  visits  the  friend  constantly. 

Friend!  let  us  go  into  the  garden. 

In  no  one  of  these  four  sentences  is  the  substantive  friend , 
the  principal  word  or  the  subject ;  but  it  stands,  in  each  in¬ 
stance,  in  connection  with  the  subject,  yet  it  occupies  only 
a  subordinate  place  in  the  sentence.  The  sense,  which  in 
each  instance  is  different,  has  made  the  construction  differ¬ 
ent  ;  as,  of  the  friend ,  to  the  friend ,  the  friend  and  friend. 
This  is  more  perceptible  in  the  Latin,  where  it  is  written 
amici ,  amico ,  amicum ,  amice. 

For  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  the  principal  and  subor- 


8 


NOMINATIVE  CASE. 


[§  19. 


dinate  relation  of  a  substantive  or  pronoun,  these  words  have 
peculiar  endings,  which  are  called  cases.  As  therefore  such 
an  ending  is  called  case,  these  relations  themselves  have  also 
been  called  cases. 

These  cases  sometimes  govern  other  cases,  and  sometimes 
they  are  governed. 

While  in  English  the  same  relations  are  expressed,  as  in 
Latin,  yet  these  relations  are  not  indicated  as  in  Latin,  by  the 
different  endings  of  the  word  ;  e.  g.  to  a  man,  of  a  man,  for 
a  man, — the  endings  being  the  same.  See  §  542.  Remark. 


THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE. 

19.  The  nominative  case  is  sometimes  used  as  a  subject, 
sometimes  as  a  predicate.  The  former  is  called  the  subject- 
nominative  ;  the  latter,  the  predicate-nominative.  As  subject- 
nominative,  it  names  the  person  or  thing  of  which  something 
is  said,  it  is  independent  of  any  word,  and  governs  the  verb  ; 
e.  g.  the  father  loves  you.  As  predicate-nominative,  it  be¬ 
longs  to  a  verb,  which  of  itself  does  not  fully  express  the 
necessary  thought.  Such  verbs  are,  to  be  (esse),  to  appear 
(existere,  apparere),  to  become  (fieri,  evadere),  to  seem  (videri), 
to  be  called  (appellari,  vocari,  nominari,  dici),  etc. 


Examples. 

My  father  is  a  rich1  man.  Cicero  was  a  great  orator. 
Great  will  be  thy  reward2.  Many  appear  worthy  of  admira¬ 
tion3.  Dionysius  appeared  cruel4.  Bad  actions5  often  be¬ 
come  quickly6  known7.  Some8  boys9  become  good,  others 
bad10.  The  wise  are  called  philosophers.  This  precept11 
will  always  remain  true.  Cossinius  seems  to  me  a  good 
man.  Cicero  has  been  called  the  father  of  his  country. 
These  plants  seem  to  me  baneful12.  Stammerers13  cannot 
become14  great  orators. 

1  dives.  2  merces.  3  admirabilis.  4  crudelis.  5  factum.  6  cito.  7  aper¬ 
tus.  8  nonnullus.  9  puer.  10  malus.  11  praeceptum.  12  perniciosus. 
13  balbus.  14  evadere. 


GENITIVE  CASE. 


9 


§  20.] 


THE  GENITIVE. 

20.  The  genitive  case  generally  depends  on  some  word: 

(1)  On  substantives .  When  one  of  two  substantives  is 
dependent  on  the  other,  the  dependent  one  stands  in  the 
genitive;  e.  g.  oratio  Ciceronis,  the  oration  of  Cicero; 
laus  justitiae,  the  praise  of  justice  ;  epistola  matris,  the 
letter  of  the  mother.  In  these  examples  the  dependence  is 
indicated  in  English  by  the  preposition  of 

(2)  On  adjectives ;  e.  g.  such  as  express,  knowledge,  re¬ 
membrance,  consciousness,  fulness,  etc. :  peritus  moris,  ac¬ 
quainted  with  the  custom ;  memor  beneficiorum,  mind¬ 
ful  of  benefits. 

(3)  On  verbs ;  e.  g.  such  as  signify,  to  remember,  to  for¬ 
get,  to  accuse  .‘Patriae  suae  meminisse  (reminisci,  recor¬ 
dari),  to  remember  his  country  ;  f r  at  r  i  s  oblivisci,  to  forget 
one's  brother ;  furti  accusare,  to  accuse  of  theft. 

(4)  On  an  adverb  of  quantity ;  e.  g.  Pecuniae  satis, 
enough  money. 

(5)  Also  in  expressions  which  describe  the  quality  or  na¬ 
ture  of  any  one ;  e.  g.  Magni  ingenii  esse,  to  be  (pos¬ 
sessed)  of  great  genius. 

Examples. 

(1)  The  long  neck  of  the  camel1.  The  roaring2  of  the  lion. 
The  sweet3  song4  of  the  nightingale*.  The  croaking5  of 
frogs6.  Jewels7  of  India8.  The  horses  of  the  Arabians9  and 
the  Englishmen10.  The  skin11  of  the  black12  foxes13.  The 
justice14  of  Aristides.  The  beautiful  temples15  of  the  Greeks16 
and  Romans17.  Mercury18  was  the  inventor19  of  the  lyre20 
and  of  eloquence21,  the  messenger22  of  the  gods,  and  the  pro¬ 
tector23  of  merchants24  and  thieves25.  Apollo  is  the  guardian26 
of  the  Muses,  and  the  inventor  of  medicine27.  Romulus  is 
the  grandson28  of  Numitor,  and  the  son  of  Rhea  Silvia.  The 
letters  of  Cicero  and  Pliny  are  excellent29.  The  singing  of 
nightingales  delights30. 

1  camelus.  2  rugitus.  3  jucundus.  4  cantus.  *  luscinia.  5  vox.  6  rana. 
7  gemma.  8  India.  9  Arabs.  10  Britannus.  11  pellis.  12  niger.  13  vulpes. 


10 


DATIVE  CASE. 


[§  21. 

14justitia.  15  templum.  16  Graecus.  17  Romanus.  18  Mercurius.  19  in¬ 
ventor.  20 lyra.  21  eloquentia.  22  nuntius.  23  tutor.  24  mercator.  25  fur. 
26 praeses.  27  medicina.  28 nepos.  29 egregius.  30 delectare. 

(2)  A  youth1  bearing  marks  of  age9  is  a  sign3  of  early4 
death5.  Whoever6  forgets7  his  father  and  his  mother,  is  an 
ungrateful8  man.  Only9  a  few10  are  acquainted11  with  anti¬ 
quity19,  and  with  the  ancient13  authors14.  Many  are  igno¬ 
rant15  of  the  customs16  and  passions17  of  men.  Socrates  was 
accused18  of  impiety19.  Aristides  did  not  remember90  his 
unjust91  banishment99.  Croesus  had  enough  gold93  and  sil¬ 
ver94.  I  am  conscious95  of  no  fault96.  I  remember97  the 
merit98  of  this  man.  Jugurtha  was  of  a  restless99  and  spright¬ 
ly30  disposition31.  Crassus  was  unmindful39  of  the  treaty33 
made34.  Piso  accused35  Germanicus  of  luxury36  and  haugh¬ 
tiness37. 

juventus.  2senllis  (bearing  marks  of  age).  3signum.  4  maturus. 
5  mors.  6qui.  7  oblivisci.  8  ingratus.  9  tantum.  10  pauci.  11  gnarus. 
12  antiquitas.  13  antiquus.  14  scriptor.  15  ignarus.  16  mos.  17  animi  per¬ 
turbatio.  18  accusare  (perf.).  19  impietas.  20  reminisci.  21  injustus. 
22exilium.  23 aurum.  24 argentum.  25 conscius.  26culpa.  27 recordari, 
^meritum.  29impiger.  30acer.  31  ingenium.  32 iramemor.  33foedus. 
^factus.  35 incusare  (perf.).  36luxuria.  37superbia. 

THE  DATIVE. 

21.  The  dative  case  designates  the  person  or  thing,  for 
which  anything  is  designed  or  done;  e.  g.  Patri  mittis 
librum,  you  send  a  book  to  your  father,  ox  for  him.  This 
case  also,  is  generally  governed  by  some  word  in  the  sen¬ 
tence  : 

(1)  By  adjectives;  e.  g.  such  as  signify,  like,  useful , 
hurtful,  pleasant,  etc. ;  e.  g.  He  is  like  my  father,  est  m  e  o 
patri  similis ;  this  plant  is  useful  for  men,  haec  planta  h  o- 
minibus  est  utilis. 

(2)  By  verbs;  e.  g.  such  as  signify,  to  obey ,  to  please,  to 
be  useful,  to  be  injuriousy  to  serve;  e.  g.  We  obey  the  laws, 
paremus  legibus;  this  oration  pleases  all,  haec  oratio  pla¬ 
cet  omnibus. 

In  many  instances,  where  the  Latin  verb  would  take  the 
dative  after  it,  the  English  requires  the  accusative;  e.  g. 
Paremus  legibus,  we  obey  the  laws;  placet  mi  hi,  it 
pleases  me. 


§22.] 


ACCUSATIVE  CASE. 


11 


Examples . 

This  happened1  to  my  father  and  mother.  Envy9  stands3 
in  the  way  of  many  men.  I  am  devoted4  to  this  science5. 
Misfortunes6  are  often  useful  to  us.  This  image7  is  like8  my 
sister.  Eloquence9  is  necessary10  for  boys11,  and  pleasant12 
for  old  men13.  Letters14  are  necessary  for  us.  The  story 
seems15  laughable16  to  you ;  to  others  it  appears  true17  and 
credible18.  This  virtue  is  opposite19  to  that  vice20.  Many 
sports21  are  injurious22  to  health23.  We  obey24  the  same25 
commands26  and  magistrate27.  Many  men  benefit28  neither29 
themselves  nor  others30.  This  will  beuefit  you,  that  will  in¬ 
jure31  us.  Many  are  slaves32  to  the  passions33.  Answer34 
thy  sister  as  quick  as  possible35. 

1  accidere  (perf.).  2  invidia.  3  obstare  (to  stand  in  the  way  of).  4  dedi¬ 
tus.  5  doctrina.  6  malum.  7  imago.  8  similis.  9  eloquentia.  10  necessa¬ 
rius.  11  puer.  12  jucundus.  13  senex.  14  littera.  15  videri.  16  ridiculus. 
17 verus.  19 credibilis.  19contrarius.  ^vitium.  21  ludus.  22 perniciosus, 
^valetudo.  24 parere.  25  idem.  26 imperium.  27 potestas,  ^prodesse. 
29 nec — nor  nec.  30 alter.  31  nocere.  32 servire.  33 perturbatio  animi. 
34  respondere.  33  quam  primum  (as  quick  as  possible). 


THE  ACCUSATIVE. 

22.  The  accusative  case  designates  particularly  the  object 
to  which  an  action  is  directed;  this  object  may  be  a  person 
or  a  thing;  e.  g.  Thou  seekest  thy  father;  my  father  writes 
a  letter.  This  case  also  is  usually  governed  by  some  word 
of  the  sentence : 

(1)  By  a  verb.  It  is  then  called  the  accusative  of  the  ob¬ 
ject .  This  can  be  known  by  the  Latin  verb  admitting  the 
words,  aliquem,  aliquid,  before  it ;  e.  g.  Aliquem  amare, 
to  love  some  one ;  aliquid  (aliquem)  quaerere,  to  seek  some¬ 
thing  or  some  one. 

That  word,  therefore,  which  can  stand  instead  of  the  indefinite 
words,  some  one ,  some  thing,  is  put  in  the  accusative ;  e.  g.  amo  pa¬ 
trem  et  matrem. 

Many  verbs,  besides  an  accusative,  take  also  the  dative; 
this  is  the  case  with  all  those  verbs  which  contain  the  idea 
of  doing  something  for  some  one,  giving  something  to  some 
one,  and  the  like ;  e.  g.  Alicui  aliquid  dare,  to  give 


12 


ACCUSATIVE  CASE. 


[§  22. 

something  to  some  one ;  alicui  aliquid  legere,  to  read 
something  to  some  one ;  Deus  nobis  vitam  dedit,  God 
has  given  us  life. 

(2)  By  a  preposition.  See  §  25 — 27. 

(3)  The  accusative  stands  in  Latin  as  in  English,  in  an¬ 
swer  to  the  questions,  How  high  ?  How  long  1  How  broad  1 
How  thick  ?  How  far  1  How  old  ?  e.  g.  This  animal  is  one 
foot  long,  hoc  animal  unum  pedem  longum  est ;  this  hoy 
is  two  years  old,  hic  puer  duos  annos  est  natus;  he  rests 
no  part  of  the  night,  nullum  partem  noctis  requiescit ; 
he  was  restless  the  whole  day,  totum  diem  non  quietus 
fuit. 


Examples. 

( 1 )  All  good  men  love  equity1.  The  inhabitants2  of  Egypt3 
worship4  the  Apis,  a  black5  ox6.  Dogs  produce7  their  young8 
blind9.  The  return10  of  the  stork11  announces12  the  spring13. 
Archelaus  gave14  to  Euripides  a  golden  goblet15.  I  hate16 
proud17,  wicked18  and  ungrateful19  men.  We  do  not  see20 
all  the  stars21.  Augustus  consecrated22  a  temple23  to  Jupiter. 
Caesar  exercised24  his  soldiers25.  My  brother  has  chosen?6 
the  best27  way28.  I  recommend29  my  friend30  to  you.  Thou 
hast  sent31  to  me  the  letter  of  my  mother.  Sicily  has  had32 
many  and  cruel33  tyrants34.  Nature  has  given  to  men  un¬ 
derstanding35  and  speech36.  Nature  has  prescribed37  certain38 
laws39  to  diseases40.  Too  great41  familiarity42  produces43 
contempt44.  Camillus  conquered45  the  Gauls46;  Alexander 
the  Great,  the  Persians47 ;  and  the  Romans,  all  other48  na¬ 
tions49.  We  endure50  patiently51  these  pains52.  I  prefer53 
friendship  to  riches54. 

1  aequitas.  2  incola.  3  Aegyptus.  4  colere.  5  niger.  6 bos.  7  parere. 
8  catulus.  9  caecus.  10  reditus.  11  ciconia.  12  nuntiare.  13  ver.  14  donare 
(perf.).  15  scyphus.  16  odisse.  17  superbus.  18  maleficus.  19  ingratus. 
20  cernere.  21  stella.  22  consecrare  (perf.).  23  aedes.  24  exercere.  25  miles. 
26eligere.  27 optimus.  28 via.  29 commendare.  30 amicus.  31  mittere. 
32  habere.  33saevus.  34tyrannus.  35ratio.  "oratio.  37 ponere,  ^qui¬ 
dam.  39lex.  40morbus.  41  nimius  (too  great).  42 familiaritas.  43parere. 
44  contemptus.  45  vincere.  46  Gallus.  47  Persa.  48 ceterus.  49  gens. 
50 tolerare.  51  patienter.  52  dolor.  53  anteponere.  54  divitiae. 

(2)  A  linnet1  lives2  twelve3  years4.  The  lava5  of  Aetna  is 
often  thirty  miles6  wide7.  Some8  animals  sleep9  the  whole10 


§§  23,  24.] 


VOCATIVE  AND  ABLATIVE  CASES. 


13 


winter11.  An  adult12  man  is  usually13  three14  cubits15  high16. 
Gorgias  lived  a  hundred  and  seven  years.  This  city  is  dis¬ 
tant17  from18  ours19  two  miles. 

1  linaria.  2  vivere.  3duodeni.  4annus.  5 lava.  6  millia.  7  latus.  8non- 
nullus.  9  dormire.  10  totus.  11  hiems.  12  adultus.  13  fere.  14  terni.  15  cu¬ 
bitus.  18  longus.  17  abesse  (to  be  distant).  18  a.  19  noster. 

THE  VOCATIVE. 

23.  The  vocative  case  is  used  in  addressing  or  calling  to  a? 
person,  or  a  thing  considered  as  a  person  ;  e  g.  Let  us  de¬ 
part,  dear  brother,  abeamus,  care  frater;  friend,  from 
whence  do  you  come  ?  amice,  unde  venis  1 

This  case  is  not  governed  by  any  word,  but  is  independent 
of  all  words  standing  before  and  after  it. 

Examples. 

Read1  Cicero  often,  dear  friend.  I  commend2  to  you,  my 
dearest3,  this  youth4.  Thy  life5,  rny  Plancus,  grieves6  me. 
Thou  hast,  Pomponius,  a  wonderful7  memory8.  Give9,  great 
friend,  this  letter  to  Atticus.  I  free10  you,  O  man,  best11  and 
most  dear12  to  me,  from13  all14  fear15.  Fear16  nothing17,  most 
beloved18. 

1  legere.  2  commendare.  3  carissimus.  4  adolescens.  5  vita.  6  sollici¬ 
tare.  7  mirus.  8  memoria.  9  dare.  10  liberare.  11  optimus.  12  amicissi¬ 
mus.  13  ab.  14  omnis.  15  timor.  16  timere.  17  nihil.  18  suavissimus. 

THE  ABLATIVE. 

24.  The  ablative  case  is  governed  by  adjectives,  preposi¬ 
tions  or  verbs  ;  it  also  stands  independent  of  the  other  words 
of  the  sentence.  The  adjectives  and  verbs  which  govern  the 
ablative,  will  be  mentioned  in  the  second  Part  of  this  book. 

When  it  stands  independent  of  any  word  in  the  sentence, 
it  expresses  chiefly  the  instrument  by  which,  or  the  time  when 
anything  happens  ;  e.  g.  We  see  with  our  eyes,  videmus  ocu¬ 
lis;  by  virtue  we  are  happy,  virtute  sumus  beati ;  I  saw 
him  the  very  first  day ,  jam  primo  die  eum  vidi.  Such  an 
independent  ablative  must  almost  always  be  translated  into 

English  by  a  preposition.  The  other  instances  in  which  the 

2 


PREPOSITIONS. 


14 


[§§  25,  26. 


ablative  is  used,  will  be  considered  at  length  in  the  second 
Part. 

This  case  is  chiefly  governed  by  prepositions. 


Examples ,  in  which  the  preposition  is  always  omitted,  and  the 
substantive  put  in  the  ablative. 

Attus  cut1  a  hone2  with  a  razor3.  The  earth  is  clothed4 
with  flowers,  herbs5,  trees  and  fruits6.  The  clouds  are  sup¬ 
plied7  by  the  vapors8  of  the  earth  and  sea.  The  sun  fills9 
the  whole10  world  with  its11  light12.  The  trunks13  are  covered14 
with  a  softer15  or16  harder  bark17.  The  sun  very  much  ex¬ 
ceeds18  the  earth  in  size19.  The  flight20  of  birds  is  facili¬ 
tated21  by  wings22,  as  if23  by  oars24.  The  Nile25  irrigates26 
Egypt27  the  whole10  summer,  and  covers*  it28  with  a  rich29 
slime30.  We  can,  with  our31  minds32,  as  if23  with  eyes,  view33 
the  whole  earth  and  sea.  Tarquin  was  exhausted34  by  old 
age35  and  grief36. 

discindere  (perfi).  2  cos.  3  novacula.  4  vestitus.  5  herba.  6  fruges. 
7  alere.  8  vapor.  9  complere.  10  totus.  11  suus.  12  lux.  13  truncus.  14  ob¬ 
ductus.  15  liber  (softer  bark).  le  aut.  17  cortex  (harder  bark),  ^praes¬ 
tare.  19  magnitudo.  20  volatus.  21  levare.  22  penna.  23  tanquam.  24  re- 
mus.  25  Nilus.  26  irrigare.  27  Aegyptus.  *  obducere.  28  is,  ea,  id.  29  fer¬ 
tilis.  30 limus.  31  (our  is  omitted  in  Latin,  comp.  §  104).  32animus. 
33  lustrare.  34  conficere.  35  senium.  38  aegritudo. 

CONNECTION  OF  PREPOSITIONS  WITH  CASES. 

25.  Prepositions  govern  only  two  cases,  the  accusative  and 
ablative.  Some  govern  only  the  accusative,  others  only  the 
ablative,  and  again  others  both  cases,  yet  with  a  change  of 
meaning. 

(I)  The  following  govern  the  accusative  alone:  Ad,  ad¬ 
versus  (adversum),  ante,  apud,  circa  (circum),  cis,  citra, 
contra,  erga,  extra,  infra,  inter,  intra,  juxta,  ob,  penes,  per, 
pone,  post,  praeter,  prope,  propter,  secundum,  supra,  trans, 
ultra,  versus.  Respecting  versus,  see  §  28. 

26.  (2)  The  following,  the  ablative  alone :  A,  ab,  abs, 
coram,  cum,  de,  e,  ex,  prae,  pro,  sine,  tenus,  palam.  Re¬ 
specting  cum  and  tenus,  see  §  28,  (2). 

Absque  is  omitted,  being  an  unclassical  word,  and  but  rarely  used. 


§§  27,  28.] 


PREPOSITIONS. 


15 


27.  The  following,  the  accusative  and  ablative :  In,  sub, 
subter,  super.  These,  however,  govern  one  or  the  other 
case,  according  to  their  different  signification. 

Clam  is  omitted,  being  used  by  writers  before  and  after  the  classi¬ 
cal  period. 

Remarks. 

(1)  In  takes  the  accusative,  when  it  indicates  motion  into 
something,  towards  something ;  therefore  it  is  used  in  answer 
to  the  question,  whither?  e.  g.  Into  that  house,  in  illam 
dornu  m.  In  takes  the  ablative,  when  it  expresses  the  be¬ 
ing  actually  in  or  upon  a  place  ;  therefore  it  is  used  in  an¬ 
swer  to  the  question,  where?  e.  g.  In  that  house,  in  ilia 
d  o  m  o. 

(2)  Sub  governs  the  accusative  and  ablative  with  precisely 
the  same  difference  of  signification  as  in ;  it  has  the  accusa¬ 
tive  when  motion  under  something  is  signified  ;  therefore  it 
is  used  in  reference  to  the  question,  whither  ?  e.  g.  Ire  sub 
terram,  to  go  under  the  earth.  It  takes  the  ablative,  when 
the  being  actually  under  something  is  expressed  ;  therefore 
it  is  used  in  reference  to  the  question,  where?  e.  g.  Sub 
terra,  under  the  earth,  i.  e.  to  be  under. 

(3)  Subter  usually  takes  the  accusative  only,  in  reference 
to  the  two  questions,  whither  ?  and  where  ?  e.  g.  Under  the 
bed,  subter  lectum.  It  takes  the  ablative  but  seldom,  and 
then  in  the  poets.  It  is  also  frequently  used  as  an  adverb. 

(4)  Super  takes  the  accusative  when  it  signifies  above  or 
over,  and  the  ablative  when  it  signifies  on  account  of,  or  in 
regard  to ;  e.  g.  He  ran  over  the  water,  (i.  e.  along  the  sur¬ 
face),  cucurrit  super  aquam;  a  contention  on  account  of 
this  embassy,  controversia  super  hac  legatione.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  above  signifies  a  being  above  something,  it 
can  take  either  the  accusative  or  ablative;  e.  g.  Super  lu¬ 
nam,  and  1  u  n  a.  With  numerals,  super  signifies  more  than, 
e.  g.  super  tres  modios,  more  than  three  bushels. 

28.  Some  additional  remarks.  (1)  The  preposition  cum 


16 


PREPOSITIONS. 


[§  29. 

is  almost  always  placed  after  the  ablatives,  me ,  te,  se,  nobis 
and  vobis.  With  the  ablatives  of  qui,  quae ,  quod ,  it  can 
stand  before  and  after ;  e.  g.  Mecura,  with  me;  quocum 
and  cum  quo,  with  whom ;  q  u  i  b  u  s  c  u  in  and  cum  qui¬ 
bus.  Elsewhere  the  preposition  stands  first;  e.  g.  cum 
Deo. 

(2)  The  prepositions  versus  and  tenus ,  in  like  manner 
must  always  stand  after  their  cases;  e.  g.  Towards  the  south, 
meridiem  versus ;  as  jar  as  the  ocean,  oceano  tenus. 

Tenus  governs  the  genitive  also,  especially  of  cities  or  of  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  body,  of  which  there  are  pairs ;  e.  g.  Cumarum  tenus, 
Cicero;  Crurum  tenus,  Virg.;  lateium  tenus.  But  the  Gen.  with 
this  preposition  is  confined  almost  wholly  to  poetry  and  to  words  in 
the  plural.  Where  it  takes  the  accusative,  the  reading  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  doubtful.  Tenus  is  very  rare  in  good  prose. 

29.  (3)  The  prepositions  a  and  e  never  stand  before  a 
word  which  begins  with  a  vowel  or  an  h.  Then  ab  and  ex 
are  used,  though  these,  especially  ex,  can  also  stand  before 
almost  all  consonants;  e.  g.  Ab  eo,  not  a  eo,  ab  hoc,  not  a 
hoc;  further,  ab  Jove,  ab  se,  ex  aqua,  not  e  aqua,  ex  humo, 
not  e  humo;  further,  ex  meis,  ex  te,  ex  se. 


Examples  upon  the  Prepositions. 

(1)  Between1  us  and  them  there  is  a  small  disagreement2. 
After3  our  death  we  leave4  this  earth.  Many  never5  come 
back6  to  their7  country.  On8  the  boundless9  sea,  we  behold 
only10  water  and  sky.  There  is  a  God  in  us.  Asia  lies11 
towards12  the  east13.  After3  death  we  go  out  from14  these 
bonds15  of  the  body.  Africa  lies  beyond16  the  Mediterra¬ 
nean17  sea.  Socrates  discoursed18,  in  his  prison19,  of  the  im¬ 
mortality20  of  the  soul21.  Cicero  was  murdered22  by  Popilius 
Laenas.  Around23  the  poles24  of  the  earth  is  thick25  ice26. 
It  is  not  becoming27  to  laugh28  in  the  presence29  of  an  honor¬ 
able30  man.  The  animal  concealed31  itself,  contrary  to32  its 
nature,  in  the  earth.  After  death  we  are  without33  sensation34. 
Alexander  spoke35  in  the  workshop36  of  Apelles  concerning 
his  pictures37 ;  but38  he  was  blamed39  by  the  artist40.  Cicero 
is  esteemed41  before42  all  other  writers43.  The  same44  wrote45 
a  book  on  friendship'16  and  old-age47. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


17 


§29.] 

1  inter.  2 dissensio  3 post.  4 relinquere,  “nunquam.  6 redire  (to 
comeback).  7suus.  8in.  9immensus.  10tantum.  11  situs  esse,  ^ver¬ 
sus.  ,3oriens.  14  exire  (to  go  out  from).  "vinculum.  16ultra.  "Medi¬ 
terraneus.  18  disserere  (perf.).  19  career.  20  immortalitas.  21  animus. 
22 interficere  (perf.).  23circa.  24polus.  25densus.  26glacies.  27decdrus. 
^ridere  29coram  (in  tlie  presence  of).  30honoratus.  31  occultare 
(perf.).  "contra.  33 sine.  34 sensus,  "dicere  (perf.).  "officina,  "pic¬ 
tura.  38^ed.  39 reprehendere  (perf.).  "artifex.  41  aestimare.  42  prae, 
"scriptor.  44 idem.  45 scribere,  "amicitia,  "senectus. 

(2)  I  predicted1  this  before2  the  unfortunate3  battle4.  The 
cocks5  crow6  before  day-break7.  We  do8  nothing  against 
the  will9  of  our  parents.  Without10  speech'1,  man  is  a  mute12 
animal13.  Jupiter  gave  a  sign14  by15  fowls16.  The  rivers17 
flow18  into  the  sea.  Hannibal  sent19  ambassadors20  to21  the 
Roman22  Senate.  The  world  was  created23  by  God.  We  tell 
the  children24  concerning  God,  by  whom  the  whole  world  is 
preserved25.  At26  Himera  was  (perf.)  an  unsuccessful  battle. 
The  earth  is  enlightened27  by  the  sun.  What28  has  he  said29 
to  you  of  the  sun  ?  Beneath30  the  clear31  ether32  the  clouds33 
float34.  Pyrrhus  fought35  against36  the  Romans.  There  is  a 
quarrel37  between38  these  philosophers39.  In  many  children 
hope  shines  forth40.  I  would  rather41  live  with  you,  than42 
with  another43.  We  travel44  into45  Italy.  The  Germans46 
dwell47  beyond48  the  Rhine49.  This  way  is  dangerous50  on 
account  of51  the  narrowness52.  The  Romans  occupied53 
Egypt54  as  far  as55  Ethiopia.  God  created  the  birds  for* 
flying56,  horses  for  running57,  and  wild  beasts58  for  cruelty59. 
Beneath60  the  moon,  there  is  nothing  except61  what  is  mortal62 
and  perishable63;  but64  above65  it,  all  is  eternal66.  I  was  ed¬ 
ucated67  with  you  under68  the  same  teacher.  Of  these  writ¬ 
ers  we  cannot  judge69.  We  walk  about70  among  these  pop¬ 
lars71  on72  the  green73  and  shady74  bank75.  Among76  so 
many77  species78,  no  creature  except79  man,  has  a  knowledge80 
of  God.  Thou  wilt  live  here81  with  thy  friends82  and  with  us. 
Cicero’s  life  was  spent83  in  praiseworthy84  labors85. 

praedicere.  2  ante.  3 infelix.  4 pugna,  “gallus.  6 canere.  7 lux. 
8facere.  9  voluntas.  10sine.  11  oratio.  12mutus.  "animal.  14signum. 
15  per.  "gallina.  17  flumen,  "fluere,  "mittere  (perf.).  20  legatus. 
21  ad.  22 Romanus.  23 creare.  24  puer.  25 conservare.  26 apud,  ^illus¬ 
trare.  28 quid.  29 dicere.  30 sub.  31  serenus.  32 aether.  33 nubes,  ^pen¬ 
dere.  35 pugnare  (perf.).  36adversus.  "controversia.  38  inter,  "phi¬ 
losophus.  "elucere.  41  malle  (would  rather).  42quam.  "alius.  44  mi¬ 
grare.  45  in.  46  Germanus.  47  habitare.  48  ultra.  "Rhenus,  "pericu¬ 
losus.  51  ob.  "angustiae,  "occupare  (perf.).  "Aegyptus,  "tenus 
(as  far  as).  *ad.  56  volatus.  57 cursus.  58 fera  (wild  beast),  "saevitia. 

2* 


18 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§§  30—32. 


60infra.  61  nisi.  62 mortale  (what  is  mortal).  63 caducum  64 sed.  65 su¬ 
per.  66aeternus.  67  educare.  68sub.  69judicare.  70ambulare  (to  walk 
about).  71  populus.  72in.  73viridis.  74opacus.  75ripa.  76ex.  77  tot  (so 
many).  78 genus.  79  praeter.  80  notitia.  81  hic.  82  tuus  (thy  friends). 
83  consumere.  84  gloriosus.  86  labor. 

J 

30.  From  what  has  been  said  of  the  cases,  it  is  evident,  that  the 
student  must  early  accustom  himself  to  find  out  the  word  by  which 
any  case  is  governed.  He  should  also  learn  what  cases  particular 
words  may  or  must  govern. 

The  different  cases  which  the  governing  words  require,  will  be 
treated  in  the  second  Part  of  this  book. 


ADJECTIVES. 

31.  Adjectives  express  quality  in  various  relations.  When 
this  quality  can  be  conceived  of  as  greater  or  smaller,  it  ad¬ 
mits  of  two  degrees,  a  higher  and  a  highest ;  e.  g.  attentive , 
more  attentive,  most  attentive.  These  two  degrees  are  the 
Comparative  and  the  Superlative. 

32.  (1)  The  Comparative. 

With  the  comparative,  the  word  than  and  the  expression 
connected  with  it,  is  either  expressed  or  understood  ;  e.  g. 
Thou  art  wiser  than  many  others ;  this  poet  is  more  learn - 
ed — .  In  both  of  these  examples  the  quality  expressed  by  the 
adjective,  is  in  the  comparative.  In  the  last  some  such 
phrase  as,  than  this  man,  or  than  that  man ,  or  than  the 
others,  is  understood. 

Very  often  the  force  of  the  Latin  comparative  may  be  given 
by  the  English  words,  too,  or  very ;  e.  g.  serius  venit,  he 
came  very  late,  or  too  late,  i.  e.  later  than  he  ought. 

The  formation  of  the  comparative  by  means  of  the  ending  ior  or 
magis  placed  before  the  positive,  should  be  learned  from  the  gram¬ 
mar  before  the  following  examples  are  translated. 

Examples  for  practice. 

Nothing  seems1  to  man  more  beautiful  than  man.  No 
beast2  is  more  intelligent3  than  the  elephant.  What  is  better 
or  more  excellent4  than  goodness5  and  beneficence6.  No¬ 
thing  is  more  lovely7  than  virtue.  Nothing  has  greater 
strength8  and  power9  than  God10.  Things  of  nature  are  bet- 


ADJECTIVES. 


19 


§33.] 

ter  than  things  of  art.  The  younger11  nightingales  imitate12 
the  older13.  The  price14  of  nightingales  has  sometimes15 
been  greater  than  the  price  of  slaves.  What  affinity16  is 
nearer17  or  more  certain18.  The  upright19  man  is  more  hap¬ 
py20  than  the  rich  one,  and  enjoys21  greater  pleasure.  A  fool¬ 
ish22  man  is  an  unhappy23  man.  Nothing  is  greater,  nothing 
is  more  blissful24,  nothing  is  more  pleasant25  than  friendship. 
You  are  more  timorous26  than  we.  The  sense  of  sight27  is 
more  important28  and  necessary29,  than  the  sense  of  smell30. 
No  one  was  more  liberal31  and  beneficent32  than  the  emperor 
Titus.  I  have  not  seen  worse  men.  The  Consuls  had  less33 
power34  than  the  Dictators. 

’videri.  2bellda.  3  prudens.  4  praestans.  5  bonitas.  6  beneficentia. 
7 amabilis.  8 vis.  9 potestas.  10 Deus.  11  juvenis.  12 imitari.  13 senex. 
14pretium.  ,5interdum.  1Gcognatio.  17  prope.  18certus.  19bonus. 
^beatus.  21  percipere.  22stultus.  23  miser.  24  uber.  25  jucundus, 
^timidus.  27 visus.  28 magnus.  29 necessarius.  30 odoratus.  31  liberalis. 
32  beneficus.  33  parvus.  34  potestas. 

33.  (2)  Superlative. 

The  Superlative  represents  a  particular  quality  in  the 
highest  degree . 

The  formation  of  the  superlative  by  means  of  the  endings 
rimus ,  issimus  and  limus ,  or  by  means  of  maxime  placed  be¬ 
fore  the  positive,  should  be  learned  from  the  grammar  before 
the  following  examples  are  translated. 

Examples  for  practice. 

Demosthenes  is  the  most  illustrious1  orator2  of  antiquity3. 
Nero  was  (perf.)  the  most  cruel4  emperor5  of  the  Romans. 
The  most  trusty6  animal  is  the  dog.  The  shortest7  time  of 
life  is  often  the  most  miserable8.  The  wisest  and  most  pru¬ 
dent  man  is  sometimes9  deceived10.  The  swiftest11  animal  is 
the  dolphin12.  Lucullus  possessed13  (perf.)  a  most  splendid14 
country-seat15.  The  most  useful16  limbs17  of  man  are  the 
hands.  The  ape18  is  the  animal  most  like19  man.  The 
smallest  trees  are  in  the  northern20  regions21.  The  army22  of 
Xerxes  was  (perf.)  the  greatest.  These  grapes23  are  the 
sweetest24.  My  dream25  was  (perf.)  the  most  wonderful26. 
The  death  of  Codrus  was  the  most  glorious27.  Pleasure  is 
not  the  highest28  good.  This  garden  is  the  nearest29.  Rome 


20 


i 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§  34. 


was  the  most  populous30  city.  Titus  was  (perf.)  the  most 
beneficent31  emperor.  The  earth  holds32  the  lowest33  place34. 
This  poem35  is  most  elegant36.  My  brother  has  selected37 
the  worst38  flowers.  I  have  procured39  only  the  most  neces¬ 
sary40  books.  The  richest41  Romans  were  Lucullus  and 
Crassus.  These  mountains  are  the  lowest42,  and  these 
shores43  the  steepest44.  The  greatest  good  is  friendship,  for 
the  most45  pleasures46  are  in  friendship. 

Clarus.  2  orator.  3  antiquitas.  4  crudelis.  5  imperator.  6  fidelis. 
7  brevis.  8  miser.  9  interdum.  10  decipere.  11  celer.  12  delphinus. 
13  possidere.  14  magnificus.  15  villa.  16  utilis.  17  membrum.  ‘8  simia. 
19simllis.  20  septentrionalis.  21  regio.  22exercltus.  ^uva.  24dulcis. 
25  somnium.  26  mirus.  27  gloriosus.  28  superus.  29  prope.  30  celeber. 
31  beneficus.  32  obtinere.  33  inferus.  34  locus.  35  carmen.  36  elegans, 
^eligere.  38 malus.  39 comparare.  40 necessarius.  41  dives.  42 humi¬ 
lis.  43  litus.  44  arduus.  45  multus.  46  delectatio. 

34.  The  Latins  sometimes  use  the  neuter  plural  of  an  ad¬ 
jective,  where  the  singular  would  be  used  in  English ;  e.  g. 
mine,  mea;  utilia,  that  which  is  useful ,  or  those  things  which 
are  useful;  omnia,  everything ;  plura,  more.  The  connec¬ 
tion  must  determine  whether  one  thing  or  more  is  meant. 

When  these  neuters  are  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  the 
verb  must  be  in  the  plural ;  e.  g.  Everything  is,  omnia  sunt. 

When,  moreover,  an  adjective  stands  without  a  substantive, 
and  refers  to  men,  it  is  put  in  the  masculine;  e.  g.  The  poor, 
pauperes;  the  mortals,  mortales. 


Examples  for  practice . 

The  rich  and  the  poor,  the  high1  and  the  low2  are  subject3 
to  death.  The  future4  is  not  known.  What  is  dishonorable5, 
is  to  be  avoided6.  What  is  praiseworthy7,  is  to  be  sought8. 
The  past9,  the  present10  and  the  future  are  very11  different12. 
Truth  and  falsehood  are  not  the  same13.  Mine  is  also  thine. 
That  which  is  weak14  and  fragile15,  is  mortal16.  Some17  of 18 
what  he  said,  is  wicked19  and  base20.  Every21  animal22  per¬ 
ceives23  the  warm24  and  the  cold25,  the  sweet26  and  the  bitter27. 
Hear28  much  and  speak29  little30. 

’nobilis.  2  ignobilis.  3  obnoxias  4  futurus.  5  turpis  (what  is  dis¬ 
honorable).  6  effugiendus,  ’laudabilis.  8  expetendus.  9  praeteritus. 
10 praesens,  "admodum.  12 diversus.  13 idem.  14 caducus  (that  which 


PRONOUNS. 


21 


§§  35-37.] 

is  weak).  15 fragilis.  16 mortalis.  17 quidam.  18ex.  19 flagitiosus.  20 foe¬ 
dus.  21  omnis.  22 animal.  23 sentire.  24 calidus.  25 frigidus.  26 dulcis, 
^amarus.  28audire.  ^loqui.  30pauci,  ae,  a. 

35.  Remark.  The  Latins  often  use  the  word  res  also,  making  the 
adjective  agree  with  it,  instead  of  using  the  adjective  alone  in  the 
neuter  ;  e.  g.  mine ,  m  e  a  res;  useful  things ,  or  tchat  is  useful,  utiles 
res,  instead  of  utilia;  he  speaks  of  these  things ,  loquitur  de  his 
rebus ;  on  this  account ,  hac  de  re,  earn  ob  rem,  etc.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  word  things,  etc.  is  sometimes  not  expressed  in  Latin ; 
e.  g.  boys  do  boyish  things,  pueri  puerilia  tractant;  these  three  points 
are  the  most  important ,  haec  tria  sunt  maxima. 

36.  Lastly,  when  the  adjective  stands  as  predicate  of  an 
infinitive  or  of  a  whole  sentence,  it  is  always  in  the  neuter, 
because  an  infinitive  or  a  whole  sentence  is  considered  as 
neuter.  In  English  such  a  subject  may  stand  either  before 
or  after  the  verb.  In  the  last  instance,  we  supply  the  word 
it;  e.  g.  To  practice  virtue  is  honorable ,  or  it  is  honorable 
to  practice  virtue,  \  irtutem  exercere  est  honestum. 

Examples  for  practice. 

To  do  injustice1  to  others  is  base9.  It  is  right3  to  repel4 
passion5.  It  is  dishonorable6  to  praise7  one’s  self.  To  speak 
prudently8  and  briefly9  is  always  better  than  to  speak  impru¬ 
dently10  and  eloquently11.  It  is  sweet  and  honorable19  to  die13 
for14  our*  country.  It  is  necessary  to  have  faithful  friends. 
It  is  useful  and  just15  to  do  good16  to  men.  To  learn  much 
is  beneficial17  to  you  and  others.  It  is  proper18  to  know19 
one’s*  faults90. 

1  injuria.  2  turpis.  3  rectus.  4repellgre.  5  iracundia.  6  deformis. 
7  praedicare.  8  prudenter.  9 breviter.  10 imprudenter.  11  diserte,  ^de¬ 
corus.  13  mori.  14  pro.  *  omitted  in  Lat.  15  honestus.  16  benefacere. 
17 salutaris.  18bellus.  19nosse.  ^vitium. 

Remark.  But  when  the  word  it  with  an  adjective  refers  to  a  pre¬ 
ceding  substantive,  then  the  adjective  is  in  the  same  gender  as  that 
substantive  ;  e.  g.  Whose  book  is  it?  It  is  mine ,  Cujus  est  liber?  Est 
meus.  Is  this  house  great  ?  No,  it  is  small ,  Estne  haec  domus  mag¬ 
na?  Immo,  est  par  va. 


PRONOUNS. 

37.  Most  pronouns  are  of  such  a  nature,  that  they  relate 
to  substantives.  But  here  two  cases  occur  : 


22 


THE  VERB. 


[§38. 


(a)  If  they  stand  in  the  same  clause  with  the  substan¬ 
tives,  they  are  to  be  considered  as  adjectives,  and  must  agree 
with  the  substantive  in  gender,  number  and  case ;  e.  g.  I  have 
seen  this  man  ( hunc  hominem).  What  man  ( quem  hominem) 
hast  thou  seen  1  I  have  seen  these  men  ( hos  homines).  Thou 
dost  please  this  man  ( huic  homini). 

(b)  If  the  substantive  to  which  the  pronoun  refers  stands 
in  a  preceding  clause,  the  pronoun  can  agree  only  in  gender 
and  number  with  its  substantive,  but  not  always  in  case,  be¬ 
cause  that  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  sentence  in  which 
the  pronoun  stands ;  e.  g.  The  youth  ( quem  adolescentem)  you 
recommended  to  me ,  he  (i  s)  is  agreeable  to  me.  The  youth 
( adolescens )  whom  {quern)  you  recommended  to  me ,  is  agree¬ 
able  to  me.  Your  oration  ( tua  oratio)  which  ( quam )  I  have 
read ,  pleases  me.  Thy  friend  came  to  me;  I  said  much  to 
him  {huic). 


Examples  for  practice . 

Cicero  said  this  in  those  books  which  you  have  read1. 
Pliny  had  (perf.)  two  country-seats2,  the  one3  he  called4 
Tragedy5,  the  other6  Comedy7.  Among8  those  animals  which 
live  with  us,  the  dog  is  the  most  faithful9.  Memory10  is  ne¬ 
cessary  for  the  orator11, —  and  this  is  especially12  strengthen¬ 
ed13  by  exercise14.  Show15  me  the  book  which  you  praised16  to 
me.  The  syllable17  which  we  protract18,  is  long.  The  hope19 
which  we  cherish20,  is  often  deceptive21.  All  men  whom  we 
consider  happy22,  are  not  happy.  All23  the  food24  which  the 
hungry25  take26,  satisfies27  them28.  Virtue  does  not  value29 
highly30  the  pleasure  which  she  has  approved31. 

1  legere.  2  villa.  3  ille.  4  nominare.  5  tragoedia.  6  hic.  7  comoedia. 
8 ex.  2 fidus.  10 memoria,  "orator.  12 praecipue.  13 confirmare,  "exer¬ 
citatio.  "monstrare.  16 praedicare,  "syllaba,  "producere.  19 spes. 
20 fovere.  21  vanus.  22 beatus.  23 omnis.  24 cibus,  ^esuriens,  ^occu¬ 
pare.  27  satiare.  28  is,  ea,  id.  29  aestimare.  30  magni.  31  probare. 


THE  VERB. 

38.  The  verb,  next  to  the  subject,  is  the  principal  word  in 
a  sentence,  because  it  either  unites  the  subject  and  predicate 


§39.] 


THE  VERB. 


23 


with  each  other,  or,  by  denoting  the  existence  of  some  pro¬ 
perty  or  quality,  it  contains  the  predicate  in  itself.  There  is 
no  sentence  without  a  verb;  although  sometimes,  for  the 
sake  of  brevity,  the  verb  is  omitted,  yet  it  must  be  under¬ 
stood. 

The  verb  is,  both  as  to  its  definition  and  form,  so  compre¬ 
hensive,  that  it  is  of  the  first  importance  for  beginners  to 
make  themselves  thoroughly  acquainted  with  it. 

39.  (1)  The  Persons  of  the  Verb. 

The  verb  has  different  endings  for  the  different  persons, 
both  in  the  singular  and  plural. 

When  a  subject,  of  whatever  person  it  may  be,  has  two 
or  more  verbs  connected  with  it,  then  the  subject  is  express¬ 
ed  with  the  first  only,  and  is  not  repeated  with  the  following 
verbs;  e.  g.  I  read  and  (I)  write;  we  read  and  (we)  write. 
In  the  Latin,  these  several  verbs,  because  they  refer  to  the 
same  person,  must  have  the  same  personal  form  ;  e.  g.  lego 
et  scribo;  legimus  et  scribimus,  etc.  I  have  read  and  writ¬ 
ten ,  legi  et  scripsi;  I  shall  read  and  write ,  legam  et 
scribam,  etc.  This  is  true,  also,  when  the  verbs  are  in 
different  tenses,  provided  the  person  remains  the  same ;  e.  g. 
I  have  always  esteemed  you,  and  always  shall  esteem  you,  te 
semper  d  i  1  e  x  i,  ac  semper  diligam. 

Examples  for  practice. 

I  arm1  and  equip2  the  legions.  We  write  back3  to  you 
immediately4  and  send  the  book  which  you  wish5.  I  shall 
write  to  you  as  soon  as  possible6  and  tell7  you  all  the  news8. 
We  have  told  you  the  whole9  case10,  and  explained11  our 
meaning.  Thy  letter  pleased12  me  and  truly13  cheered14  me. 
We  shall  soon15  come  to  you  and  congratulate16  you.  We 
study17  and  hunt18  at  our  country-seat19,  and  sometimes20  do 
both21  together22.  All  which  we  have  heard  and  seen,  has 
happened  to  us. 

‘armare.  2parare.  3rescribere.  4statim.  5opt.are.  6 quam  primum 
(as  soon  as  possible),  ’nuntiare.  8nova  res.  9omnis.  10res.  “ex¬ 
ponere.  12 delectare.  13  vere.  14 exhilarare.  15 mox.  16 gratulari,  “lit¬ 
teris  operam  dare.  18  venari.  19  villa.  20  interdum.  21  uterque.  22  simul. 


24 


THE  VERB. 


[§§  40—42. 


40.  (2)  Number. 

The  number  of  the  verb  corresponds  with  the  number  of 
the  subject.  Hence  if  the  subject  is  singular  in  English,  but 
plural  in  Latin,  the  verb  also  must  be  in  the  plural ;  e.  g. 
Wealth  is  uncertain,  divitiae  sunt  incertae.  See  §  34 
above.  It  is  not  usual  to  find  the  subject  plural  in  English, 
when  it  is  singular  in  Latin.  The  word  both ,  however,  which 
is  plural,  is  frequently  expressed  by  the  Latin  uterque ,  which 
is  singular.  How  few  or  how  many,  is  expressed  by  quotus- 
quisque. 

Examples. 

Both1  are  absent.  Both  have  left2  me.  Both  laugh3.  Both 
weep4.  How  few  understand5  this  ? 

1  uterque.  2 relinquere.  3 ridere.  4 flere.  3 intelligere. 

41.  (3)  Different  classes  of  Verbs . 

The  beginner  should  early  learn  the  difference  between 
the  transitive,  intransitive,  passive  and  deponent  verbs. 

A  transitive  verb  expresses  an  action  which  the  subject 
performs  upon  itself  or  upon  another  object.  The  subject  is 
therefore  considered  as  active,  and  is  occupied  with  itself  or 
some  other  object;  e.  g.  I  love  myself,  I  love  my  father,  I 
love  my  books,  teach  the  scholars,  paint  a  horse,  eat  bread, 
etc.  Here  the  verb  always  takes  an  accusative  after  it  as  its 
object. 

42.  An  intransitive  or  neuter  verb  expresses  only  the  con¬ 
dition  of  a  subject,  often  indeed  an  active  condition,  but  one 
in  which  there  is  no  object  on  which  the  action  is  performed  ; 
e.  g.  I  run,  I  dance,  I  spring,  etc.  Here  the  verb  is  follow¬ 
ed  by  no  accusative. 

A  passive  verb  denotes  that  something  either  good  or  bad 
is  done  to  the  subject.  Hence,  the  subject  is  not  active  it¬ 
self,  although  sometimes  it  can  be  regarded  as  in  a  state  of 
motion ;  e.  g.  I  am  loved  by  my  father ;  I  am  instructed  by 


§  42.] 


THE  VERB. 


25 


my  teacher — am  bitten  by  the  dog — am  carried  away  by  the 
storm  ;  history  is  learned ;  the  action  will  be  investigated. 

Every  passive  verb  comes  from  a  transitive  one,  and  every 
sentence  with  a  transitive  verb  and  an  accusative  belonging 
to  it,  can  be  changed  into  a  passive  sentence;  e.  g. 

My  father  teaches  me, 

I  am  taught  by  my  father. 

The  storm  prostrates  the  trees, 

The  trees  are  prostrated  by  the  storm, 

The  subject  of  an  active  sentence  becomes  only  a  subor¬ 
dinate  word  in  a  passive  sentence,  and  is  denoted  by  the  pre¬ 
position  by ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  object  which  stands  in 
the  accusative,  in  the  active  sentence,  becomes  the  subject- 
nominative,  in  the  passive. 

The  deponent  verb  is  only  a  secondary  form  of  the  transi¬ 
tive  or  intransitive,  since  it  has  the  passive  form  or,  instead  of 
the  active  o,  but  in  signification,  it  is  either  transitive  or 
intransitive;  e.  g.  I  accompany  you ,  te  comitor;  I  exhort 
my  friend,  amicum  exhortor;  I  arise,  orior;  /  advance,  pro¬ 
ficiscor. 


Examples  for  practice . 

We  shall  praise  others,  and  we  are  also1  praised  by  others. 
Thou  wilt  praise2  this  youth.  Thou  art  praised  by  all  men. 
Cicero  will  defend3  him.  Cicero  is  defended  by  him.  The 
messenger  will  bring:4  a  letter  to  me.  A  letter  is  brought  to 
me.  We  are  not  surpassed5  by  animals.  We  will  deceive6 
those  by  whom  we  are  deceived.  Thou  wilt  love,  esteem7 
and  honor8  this  man.  Thou  art  loved,  esteemed  and  honored 
by  all.  I  have  come  into  the  city.  I  have  been  praised  by 
you.  You  had  scarcely  come  hither9,  when  you  were  in¬ 
vited10.  We  have  fallen11  upon  the  camp12.  Hannibal  had 
fled13  to  Antiochus.  We  have  met14  with  many  evils15. 
What  men  have  you  escaped16.  No  one  has  appeared17  to¬ 
day.  Thy  friends  have  remained18  in  the  city.  Our  ac¬ 
tions19  have  been  extolled20  or  undervalued21.  My  parents 
returned22  to  the  city  yesterday. 

3 


t 


26 


TENSES. 


[§§  43,  44. 

Quoque.  2 praedicare.  3  defendere.  4  reddere.  5 superare.  6  de¬ 
cipere.  7suspicere.  8ornare.  9huc.  10invitare.  ninvadere  (to  fall 
upon).  lzcastra.  13confugSre.  14  incidere  (to  meet  with).  15malurn. 
16  effugere.  17 apparere.  18remanere.  19 factum.  20 tollere.  21  deprimere. 
22  redire. 

43.  It  will  be  a  very  useful  exercise  for  the  beginner  to 
change  active  into  passive  sentences,  and  passive  into  active; 
for  almost  every  active  sentence,  which  has  an  accusative 
governed  by  the  verb,  can  be  changed  into  a  passive  sentence, 
by  making  the  object  which  stands  in  the  accusative,  the 
subject,  and  by  subjoining  to  the  passive  the  previous  subject 
by  the  preposition  by  ;  e.  g.  Alexander  conquers  Darius  — 
Darius  is  conquered  by  Alexander.  Let  the  following  exam¬ 
ples  be  expressed  both  actively  and  passively. 

Examples  for  practice. 

I  love  you.  Thou  lovest  me.  The  father  loves  the  son. 
The  son  loves  the  father.  The  parents  love  the  children. 
The  children  love  the  parents.  Ye  love  us.  We  love  you. 
A  good  man  loves  equity1.  We  do  not  see  all  the  stars. 
Caesar  exercised2  the  soldiers.  My  brother  has  chosen3  the 
best  way.  We  bear4  the  pains.  Archelaus  gave  (perf.)  a 
golden  goblet5  to  Euripides.  Augustus  dedicated6  a  temple 
to  Jupiter.  Nature  has  given  reason7  to  man.  I  prefer8 
friendship  to  riches.  Others  prefer  riches  to  friendship.  We 
prefer  the  soul  to  the  body.  Camillus  conquered9  the  Gauls10. 

1  aequitas.  2  exercere.  3  eligere.  4  tolerare.  5  scyphus.  6  con¬ 
secrare.  7  ratio.  8  anteponere.  9  vincere.  10  Gallus. 

44.  (4)  Tenses. 

The  tenses  of  the  Latin,  in  the  principal  sentences,  cor¬ 
respond  for  the  most  part  with  those  of  the  English,  except 
in  the  use  of  the  imperfect.  On  the  contrary,  when  the 
thought  is  expressed  indefinitely  in  the  subjunctive,  or  in  con¬ 
nection  with  conjunctions,  there  are  many  differences,  be¬ 
cause  the  English  does  not  express  an  action  so  precisely  as 
the  Latin.  These  differences  will  be  pointed  out  in  the  se¬ 
cond  Part  of  this  book.  Here  only  a  part  of  the  usage  of  the 
imperfect  will  be  spoken  of. 


TENSES. 


27 


§45.] 

45.  The  English  imperfect  has  two  significations: 

(1)  It  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  a  condition  or 
state  continuing  in  past  time.  In  this  sense  the  imperfect  is 
used  in  Latin  also;  e.  g.  While  I  was  sitting  at  my  ease ,  my 
brother  was  reading ,  dum  ego  otiosus  sedebam,  frater  meus 
legebat. 

(2)  The  imperfect  is  used  in  English  to  describe  an  action 
simply  as  past.  Here  the  Latin  imperfect  is  never  used,  but 
the  perfect ;  e.  g.  Alexander  died  in  Babylon ,  mortuus  est. 
Alexander  conquered,  (vicit)  Darius .  Alexander  teas  killed 
(interfectus  est)  by  his  wife.  In  these  last  three  examples, 
the  actions  are  described  as  simply  past, — in  English  by  the 
imperfect,  in  Latin  by  the  perfect. 

But  the  Latin  imperfect  is  often  used  to  express  habitual 
or  customary  past  action ,  in  which  sense  the  English  imper¬ 
fect*  is  rarely  found  ;  e.  g.  Socrates  was  accustomed  to  think 
the  same ,  Socrates  idem  censebat.  When  Alexander 
went  into  his  bed-chamber ,  he  was  wont  to  command  ( j  u  be¬ 
ba  t )  a  slave  to  go  before  with  a  sword,  i.  e.  he  commanded 
it  as  often  as  he  went. 

Examples  for  practice. 

Phalaris  did  not  perish1  by2  treachery3,  but  the  whole4 
multitude5  of  Agrigentines  made  an  attack6  upon  him.  The 
Macedonians7  went8  to  Pyrrhus.  The  wars  of  the  Romans 
were  carried  on9,  either  for  their  allies10,  or  for  the  sake  of11 
power12.  The  Roman  magistrates13  sought  for14  the  most 
worthy  praise.  The  Roman  armies15  and  generals  yielded16 
to  Viriathus.  Socrates  discoursed17  in  prison  on  the  immor¬ 
tality  of  the  soul.  Mummius  demolished18  Corinth.  Scipio 
destroyed19  Carthage.  The  Lacedemonians  banished20  Ly¬ 
sander  from  the  city.  Romulus  and  Remus  built21  Rome. 
Romulus  was  the  first  king  of  the  city,  Rome.  The  same 
killed22  his  brother  Remus.  Two  commanders23  were  ap¬ 
pointed24  against  Hannibal  and  two  armies15  sent25. 


*  Although  the  English  imperfect  may  sometimes  be  used  to  ex¬ 
press  customary  action,  yet  that  idea  is  usually  expressed  by,  he  was 
accustomed ,  wont ,  he  always ,  etc. 


28 


MODES. 


[§§  46 — 48. 


'interire.  2  ex.  3  insidiae.  4  universus.  5  multitudo.  6  impetus. 
7  Macedo.  8  se  conferre.  9  gerere.  10  socius.  11  de  (for  the  sake  of). 
12  imperium.  13  magistratus.  14  appetere.  15  exercitus.  16  cedere.  17  dis¬ 
serere.  18  evertere.  19  delere.  20  expellere.  21  condere.  22  necare.  23  im¬ 
perator.  24  creare.  25  mittere. 


46.  (5)  Modes. 

The  indicative  is  used  in  all  principal  sentences,  when 
something  is  affirmed  and  said  of  the  subject  with  definiteness 
and  certainty  ;  e.  g.  This  is  laborious ,  hoc  e  s  t  laboriosum  ; 
this  man  abounds  in  every  virtue ,  abundat;  I  shall  be 
greatly  indebted  to  you,  maximam  tibi  gratiam  habebo. 

But  the  indicative  is  used  also  in  introductory  and  subor¬ 
dinate  sentences  after  some  conjunctions,  when  in  like  man¬ 
ner  something  is  said  with  definiteness  and  certainty.  Such 
are,  quia,  because  ;  quoniam,  since  or  because  ;  etsi  and 
quanquam ,  although;  postquam,  afterwards;  ubi,  when; 
ut,  as  or  when  ;  quando,  when  ;  si,  if ;  nisiy  unless  ;  simulae , 
simulatque ,  as  soon  as ;  quod,  because  that ;  e.  g.  As  I  be¬ 
lieve,  ut  arbitror  ;  because  you  think,  quia  putatis;  al¬ 
though  you  know ,  etsi  (quanquam)  scitis;  after  I  heard , 
postquam  audivi;  when  the  day  dawned,  ubi  illuxit  dies ; 
when  1  see,  quando  video;  if  this  is  true,  si  hoc  verum  est; 
as  soon  as  he  saw  me,  simulae  me  vidit;  you  do  well,  that 
you  do  not  doubt,  bene  facis,  quod  non  dubitas. 

47.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  principal  sentence,  only, 
when  something  is  said  of  the  subject  without  definiteness 
and  certainty.  In  English  the  potential  mode  is  generally 
used,  and  sometimes  the  imperative  ;  e.  g.  Let  each  one  ex¬ 
ercise  himself  diligently ,  se  quisque  studiose  exerceat;  1 
would  come  to  you,  if  I  had  time,  venirem  ad  te,  si  mihi 
otium  esset;  who  can  believe  this  ?  quis  hoc  credat?  let 
us  believe,  credamus. 

48.  The  subjunctive  stands,  moreover,  in  introductory  and 
m  dependent  sentences : 

(I)  In  narration,  in  which  the  words  and  thought  of  an¬ 
other  are  not  stated  directly  in  his  own  language,  but  in  an 


MODES. 


29 


§49.] 

indirect  narrative  form.  Then  none  of  the  conjunctions  men¬ 
tioned  above  take  the  indicative,  but  the  subjunctive,  which 
is  expressed  in  English  by  the  indicative;  e.  g.  quod  cuique 
privatim  opus  est  becomes  in  narration,  quod  —  sit;  and 
si  nunc  non  sumus  becomes  si  —  sint.  Because  it  was 
necessary ,  quia  opus  esset;  as  you  had  asked ,  ut  exegis¬ 
ses;  although  you  were  sick ,  etsi  aegrotares.  Hence 
the  subjunctive  is  used  also  in  dependent  and  indirect  ques¬ 
tions  ;  e.  g.  He  asked  me  where  I  was  going  (direct  ques¬ 
tion,  where  are  you  going?),  me  interrogavit  quo  tende¬ 
rem;  I  do  not  know ,  whether  he  makes  verses,  nescio,  an  f  a- 
ciat  versus. 

49.  (2)  The  subjunctive  stands  after  some  conjunctions, 
although  the  sentence  itself  contains  nothing  uncertain  or  in¬ 
definite.  These  conjunctions  are : 

1.  Ut ,  in  the  sense  of,  that,  so  that,  in  order  that ,  to ;  e.  g. 
I  pray  you,  that  you  would  defend  me,  or  to  defend  me,  ut  me 
defendas. 

2.  Quo,  in  the  sense  of,  in  order  that,  and  with  minus  fol¬ 
lowing  it,  that  not, from;  e.  g.  In  order  that  the  cucumber 
may  be  more  tender,  the  seeds  are  soaked  in  milk,  cucumis  quo 
tenerior  e  x  i  s  t  a  t.  Nothing  will  prevent  me  from  accom¬ 
plishing  this,  quo  minus  hoc  exsequar. 

3.  Ne,  in  the  sense  of,  that  not,  lest,  from ;  e.  g.  He  has 
advised  us  that  we  should  not  be  (not  to  be)  too  liberal,  ne 
nimis  liberales  simus. 

4.  Quin,  in  the  sense  of,  that  not,  but  that,  who  or  which 
not,  that ;  e.  g.  I  doubt  not  that  virtue  makes  us  happy,  quin 
virtus  nos  beatos  faciat. 

5.  Utinam,  O  that,  would  that ;  utinam  ne,  O  that  not ; 
e.  g.  Utinam  scias,  O  that  you  knew. 

6.  Licet,  though,  although  ;  e.  g.  Although  I  am  wretched, 
licet  miser  sim. 

7.  Velut  and  quasi,  just  as  if,  as  if;  e.  g.  As  if  thy  honor 
were  at  stake,  quasi  tuus  honos  agatur. 

3* 


30  MODES.  [§  50. 

8.  Quamvis,  hoivevcr,  however  much ;  e.  g.  However  wretch¬ 
ed  you  are,  quamvis  miser  s  i  s. 

The  subjunctive  is  also  used  in  the  phrases,  non  (nihil) 
e s t,  quod,  there  is  no  reason,  that,  and  quid  est,  quod, 
why  is  it  that,  or  why  ?  e.  g.  There  is  no  reason ,  that  you 
should  fear  my  coming,  quod  adventum  meum  extimescas. 
Why  do  you  hasten  ?  quid  est,  quod  festinetis? 

Examples  for  practice. 

So  narrate  the  matter,  that*  the  narration1  may  be  proba¬ 
ble2.  Who  does  not  know3,  that4  Miltiades  conquered5  the 
Persians,  at  Marathon  1  I  will  mention6  my  own,  that  I  may 
not  speak  of  the  misfortunes7  of  the  state8.  I  earnestly9  pray 
you  to10  do  this.  However11  rich  you  are,  you  are  not  there¬ 
fore  happy.  There  is  no  reason12  that  we  should  hasten13. 
Nothing  deters14  me  from15  being  always  prepared16.  The 
winter  has  hitherto17  prevented18  us  from19  knowing20  what 
you  were  doing.  The  gods  can  make  me  announce21  such 
things22  to  you  often,  (Lat.  can  make  that  I  should  announce). 
If  that  which  thou  doest  is  honorable23,  let  all  know  it.  Why24 
dost  thou  not  write  to  me  ?  Let  us  read  this  book.  Al¬ 
though25  many  dangers26  threaten27  me,  yet  I  am  safe28. 
Many  cities  have  so  disappeared29,  that*  no  trace30  is  now31 
seen32.  I  could  not  be  prevented33  from34  declaring35  my  af¬ 
fection  to  you.  Entreat36  him  to10  be  silent37.  We  are  often 
influenced38  to10  be  good  men  by  some39  advantage. 

*  ut.  1  narratio.  2  verisimilis.  3  ignorare  (not  to  know).  4  quin. 

5  vincere.  6  commemorare.  7  incommodum.  8 civitas.  9  vehementer. 
10  ut.  11  quamvis.  12  non  est,  quod  (there  is  no  reason  that).  13  fes¬ 
tinare  (present).  14  deterrere.  15  quo  minus.  16  paratus.  17  adhuc. 
18  prohibere.  19  quo  minus.  20  certum  habere.  _  21  nuntiare  (See  § 
541).  22  talia.  23  honestus.  24  quid  est,  quod.  25  licet.  26  pericu¬ 

lum.  27  imminere.  28  securus.  29  evanescere.  30  vestigium.  31  jam. 
32  apparere.  33  tenere.  34  quin.  35  declarare.  36  exorare.  37  silere. 
38  movere.  39  aliquis. 

50.  The  imperative  mode  entreats,  commands,  forbids  and 
prohibits.  When  it  is  used  to  forbid,  the  English  word  not, 
must  be  expressed  by  ne,  and  be  placed  before  the  verb,  and, 
if  a  following  sentence  is  connected  by  and  not,  neither,  nor, 
these  must  be  expressed  by  neve ;  e.  g.  Trust  kirn,  crede 
e i ;  trust  him  not,  ne  ei  crede;  you  should  help  your  bro- 


INFINITIVE  WITH  ITS  GERUNDS. 


31 


§§  51,  52.] 

thcr,  and  not  desert  him,,  fratri  tuo  subvenito  neve  de¬ 
serito. 

Examples  for  practice. 

Take  away1  this  difficulty2  from  me.  Do  not  bury3  a  dead 
person4  in  the  city,  nor  burn5  him.  Calm6  your  passion  as 
soon  as  possible7.  Deliver8  me  from  this  torment9.  Do  not 
demand10  too  much11.  Farewell12,  and  love  me  and  write  to 
me  soon. 

1  eximere.  2  scrupulus.  3  sepelire.  4  mortuus.  5  cremare.  6  restin¬ 
guere.  7  quam  primum  (as  soon  as  possible).  8  eripere.  9  tormentum. 
10  postulare.  11  nimium  (too  much).  12  valere. 


51.  (6)  The  Infinitio  e  with  its  Gerunds. 

The  infinitive  is  used  as  a  substantive,  and  therefore  is 
considered  either  as  a  nominative  or  as  an  accusative.  As 
nominative,  it  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence;  e.  g.  To  praise 
everything  is  foolish,  omnia  laudare  est  ridiculum;  as 
accusative,  it  is  the  object  of  a  sentence,  and  as  such  is  used 
with  very  many  words  which  do  not  express  a  complete  idea 
of  themselves,  but  require  other  verbs  after  them.  Such  are, 
velle,  nolle ,  malle,  cupere,  posse,  debere,  solere,  coepisse,  inci¬ 
pere,  statuere ,  constituere,  decernere,  desinere,  etc. ;  e.  g. 
Many  prefer  to  serve  rather  than  fight,  multi  servire  ma¬ 
lunt,  quam  pugnare;  we  are  wont  to  say,  solemus 
dicere ;  I  wish  to  hear  you,  te  audire  cupio.  Here  the 
subjoined  infinitives  are  the  object-accusative  of  the  verbs 
with  which  they  are  connected. 

52.  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  is  translated  into  English 
by  a  present  participle,  a  participial  noun,  or  the  infinitive; 
e.  g.  The  art  of  loving,  ars  amandi;  desirous  of  drinking, 
cupidus  bibendi;  an  opportunity  was  given  of  burying,  or 
to  bury  the  slain,  sepeliendi  caesos  potestas  facta  est. 

The  dative  of  gerunds  is  used  to  denote  the  purpose  for 
which  something  serves  or  is  adapted ;  e.  g.  He  gives  him 
legs  fit  for  swimming,  apta  natando  crura  dat ;  you  de¬ 
vote  all  your  time  to  learning,  discendo. 


32 


SUPINES. 


[§  53. 


The  accusative  with  the  ending  andum  or  entfum  is  gov¬ 
erned  by  the  prepositions  ad  and  inter ,  which  may  usually  be 
rendered  by  to,  for  the  purpose  of,  and  while;  e.  g.  My  mind 
inclines  me  to  write,  ad  scribendum;  he  came  in  order 
to  see  or  to  see,  venit  ad  videndum;  while  writing,  the 
thought  occurs  to  me,  inter  scribendum. 

The  ablative  stands  sometimes  alone,  and  may  be  usually 
rendered  by  the  preposition  by ;  sometimes  it  is  governed  by 
the  prepositions  in  and  a ;  e.  g.  You  effect  nothing  by  weep¬ 
ing,  flendo  nihil  proficis;  you  cannot  prevent  him  from 
writing,  a  scribendo  eum  retinere  non  potes. 

Examples  for  practice. 

Thou  knowest1  the  art  of  writing.  It  is  difficult2  to  cor- 
rect3  this.  By  contradicting4  we  make»enemies5  to  ourselves. 
He  comes  to  me  daily6  in  order  to  read,  to  write  and  to 
hear7.  I  devote8  my  time  to9  reading  and  writing.  Many 
are  accustomed  to  sleep  by  day10  and  to  watch11  by  night12. 
I  have  resolved13  to  go14  and  see15  you.  The  spring  and  au¬ 
tumn  are  the  best  seasons  of  the  year16  for  ploughing17.  We 
are  desirous  of  reading  this  oration18,  and  we  venture19  to 
ask20  you  to21  give  it  to  us.  Rhetoric22  is  the  art  of  speak¬ 
ing23  well ;  but  the  orator  knows24  how25  to  speak  well. 

fovisse.  2  difficilis.  3  corrigere.  4  adversari.  5  inimicus.  6  quotidie. 
7 audire.  8  impendere.  9  (in  the  dative).  10  diu.  11  vigilare.  12  noctu. 
13  capere  consilium.  14  proficisci.  15  visere.  16  anni  tempus  (season 
of  the  year).  17  arare.  18 oratio.  19 conari.  20exorare.  21  ut.  22rhetonce. 
23  dicere.  24  scire.  25  (omitted  in  Lat.). 

53.  The  two  supines  have  a  different  signification.  The 
first  with  the  ending  urn,  which  is  active,  is  often  used  with 
verbs  of  motion,  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  the  design  of 
the  action ;  e.  g.  I  go  to  Italy  for  the  purpose  of  seeing,  or 
to  sec  the  ancient  monuments,  vetera  monumenta  visum. 
The  second  with  the  ending  u,  which  is  passive,  stands  with 
some  adjectives,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  in  what  respect, 
the  adjective  belongs  to  its  substantive;  e.  g.  This  monument 
is  worthy  of  being  seen  or  to  be  seen,  hoc  monumentum  visu 
est  dignum. 


§54.] 


PARTICIPLES. 


33 


Examples  for  practice. 

In  eulogies1,  the  virtues  are  the  most  agreeable2  to  be 
heard.  Caesar  came3  quickly4  with  the  whole  army5  to  be¬ 
siege6  Alesia.  This  mountain  is  difficult  to  be  ascended7. 
Tatia  descended8  from9  the  hill10  for  the  purpose  of  obtain¬ 
ing11  water. 

1  laudatio.  2 jucundus.  3  venire.  4  cito.  5  exercitus.  6  oppugnare. 
7 ascendere.  8 descendere.  9 de.  10 collis,  “petere. 

54.  (7)  Participles. 

The  participles  are  very  important  in  writing  Latin. 
These,  however,  are  reserved  for  the  second  Part  and  only 
the  verbal  adjective  in  enclus  and  andus,  as  connected  with 
the  verb  esse ,  will  be  treated  here. 

When  the  verbal  adjective,  e.  g.  amandus ,  diligendus,  is 
united  with  the  verb  esse,  it  can  stand  only  in  the  nomina¬ 
tive  with  the  verb,  except  where  the  infinitive  is  used.  Then 
the  verbal  adjective  refers  either  to  some  declinable  word, 
which  is  considered  as  its  subject,  or  to  a  whole  sentence, 
which  is  also  its  subject.  Properly,  sentences  which  contain 
the  verbal  adjective  must  be  considered  as  passive ;  but  we 
can  also  express  them  actively,  by  placing  the  indefinite 
words  one  or  we  before  them ;  e.  g.  Virtue  must  be  honored , 
can  be  expressed,  one  must  honor  virtue,  virtus  est  col  en- 
d  a ;  one  (we)  must  honor  the  virtues,  virtutes  sunt  colen¬ 
dae;  one  (we)  must  respect  the  Icing,  rex  suspiciendus 
est;  one  (we)  must  honor  the  kings,  reges  suspiciendi 
sunt;  one  (we)  ought  to  pray  (it  ought  to  be  prayed)  that 
a  sound  mind  may  be  given  to  us,  orandum  est.  And  so 
through  the  remaining  tenses  and  modes.  The  above  exam¬ 
ples  may  be  translated  with  the  words  one  or  we. 

But  when  in  the  place  of  the  indefinite  one  or  ice,  a  defi¬ 
nite  person  is  used,  the  Latin  puts  that  person  in  the  dative, 
— which  in  English  is  better  translated  actively,  as  the  nom¬ 
inative  ;  e.  g.  There  must  be  honoring  by  me,  i.  e.  I  must 
honor,  mihi  colendum  est;  it  must  be  honored  by  us,  i.  e. 


34 


POSITION  OF  SOME  WORDS. 


[§§  55,  56. 


we  must  honor,  nobis  colendum  est.  Therefore,/  must 
read  this  book,  is  expressed  by,  m  i  h  i  hie  liber  legendus  est ; 
thou  must  read  these  books,  tibi  hi  libri  legendi  sunt;  we 
must  honor  our  parents ,  nobis  parentes  colendi  sunt. 

Examples  for  practice. 

One  must  always  keep1  the  fidelity2  of  an  oath3.  We 
must  explain4  the  nature5  of  justice6.  Thou  must  confirm7 
thy  health8.  One  must  prefer9  many  things  to  pleasure  (Lat. 
many  things  must,  etc.).  We  must  sometimes10  fight  with 
the  hand  and  prefer  death  to  slavery11  and  disgrace12,  (Lat.  it 
must  sometimes  be  fought,  and  death  must  be,  etc.).  Every 
man  ought  to  avoid13  the  suspicion14  of  boasting15.  One 
must  not  hearken16  to  all  men  (Lat.  all  men  must,  etc.). 
The  vine-dresser17  must  break  off18  the  highest19  shoots20  of 
the  trees  and21  preserve22  only  one  or  two.  We  must  form23 
new  words24  and  give25  new  names  to  things. 

‘servare.  2 fides.  3 jusjurandum.  4 explicare.  5 natura.  6 jus.  7 fir¬ 
mare.  8 valetudo.  9 anteponere.  10 nonnunquarn.  “servitus,  ^turpi¬ 
tudo.  13  vitare.  14 suspicio.  15 ostentatio.  16 audire.  17  vinitor,  ^defrin¬ 
gere.  19summus.  20flagellum.  21  nec  nisi  (and  only).  22servare. 
23 parere.  24  verbum.  25  imponere. 

THE  POSITION  OF  SOME  WORDS. 

55.  Many  words  in  Latin  have  their  definite  position. 
Some  always  stand  first  in  the  sentence,  others  after  one  or 
two  words  of  a  sentence ;  others  again  have  a  more  indefinite 
position  according  to  the  signification  they  have  in  the  sen¬ 
tence. 

(1)  Nam,  etenim,  at,  sed,  verum,  sin,  and  qui  with  all  the 
phrases  belonging  to  it,  as  qua  re,  qua  de  re,  etc.,  stand  only  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sentence;  e.  g.  For  I  deny  this,  n  am 
hocnego;  but  this  is  nothing,  at  hoc  nihil  est;  but  it  rarely 
happens,  verum  raro  evenit;  if  this  happens,  quod  si 
evenit;  quae  quum  vera  sint. 

56.  (2)  Enim,  vero,  autetn,  quoque,  que  and  quidem ,  do 
not  stand  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  but  after  one  or 
more  words.  The  last  three,  quoque,  que  and  quidem,  stand 


POSITION  OF  SOME  WORDS. 


35 


§§  57—59.] 

after  the  words  to  which  they  refer ;  e.  g.  hoc  enim  nego, 
hoc  vero  est  nihili.  This  also  pleases  me,  hoc  quoque 
mihi  placet ;  this  pleases  me  also,  hoc  mihi  quoque  placet ; 
pater  mater  q  ue,  boni  malique.  This  is  great  indeed,  hoc 
magnum  quidem  est ;  this  indeed  is  great ,  hoc  quidem 
magnum  est. 

57.  (3)  The  particle  non  never  stands  after  the  word  to 
which  it  belongs  but  before  it.  When  there  are  two  verbs, 
one  depending  on  the  other,  then  non  stands  before  the  lead¬ 
ing  verb,  unless  the  infinitive  is  to  be  contrasted  with  some¬ 
thing  following;  e.  g.  I  do  not  write ,  non  scribo.  Fraus 
non  dissolvit  perjurium  ;  epistola  non  est  scripta  or  scripta 
non  est;  eum  amare  non  possum;  non  est  ita  or  non 
ita  est  (not  est  non  ita,  or  ita  non  est);  non  quidem 
adjicit;  non  omnia  possumus. 

58.  (4)  Quisque,  quaeque,  quidque  (quodque),  are  placed  : 

(a)  Usually  after  the  reflexive  pronouns,  sui,  sibi,  se  and 
suus;  e.  g.  Each  one  loves  himself,  se  quisque  amat; 
every  people  has  its  own  custom,  suus  cuique  populo  mos 
est ; 

(b)  After  the  superlative,  when  it  belongs  to  the  pronoun ; 
e.  g.  Optimus  quisque  Ciceronem  laudabat ; 

(c)  After  ordinal  numbers ;  e.  g.  Every  third  year  he  went 
to  Rome,  tertio  quoque  anno  Romam  migravit. 

59.  (5)  The  verb,  for  the  most  part,  is  placed  after  those 
words  which  are  governed  by  it ;  e.  g.  I  gave  him  two  books, 
ei  duos  libros  dedi;  I  remind  the  scholars  of  this  one  thing, 
discipulos  hoc  unum  moneo. 

Examples  for  practice. 

But1  we  congratulate2  them  at  least3.  The  thoughts4 
themselves  also5  are  apparent6.  For7  in  every8  art  and 
science9  whatever10  is  best,  is  rarest.  Epicurus  was  not 
acute11  enough1'2.  Thou  canst  not  surely13  deny14  this. 
Every15  fourth  year  a  day  is  inserted16.  These  things  at 
least  (quidem)  can  be  easily  distinguished17.  For18  who 
willingly19  undertakes20  any21  laborious22  exercise23  of  the 


36 


POSITION  OF  SOME  WORDS. 


[§  59. 


body  ?  Every  fifth  year  the  Olympic  games24  are  celebra¬ 
ted25  ;  but26  the  Pythian27,  at  first28,  every  ninth  year.  When29 
this  had  been  announced80  to  him31,  he  sent32  for  him. 
Each33  one  cares34  more  for  himself  than  for  others.  Where¬ 
fore35,  let  the  Stoics  reserve  to  themselves36  the  name  of 
wisdom.  Old  men  also37,  hope  for  long38  life.  Every  one 
wishes  his  work39  praised.  God40  has  given  its  own  nature 
to  every  animal41.  Every  one  truly  wise42  is  exposed43  to 
the  jealousy  of  evil  men.  I  have  lost44  nothing;  for45  all 
mine  is  with46  me.  It  is  not  so,  as  most  have  hitherto47  be¬ 
lieved48,  and  every  one  has  hitherto  dreamt49.  Wherefore50, 
all  my  hope  rests51  upon52  you.  Wherefore53,  I  do  not  ask 
you,  but  the  poet  himself.  How54  dost  thou  explain55  the 
actions56  of  these57  men  ?  ^s58  each  one  is  disposed59  to¬ 

wards60  himself,  so  let  him  be  disposed  towards  his  friend. 
Very  many  things61  are  indeed  true,  but  not  very62  credible63. 
Many  praise  that  which  is  not  to  be  praised64. 

1  verum.  2 gratulari.  3  quidem.  4  sententia.  5  quoque.  6 eminere. 
7  enim.  8  omnis.  9  scientia.  10  quidque.  11  acutus.  12  satis.  13  vere.  14  ne¬ 
gare.  15  quisque.  16  intercalare.  17  distinguere.  18  enim.  19  libenter. 
20  suscipere.  21  ullus.  22laboriosus.  23 exercitatio.  24  Olympia  (Olym¬ 
pie  games).  25celebrare.  26vero.  27Pythia.  28primo.  29quum(with 
subjunctive).  30 nuntiare.  31  qui.  32 arcessere  (to  send  for).  33 quisque. 
34 providere.  35  quare.  36 sibi  habere  (to  reserve  to  themselves). 
37quoque.  38diuturnus.  39opus.  40  Deus.  41  animans.  42 sapientissimus 
(truly  wise).  43 expositus.  44 perdere.  45 enim.  46 cum.  47 adhuc. 
48  opinari.  49  somniare.  50  quam  ob  rem.  51  esse.  52  in.  53  quapropter. 
64 quemadmodum.  55  interpretari.  56factum.  57 qui.  58 quemadmodum. 
59 animatus.  60  in.  61  plurima  (very  many  things).  62  parum  (not 
very).  e3 credibilis.  64laudandus  (to  be  praised). 


PART  II. 


CONTAINING 

’  /* 

THE  IDIOMATIC  AND  THE  MORE  DIFFICULT  USAGE 
OF  THE  LATIN  LANGUAGE. 


(A.)  GENERAL  REMARKS  WITHOUT  REFERENCE  TO 

SINGLE  CASES. 

60.  In  English,  where  two  or  more  persons  are  named,  we 
put  the  name  of  the  gens  and  the  family  in  the  singular  num¬ 
ber;  e.  g.  Marcus  and  Quintus  Tullius  Cicero.  But  in 
Latin,  these  family  and  gentile  names  are  put  in  the  plural, 
where  two  or  more  persons  are  spoken  of;  e.  g.  Marcus  et 
Quintus  Tullii  Cicerones;  Cneus  et  Publius  Sci¬ 
piones.  But  Quintus  pater  et  filius,  is  right,  not  Quin¬ 
ti,  as  a  plural.  But  where  neither  the  praenomen  nor  the 
name  of  the  gens  is  used,  the  English,  also,  must  have  the  plu¬ 
ral,  if  more  than  one  person  is  referred  to,  e.  g.  two  Ciceros, 
but  Marcus  and  Quintus  Cicero. 

Examples  for  practice. 

The  brothers  Lucius  and  Spurius  Mummius  were  inferior1 
orators.  There  are  many  orations  of  Lucius  and  Caius  Au¬ 
relius  Oresta.  Celer  and  Nepos  Metellus  were  not  unlearned 
men.  Daniel  and  Nicolaus  Heinsius,  father  and  son,  as  well 
as  John  Frederic2  and  Jacob  Gronovius,  were  learned  Hol¬ 
landers3.  At  that  time  lived  Marcus  and  Lucius  Porcius 
Cato.  These  Carbos  were  three  brothers,  viz4.  Caius,  Cneus 
and  Marcus  Carbo. 

Mediocris.  2Fredericus.  3  Batavus.  4  see  §  534. 

4 


38  AGREEMENT  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.  [§§  61,  62. 


AGREEMENT  OF  THE  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 

61.  It  has  been  already  stated,  §  16,  that  the  subject  and 
predicate  must  be  of  the  same  gender,  number  and  case. 
This  is  the  simplest  principle  of  agreement.  Here,  there¬ 
fore,  others  more  difficult  will  be  presented. 

(1)  In  certain  English  sentences  which  begin  with  that , 
this  conjunction  is  omitted  in  the  Latin,  and  the  accusative 
takes  the  place  of  the  subject-nominative,  but  the  verb  is  put 
in  the  infinitive.  See  §  380.  If  then  the  verb  has  a  substan¬ 
tive,  adjective  or  participle  connected  with  it,  as  predicate, 
this  also  must  be  in  the  accusative,  because  its  subject  is  in 
that  case;  e.  g.  I  believe,  that  my  father  is  sick,  credo  pa¬ 
trem  esse  a  e  g  r  o  t  u  m — that  my  mother  is  sick,  matrem 
esse  aegrota m — that  my  teachers  are  sick,  magistros 
esse  aegroto  s — that  you  have  been  praised,  v  o  s  lauda¬ 
tos  esse. 

Examples  for  practice. 

(In  all  the  following  examples  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  used.) 

I  believe,  that  my  antagonist1  is  timid2.  I  believe,  that 
the  nature  of  man  is  wonderful3.  We  think4,  that  piety5  is 
the  greatest  virtue.  It  is  certain,  that  many  men  are  rude6 
and  hard-hearted7.  I  know,  that  the  Lacedemonians  were  a 
brave  nation8.  The  Stoics9  say,  that  the  wise  man  is  the 
most  happy.  The  same  think4,  that  the  world  is,  as  it  were10, 
a  common11  city,  and  a  state12  of  gods  and  men,  and  that 
every13  man  is  a  part  of  this  world.  It  is  certain,  that  we 
were  born14  for  a  natural  fellowship15. 

1  adversarius.  2 timidus.  3  mirus.  4  censere.  5  pietas.  6  asper.  7  du¬ 
rus.  8  gens.  9  Stoicus.  10  quasi  (as  it  were).  11  communis.  12civitas. 
13  unusquisque.  14  nasci.  15  communitas. 

62.  (2)  The  predicate  is  not  always  an  adjective  or  a  par¬ 
ticiple  ;  it  may  also  be  a  substantive,  either  denoting  a  per¬ 
son,  e.  g.  teacher,  guide,  attendant,  or  a  substantive  deno¬ 
ting  a  thing,  e.  g.  cause,  source.  When  the  substantive 
denotes  a  thing,  it  agrees  with  its  subject  only  in  case,  not 


§  62.]  AGREEMENT  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.  39 

in  gender  and  number ;  e.  g.  Riches  are  to  many  the  highest 
good  of  life ,  divitiae  multis  sunt  summum  vitae  bonum. 
But  when  the  substantive  denotes  a  person,  it  must  agree 
with  its  subject,  not  merely  in  case,  but  also  in  gender  and 
number.  But  these  substantives  have  in  Latin,  either  two 
distinct  forms,  one  masculine  and  one  feminine,  e.  g.  rex , 
regina ;  rector ,  rectrix;  victor ,  victrix;  pater ,  mater ,  etc., 
or  only  a  single  form,  which  is  of  the  common  gender ;  e.  g. 
dux ,  comes,  parens;  hence,  dux  fidus,  and  dux  fid  a; 
comes  perpetuus,  and  comes  perpetua.  But  where 
there  are  two  forms  of  a  substantive,  it  is  always  necessary 
to  select  the  one  which  is  of  the  same  gender  as  the  subject; 
e.  g.  The  sun  is  the  king  of  heaven,  sol  est  rex  (rector, 
moderator)  coeli ;  the  moon  is  the  queen  of  the  stars,  1  u  n  a 
est  regina  (rectrix,  moderatrix)  siderum  ;  fear  is  a  poor 
guard,  metus  est  malus  custos;  Athens  is  the  inven~ 
tress  of  many  arts,  Athenae  sunt  inventrices  multa¬ 
rum  artium.  The  following  are  somewhat  different :  Athens 
was  the  most  honorable  seat  of  wisdom,  Athenae  fuerunt  (fuit) 
honestissimum  domicilium  sapientiae ;  This  youth 
is  my  delight,  hic  juvenis  est  (sunt)  meae  deliciae. 
When  the  subject  is  neuter,  the  predicate  substantive  is  mas¬ 
culine  rather  then  feminine;  e.  g.  tempus  vitae  magister 
est,  not  magistra. 

Examples  for  practice. 

The  soul1  is  eternal2,  and  the  guide3  of  the  human  race. 
Money  is  the  source4  of  many  and  great  pleasures.  Virtue 
is  the  greatest5  good6,  and  vice  the  greatest  evil7.  The  laws 
are  the  best  defenders8  of  the  citizens.  A  good  conscience9 
is  a  safe10  keeper11  and  companion12  of  man.  Grief 13  is  a 
cruel14  tormentor15  of  the  soul.  Want16  is  the  bitterest17 
enemy18  of  virtue.  Fortune19  is  the  blind20  mistress21  of  all 
things.  The  memory22  is  a  treasury23  of  all  things,  and  an 
excellent24  companion25  of  the  orator.  Let  the  mind26  be  the 
constant27  judge28  of  all  things.  Praise  is  the  almost  constant 
companion  of  good  actions29.  Athens  was  the  teacher30  of 
eloquence  and  the  poetic  art31. 


40  AGREEMENT  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.  [§  63 

1  animus.  2  aeternus.  3  rector,  rectrix.  4  effector,  effectrix.  5  su¬ 
perus.  6  bonum.  7  malum.  8  patronus,  patrona.  9  conscientia.  10  tutus. 
11  custos.  ,2comes.  13  aegritudo.  14  saevus.  15  carnifex.  16  inopia. 
17  acer.  18 adversarius,  adversaria.  19 fortuna.  20 caecus.  21  dominus, 
domina.  22  memoria.  23  thesaurus.  24  egregius.  25  comes.  26  mens. 
27 perpetuus.  28judex.  29 recte  factum  (good  action).  30 magister, 
magistra.  31  ars  poetica. 

63.  (3)  When  a  predicate-verb,  e.  g.  amare,  scribere,  re¬ 
fers  to  two  or  more  subjects  of  the  third  person  singular,  two 
cases  occur : 

(a)  The  subject  are  living  things. 

Here  the  verb  is  generally  in  the  plural  when  it  stands 
after  the  subjects ;  e.  g.  Homer  and  Hesiod  lived  before  the 
building  of  Rome ,  Homerus  et  Hesiodus  fuerunt  ante 
Romam  conditam.  The  singular  is  used  more  rarely. 

But  when  the  verb  stands  after  the  first  subject  only,  then 
it  is  naturally  only  in  the  singular;  e.  g.  Homerus  fuit  et 
Hesiodus  ante  Romam  conditam. 

Finally,  when  the  verb  stands  before  the  first  subject,  then 
it  is  sometimes  in  the  singular,  sometimes  in  the  plural. 
Therefore  we  can  say,  f  u  i  t  and  f u  e  r  u  n  t  Homerus  et  He¬ 
siodus — ;  hic  nobiscum  sunt  (est)  Nicias  et  Valerius. 

After  the  phrase,  Senatus  populusque  Romanus ,  generally  the  sin¬ 
gular  only  is  used  by  the  best  writers;  e.  g.  The  Senate  and  Roman 
people  gave  thanks  to  Cicero ,  Senatus  populusque  Romanus  gratias 
egit  Ciceroni,  not  egerunt. 

After  aut  or  the  distributing  et — et,  aut — aut ,  cum — tum,  non  solum 
— sed  etiam,  etc.,  the  singular  is  used  more  than  the  plural;  e.  g. 
If  Socrates  or  Antisthenes  said ,  si  Socrates  aut  Antisthenes  diceret 
or  dicerent;  both  Socrates  and  Antisthenes  thought  the  same ,  idem 
et  Soc.  et  Antisth.  censebat  or  censebant. 

(b)  The  subject  are  things  without  life. 

Here,  whenever  the  subjects  of  a  verb  are  singular,  the 
verb,  for  the  most  part,  is  singular,  seldom  plural ;  e.  g.  Rea¬ 
son  and  truth  convince,  convincit;  the  force  of  justice 
and  the  will  of  the  Praetors  will  avail  nothing,  nihil  vale- 
bit. 

When  the  verb  stands  after  or  before  the  first  subject,  the 
verb  is  only  in  the  singular ;  e.  g.  Civility  and  kindness  of 


§  64.]  AGREEMENT  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.  41 

speech  conciliate  the  feelings,  conciliat  animos  comitas 
affabilitasque  sermonis. 

When  aut,  or  the  distributing  et — et,  nec — nec,  cum — tum ,  non  so¬ 
lum— sed  etiam,  and  the  like,  come  between  the  subjects,  then  the 
verb  is  better  in  the  singular;  Not  only  our  favor,  but  also  our  au¬ 
thority,  is  diminished,  et  gratia  et  auctoritas  minuitur. 

When  a  plural  subject  is  connected  with  a  subject  in  the 
singular,  and  the  singular  subject  stands  before  the  verb,  the 
Latins  put  the  verb  in  the  plural,  as  well  as  in  the  singular ; 
e.  g.  The  bodies  themselves  and  nature  contribute  much  to  the 
health  of  bodies ,  multum  ipsa  corpora  et  natura  valent 
(valet);  me  illam  causam  non  solum  homines,  sed  etiam 
locus  ipse  lacusque  docuit;  nunc  mihi  nihil  libri,  nihil 
litterae,  nihil  doctrina  prodest. 


Examples  for  practice . 

In  the  most  ancient  times  lived  Orpheus  and  Linus. 
Hunger  and  thirst  are  allayed1  by  food  and  drink2.  Fannius 
and  Scaevola  came  to  Laelius.  Porcius  Cato  and  Valerius 
Cato  together3,  held4  the  consulship  and  censorship.  Not 
only5  favor6,  but  honor  is  obtained7  mostly8  by  defending9. 
Thus  the  society  and  union10  of  men  will  be  best  preserved11. 
Time  and  necessity  demand12  this.  Justice  and  liberality 
chiefly  effect13  this.  Critias,  Theramenes  and  Lysias  fol¬ 
lowed14  Thucydides.  After  Thucydides,  Theopompus  and 
Ephorus  devoted  themselves15  to  history.  Life,  death,  wealth 
and  poverty,  affect16  all  men. 

’depellere.  2 potio.  3 conjunctus.  4 gerere.  5 et  (not  only).  6 gratia. 
7 parere.  8 maxime.  9 defensio.  10 conjunctio,  “servare.  12 postulare. 
13  efficere.  14  sequi.  15  se  conferre  (to  devote  themselves).  16  permovere. 

64.  (4)  When  the  predicate  is  an  adjective  or  participle, 
and  relates  to  two  or  more  subjects,  then  here  also,  two  cases 
occur : 

(a)  The  subjects  are  living  things. 

When  the  predicate  is  placed  after  the  first  subject,  it 
agrees  with  that  subject  in  gender  and  number ;  e.  g.  Mal¬ 
leolus  a  me  productus  est,  et  mater  ejus  atque  avia. 

But  when  the  predicate  is  placed  after  the  last  subject, 

4* 


42  AGREEMENT  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.  [§  64. 

then  if  the  singular  is  prominent  in  the  mind,  the  predicate 
agrees  with  the  last  in  gender  and  number ;  but  when  the 
plural  is  prominent,  then,  if  the  subjects  be  of  like  gender, 
the  predicate  is  of  the  same  gender  ;  but  if  the  subjects  be  of 
different  gender,  the  masculine  is  used ;  e.  g  My  father  and 
mother  died  long  ago,  jam  pridem  pater  mihi  et  mater  mor¬ 
tui  sunt  (mortua  est). 

(b)  The  subjects  are  inanimate  objects. 

When  the  subjects  are  singular  and  of  the  same  gender, 
the  singular  or  plural  can  follow,  in  the  same  gender  as  the 
subjects :  e.  g.  The  greatest  ardor  and  desire  for  carrying 
on  war  were  natural  to  him,  huic  summa  alacritas  et  cupidi¬ 
tas  belli  gerendi  innata  est  or  innatae  sunt. 

When  the  subjects  are  of  the  same  gender  but  of  a  differ¬ 
ent  number,  either  the  singular  or  plural  may  be  used  when 
the  plural  subject  stands  first;  but  when  it  is  the  last,  the 
plural  only  is  used  e.  g.  Our  houses  and  the  country  itself 
were  plundered,  domus  nostrae  et  patria  ipsa  direpta  est 
or  direptae  sunt;  but,  patria  et  domus  nostrae  direp¬ 
tae  sunt. 

When  the  subjects  are  of  different  genders,  the  predicate 
is  either  singular  and  in  the  same  gender  as  the  subject  to 
which  it  is  joined,  or  plural  and  in  the  neuter  gender ;  e.  g. 
Literary  pursuits  and  their  delight  are  to  be  preferred  to  all 
pleasures,  studiorum  et  usus  et  delectatio  est  omnibus  volup¬ 
tatibus  anteponenda  or  sunt  anteponenda. 

When  all  the  subjects  are  plural  and  of  different  genders, 
then  the  predicate  agrees  in  gender  with  the  noun  to  which 
it  is  joined ;  e.  g.  Ex  eo  leges  moresque  constituti  sunt 
(mores  legesque  constitutae  sunt). 

Examples  for  practice . 

The  virtues  and  customs  of  this  man  are  to  be  praised1. 
Your  valor  and  fidelity  have  been  tested2  by  me.  Foolish¬ 
ness3,  rashness4,  injustice  and  extravagance  are  to  be  avoided5. 
Pain,  sickness,  poverty6  and  obscurity7  have  been  despised8 


43 


§§  65.]  AGREEMENT  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 

by  certain9  philosophers.  Men  and  women  were  terrified10 
on  account  of11  this  report.  Fields12,  islands  and  coasts13 
glitter14,  studded15  with  houses  and  cities.  Beauty,  con¬ 
stancy16  and  order,  ought  to  be  praised17.  When18  hunger 
and  thirst  are  allayed19  by  food  and  drink,  we  rejoice20. 

1  laudandas.  2  spectatus.  3  stultitia.  4  temeritas.  5  fugiendus.  6  pau¬ 
pertas.  7  ignobilitas.  8  contemnere.  9  quidam.  10  conturbatus.  11  de 
(on  account  of ).  12  ager.  13  litus.  14  collucere.  15  distinctus.  16  con¬ 

stantia.  17  praedicandas  esse  (ought  to  be  praised).  18  quum.  19  depel¬ 
lere.  20  laetari. 

65.  (5)  When  two  or  more  subjects  of  a  different  person, 
I  and  thou,  I  and  he,  we  and  ye,  we  and  they ,  ye  and  they, 
belong  to  one  verb,  and  the  same  thing  is  affirmed  of  them, 
the  verb  must  not  only  be  in  the  plural,  but  must  be  in  the 
person  that  takes  precedence.  The  first  person  takes  prece¬ 
dence  of  the  second,  and  the  second  of  the  third.  The  per¬ 
son  of  the  verb  is  therefore  determined  according  to  this  rule ; 
e.  g.  You  and  1  are  brothers,  ego  et  tu  sumus  fratres ;  thy 
father  and  I  are  cousins,  ego  et  pater  tuus  sumus  patrue¬ 
les.  You  and  your  brother  owe  your  life  to  this  man,  tu  et 
frater  tuus  huic  viro  vitam  debetis.  Neque  vos  neque 
sorores  vestrae  invitati  estis. 

Yet  this  rule  holds,  only  when  the  same  thing  is  affirmed  of  the 
different  subjects  ;  for,  when  this  is  not  the  case,  the  verb  agrees  with 
the  person,  with  which  one  may  wish  to  join  it;  e.  g.  I  obtained  this 
place  in  peace ,  you  in  war ,  ego  hunc  locum  in  pace,  nactus  sum, 
tu  in  bello,  or  ego  hunc  locum  in  pace,  tu  in  bello  nactus  es. 


Examples  for  practice . 

I  and  my  brother  value1  this  man  on  account2  of  his  learn¬ 
ing3.  Since4  this  day,  I  and  that  man  have  lived  in  the  same5 
house.  Then6 1  was  in  safety7,  and  he  was  in  danger.  You 
and  your  father  have  done8  many  good  deeds  for  the  repub¬ 
lic9.  Since  that  time,  I  have  engaged  in10  the  study  of  gram¬ 
mar,  and  my  brother,  in  the  study  of  philosophy.  Our  Cas¬ 
sius  and  I,  will  be  at  your  house  to-morrow11,  as  you  desire12. 

1  magni  aestimare.  2  ob  (on  account  of).  3  doctrina.  4  ex.  8  idem. 
6  turn.  7  tutum.  8  praestare.  9  respublica.  10  tractare  (to  engage  in). 
11  cras.  12  cupere. 


44 


APPOSITION. 


[§  66. 

APPOSITION. 

66.  When  two  substantives,  near  to  each  other,  denote  but 
one  thing,  e.  g.  The  philosopher  Socrates ,  or  Socrates  the 
philosopher ,  Julius  Caesar ,  the  greatest  commander ,  then  the 
substantive,  which  is  annexed  to  the  more  important  word, 
is  said  to  qualify  it,  and  to  be  in  apposition  with  it.  This  is 
an  abridged  expression  for,  Socrates  who  is  or  was  a  philoso¬ 
pher.  Every  substantive,  which  defines  more  definitely 
another  preceding  substantive,  with  and  without  the  word 
namely ,  is  in  apposition  ;  e.  g.  Despise  not  all  external  bless¬ 
ings ,  (namely)  riches ,  rank  and  birth — where  the  word  name¬ 
ly  is  omitted  in  Latin.  Substantives  thus  annexed  must  be 
in  the  same  case,  as  those  to  which  they  are  annexed ;  e.  g. 
Ciceroni,  magno  oratori;  pro  Socrate,  homine  sapi¬ 
ent  i  s  s  i  m  o. 

The  gender  and  number  must  also  be  the  same,  when  the 
noun  in  apposition  is  a  personal  substantive  (see  §  62) ;  e.  g. 
Fear ,  the  master  of  the  human  mind ,  timor,  dominus; 
fortune,  the  mistress  of  our  life,  fortuna,  domina  vitae 
nostrae ;  Athens,  the  inventress  of  many  arts,  Athenae 
inventrices  multarum  artium.  But  if  the  substantive 
in  apposition,  denotes  something  inanimate,  the  gender  and 
number  of  this  substantive  need  not  agree  with  the  other ; 
e.  g.  Fear,  the  cause  of  much  misery,  timor,  causa; 
Athens ,  the  city,  Athenae,  urbs;  Cicero ,  my  delight, 
Cicero,  meae  deliciae  meique  amores. 

The  same  rule  applies,  when  words  or  phrases  with  as  if, 
as,  either — or,  neither — nor,  explain  a  preceding  substantive ; 
e.  g.  Nature  has  given  to  man  sensations,  as  if  messengers 
and  attendants,  natura  homini  sensus,  tanquam  nuntios 
ac  satellites  attribuit. 

There  is  but  one  seeming  exception  to  the  rule,  which  requires 
nouns  in  apposition  to  be  in  the  same  case,  viz.  when  a  noun  is  put 
in  apposition  with  the  name  of  a  city,  which,  in  answer  to  the  ques¬ 
tion,  Where?  according  to  the  form,  is  in  the  genitive,  then  the  noun 


APPOSITION. 


45 


§66.] 

in  apposition  is  put  in  the  ablative  with  or  without  in;  e.  g.  At  Rome , 
the  chief  city  of  Italy,  Romae,  (in)  prima  urbe  Italiae. 

But  since  that  genitive  form  to  denote  the  place,  where  something 
happens,  is  probably  an  old  ablative  form,  the  natural  case  follows 
in  apposition.  See  §  69. 

When  another  substantive  with  an  explanatory  relative  (qui),  fol¬ 
lows  the  substantive  with  which  it  would  be  in  apposition,  then  that 
other  substantive  is  put  in  the  same  case  with  qui ;  e.  g.  he  destroyed 
Corinth ,  a  city ,  which ,  delevit  Corinthum  quae  urbs. 

Examples  for  practice. 

Marcellus  routed1  Hannibal,  the  commander  of  the  Car¬ 
thaginians  at  (apud)  Nola,  a  city  of  Campania.  When2 
Marcellus  had  taken3  Syracuse4,  the  famous  city  of  Sicily, 
he  ordered5  every  one  to6  spare7  Archimedes8,  that  famous 
mathematician.  Cupid9  was  represented10  near11  Hymenaeus, 
the  god  of  marriage.  Apelles  had  very  often12  painted  Ve¬ 
nus,  the  goddess  of  love.  Dionysius,  the  elder13,  had  two 
wives14,  namely,  Aristomache,  his  country-woman15,  and  Do¬ 
ris,  a  Locrean16.  At17  Capua,  a  beautiful  city  of  Campania, 
the  soldiers  of  Hannibal  lived  luxuriously18.  Milo  was  in 
vain19  defended20  by  Cicero,  at  that  time21,  the  most  illustri¬ 
ous  orator.  An  eruption22  of  Vesuvius  destroyed23  Hercula¬ 
neum  and  Pompeii,  two  cities  of  Campania.  Carthage  pro¬ 
duced24  Hamilcar  and  Hannibal,  two  brave  Africans,  the  lat¬ 
ter  of25  whom  was  conquered26  by  the  Roman  commander, 
Scipio  the  elder13,  near  Zama,  a  city  of  Africa.  Conon, 
having  been  banished27  from  Athens,  that  most  splendid28 
city  of  Greece,  went29  to  Pharnabazus,  the  kinsman30  of  the 
king  of  the  Persians.  Let  industry,  the  mother  of  renown 
and  happiness31,  belong32  to  every  man.  Already  has  the 
stork,  the  messenger33  of  spring,  appeared34  again35.  Death 
spares36  no  one,  neither  the  rich  nor  the  poor.  Fortune37, 
that  mistress38  of  human  life,  rules39  over40  us  all.  Cicero 
and  Marius  were  born41  at42  Arpinum,  a  free  town43  of  La¬ 
tium.  Coriolanus,  influenced44  by  anger,  a  bad45  counsel¬ 
lor46,  fought47  against48  his  country.  Geese,  the  preservers49 
of  the  capitol,  were  highly50  valued  at51  Rome.  Popular  ap¬ 
plause52,  a  rash53  panegyrist54  of  faults,  impairs55  the  beauty 
of  virtue.  Besides56  Juno,  the  queen  of  Heaven,  the  sister 
and  wife  of  Jupiter,  the  ancients  worshipped  many  other  god¬ 
desses.  There  was  a  contest57  concerning58  the  possession59 
of  the  city,  Athens*,  between  two  deities,  Neptune  and  Mi¬ 
nerva.  In  every60  pure  mind  dwells61  modesty62,  the  con- 


46 


USE  OF  CASES  TO  DESIGNATE  PLACE.  [§§  67,  68. 


troller63  of  lust.  We  avoid  death,  as  if64  a  dissolution65  of 
nature.  Many  ancient  people  worshipped  the  dog  and  the  cat 
as66  gods.  Sulla  was  the  teacher67  of  three  pernicious68  vices, 
luxury,  avarice  and  cruelty. 

1  fundere  (perf.).  2quum(with  subjunctive).  3capere.  4Syracusae. 
5  edicere.  6  ut.  7  parcere.  8  (dative).  9  Amor.  10  pingere.  11  juxta. 
12  saepius.  13  major.  14conjux.  15  civis.  16  Locrensis.  17  (the  genitive). 
18  luxuriose.  19  frustra.  20  defendere.  21  tum  (at  that  time).  22  eruptio. 
23  delere.  24  gignere.  25  ex.  26  vincere.  27  expulsus.  28  amplissimus. 
29  se  conferre.  30  propinquus.  31  felicitas.  32  proprius.  33  nuntius,  nun¬ 
tia.  34  apparere.  35  rursus.  36  parcere.  37  fortuna.  38  dominus,  domina. 
39  dominari.  40  in.  41  nasci.  42  (the  genitive).  43  municipium  (a  free 
town).  44  ductus.  45  malus.  46  consultor,  consultrix.  47 dimicare,  ^ad¬ 
versus.  49  servator,  servatrix.  50  magni.  51  (the  genitive).  52  fama  pop¬ 
ularis  (popular  applause).  53  temerarius.  54  laudator,  laudatrix.  55  cor¬ 
rumpere.  56  praeter.  57  certamen.  58  de.  59  possessio.  *  Athenae.  60  om¬ 
nis.  61  inesse.  62  pudor.  63  moderator,  moderatrix.  84  quasi  (as  if). 
65  dissolutio.  66  ut.  67  magister.  68  pestifer. 

USE  OF  CASES  TO  DESIGNATE  PLACE. 

67.  A  place  can  be  spoken  of,  either  in  relation  to  some¬ 
thing  which  is  done  in  it,  and  then  the  question  is  asked  by, 
where  ?  or  in  relation  to  something  which  is  directed  towards 
it,  and  then  the  question  is  asked  by,  whither  ?  or  in  relation 
to  something  which  comes  from  it,  and  then  the  question  is 
asked  by,  whence  ?  These  questions  may  be  distinguished 
thus:  Where ?  Whither ?  Whence?  For  other  designations 
of  place,  see  §  74. 

68.  The  question ,  Where? 

V 

(1)  With  the  divisions  of  the  earth,  with  countries  and 
islands,  the  preposition  in  with  the  ablative  is  used ;  e.  g. 
In  Europa;  in  Italia;  in  Creta.  In  is  often  omitted,  but 
only  when  totus  or  omnis  (the  whole)  agrees  with  the  noun. 
But  if  the  writer  wishes  to  express,  with  precision,  the  idea  of 
the  where ,  then  also  in  stands  before  the  ablative ;  e.  g.  In  the 
whole  of  Europe,  tot  a  Europa ;  tota  Graecia,  moreover  also, 
in  tota  Eur.  Cv  „ 

(2)  With  the  names  of  cities,  villages  and  small  islands, 
no  preposition  is  used,  but  the  genitive  or  ablative,  according 
to  their  difference  of  declension  and  number. 


USE  OF  CASES  TO  DESIGNATE  PLACE. 


47 


§69.] 


The  genitive  is  used,  when  the  word  is  of  the  first  or  se¬ 
cond  declension,  and  singular  number;  e.  g.  At  (or  in) 
Rome,  R  o  m  a  e ;  at  (or  in)  Corinth,  C  o  r  i  n  t  h  i.  Compare 
the  remarks  respecting  this  genitive  under  §  69. 

The  ablative  is  used,  when  the  word  is  of  the  third  declen¬ 
sion,  or  plural  number ;  e.  g.  At  (or  in)  Carthage ,  Car¬ 
thagine;  at  (or  in)  Athens,  Athenis  (from  Athenae) ; 
at  Delphi,  Delphis;  at  Andes,  Andibus  (from  Andes, 
-ium).  The  following  table  shows  the  different  usage. 


Genitive. 


Ablative. 


Declension  1  and  2. 
Singular  number. 


With  all  others. 


It  has  already  been  stated  above,  §  66,  under  apposition,  that,  when 
the  name  of  a  city,  island  or  village,  in  reference  to  the  question, 
where?  is  in  the  genitive,  and  a  noun  with  an  adjective,  or  another 
explanatory  clause  is  in  apposition  with  it,  this  is  put  in  the  ablative, 
with  or  without  in;  e.  g.  At  Rome ,  the  capital  of  the  old  icorld ,  Romae, 
(in)  capite  veteris  orbis  terrarum.  So,  Neapoli,  in  celeberrimo  op¬ 
pido  ;  Tusculi,  salubri  et  propinquo  loco.  This  is  not  the  case  where 
a  single  city  or  village  is  in  apposition  ;  e.  g.  In  the  city  Rome ,  is  ex¬ 
pressed  only  by  in  urbe  Roma,  not  in  urbe  Romae ,  nor  Romae ,  urbe. 
It  can  be  written  in  urbe  Romac,  only  when  in  urbe  is  contrasted  with 
in  agro. 


69.  (3)  The  words,  domus  (home),  humus  (ground),  mi¬ 
litia  (war),  helium  (war)  and  rus  (country),  are  constructed 
in  the  same  manner.  Hence,  at  home,  is  expressed  by  domi ; 
on  the  ground,  by  humi,  instead  of  which  sometimes  humo ,  as 
ablative  of  place;  abroad,  by  militiae  or  belli;  in  the  coun¬ 
try,  by  ruri,  seldom  rure.  Militiae  and  belli,  however,  are 
used  in  this  way  in  prose,  only  when  they  are  connected  with 
domi;  because  then  domi  signifies  in  peace.  Thus,  In  peace 
and  war,  domi  militiaeque,  domi  bellique,  domi  et  belli,  domi 
bellique,  and  so  also,  vel  belli  vel  domi. 

With  the  substantive  domi,  an  adjective  denoting  the  pos¬ 
sessor,  or  the  genitive  of  the  possessor,  can  be  joined  ;  hence, 
domi  meae  (at  my  house),  tuae,  suae,  nostrae,  ves¬ 
trae,  alienae  (in  the  house  of  another),  r  egi  a  e  (in  the 
house  of  the  king),  domi  Caesaris  (in  Caesar’s  house) ; 


48  USE  OF  CASES  TO  DESIGNATE  PLACE.  [§  70. 

and  so  similar  words,  when  they  refer  to  the  possessor,  and 
not  to  any  internal  or  external  quality  of  the  house.  Hence, 
In  a  spacious  house ,  is  expressed,  not  by  amplae  domi,  but  by 
in  ampla  domo;  in  the  royal  (i.  e.  worthy  of  a  king,  splen¬ 
did)  house,  not  by  regalis  domi,  but  in  regali  domo.  But 
with  totus  (whole),  iota  domo,  without  in. 

Although  the  cases  in  ae  and  i,  denoting  place,  as  Romae, 
militiae,  domi,  humi,  belli,  are  called  by  the  usual  name  of 
genitive,  yet  those  forms,  in  these  significations,  do  not  indi¬ 
cate  the  relation  of  the  genitive,  but  that  of  the  ablative*  or 
dative.  As  it  respects  the  right  use  of  them,  however,  the 
name  is  not  important. 

70.  (4)  With  all  other  names  of  places,  e.  g.  city,  moun¬ 
tain,  island,  etc.  the  preposition  in  with  the  ablative  is  used  ; 
e.  g.  In  the  city,  in  urbe;  in  the  island,  in  insula;  in  the 
mountain,  in  monte;  in  the  world,  in  mundo;  in  the  forum, 
in  foro;  in  coelo;  in  libro; — in  short,  in  every  instance, 
where  the  idea  of  place  only  is  expressed  by  the  preposition ; 
e.  g.  In  our  parents  is  the  greatest  piety,  in  parentibus  sum¬ 
ma  pietas;  in  Cicero  we  feel  the  want  of  firmness,  in  Cice¬ 
rone  desideramus  constantiam.  But  when  the  name  of  a 
person  stands  only  for  his  works,  apud  is  used ;  e.  g.  In  Ci¬ 
cero  we  do  not  find  this,  apud  Ciceronem. 


*  The  proper  ending  of  the  ablative  in  all  declensions  is  e,  e.  g. 
mensa-e  (mensa),  horto-e  (horto),  color-e ,  fructu-e  (fructu),  re-e  (re)  ; 
but  the  e,  especially  when  the  ablative  denotes  the  place  where ,  was 
changed  into  i,  e.  g.  Romai ,  contracted  Romae ,  Tarenti.  Thus  this 
form,  in  the  first  and  second  declension,  corresponded  with  the  geni¬ 
tive  form.  In  the  third  declension  the  e  of  the  ablative  remained ; 
yet  there  are  still  some  traces  of  the  ablative  in  i,  e.  g.  ruri  (not  rure ), 
Lacedaemoni,  Carthagini  and  e.  In  this  way,  domi  is  formed  from 
domui ,  which  is  found  even  in  Cicero.  But  whatever  may  be  the 
explanation,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  all  the  forms  denoting  the 
place  where  are  in  the  ablative.  As  all  plural  nonus  of  the  first  and 
second  declension,  denoting  the  place  where,  and  all,  both  singular 
and  plural  of  the  third  declension,  have  regular  ablative  forms, — and 
as  all  such  nouns,  whatever  be  their  declension  and  number,  take  the 
noun  in  apposition  with  them,  in  the  ablative,  it  is  naturally  inferred 
that  these  words  themselves  are  all  ablatives.  See  Ktihner’s  Lat.  Gr. 
Syntax,  §  16,  Rem.  4,  also  Reisig  on  the  Lat.  language,  §  347  seq. 


§  71.]  USE  OF  CASES  TO  DESIGNATE  PLACE.  49 

Here,  also,  when  totus  and  omnis  are  joined  to  the  noun, 
the  preposition  in  is  omitted ;  e.  g.  In  the  whole  city}  tota 
urbe;  in  the  whole  forum,  toto  foro;  in  the  ichole  camp ,  totis 
castris ;  in  this  whole  battle ,  hoc  toto  proelio.  Comp.  §  68- 
In  is  omitted  only  with  locus,  place,  situation,  condition, 
qualified  by  an  adjective  or  adjective  pronoun,  though  more 
seldom  when  locus  signifies  place ;  with  status,  position,  com- 
dition ;  with  terra,  in  the  phrase,  by  land;  with  mari,  in  the* 
phrase,  by  sea ;  and  with  via,  way,  when  it  is  definitely 
named ;  e.  g.  Then  our  affairs  were  in  a  better  situation 
(condition),  meliore  loco  (statu);  in  this  place,  hoc 
loco;  in  many  places,  multis  locis;  nothing  remains 
permanently  in  its  own  condition,  suo  statu;  we  lose  every >- 
thing  by  sea  and  by  land,  terra  marique;  in  the  Appian 
way,  via  Appia;  upon  another  road,  alia  via;  on  the 
same  way,  eodem  itinere. 

Examples  for  practice. 

(The  following  detached  expressions  may  be  used  first.) 

In  Asia.  At  Tusculum.  At  Baiae.  In  Asia  Minor1. 
At  Capua.  In  this  house.  In  thy  house.  At  Carthage. 
At  Thebes2.  In  Germany3.  In  the  earth4.  At  Ephesus. 
In  the  temple.  At  Gabii.  In  the  country5.  In  peace  and 
war.  In  this  war.  At  Troy.  In  Troas.  At  Neapolis. 
At  Paris6.  In  Palestine7.  At  Jerusalem8.  In  the  water. 
In  the  stable9.  In  Cyprus,  an  island  of  the  Mediterranean 
sea.  At  Andes10.  At  Philippi.  At  Verona,  a  city  of  up¬ 
per11  Italy.  In  Ionia.  In  the  valley12.  In  the  grove.  At 
our  house.  At  Patara13.  In  Delos,  the  birth-place14  of 
Apollo. 

‘Asia  Minor.  2  Thebae.  3  Germania.  4  terra.  5rus.  6Parissii. 
7  Palaestina.  H  Hierosolyma,  -ae,  or  -a,  -orum.  9  stabulum.  10  Andes, 
-ium.  11  Italia  superior.  12  vallis.  13  Patara, -orum.  14  locus  natalis. 


71.  The  question,  TV  hither  ? 

This  question  denotes  motion  towards  or  into  a  place. 

(1)  With  the  divisions  of  the  earth,  with  countries  and 


50 


USE  OF  CASES  TO  DESIGNATE  PLACE. 


[$  71. 


large  islands,  the  preposition  in  with  the  accusative  is  used; 
e.  g.  To  or  into  Europe,  i  n  Europara  ;  i  n  Italiam ;  i  n  S#i- 
ciliam. 

(2)  With  cities,  villages  and  small  islands,  merely  the  ac¬ 
cusative  is  used  without  a  preposition,  whatever  be  the  de¬ 
clension  of  the  noun ;  e.  g.  To  Rome,  Romam;  to  Cor¬ 
inth,  Corinthum;  to  Sulmo,  Sulmonem;  to  Athens, 
Athenas;  to  Delphi,  Delphos;  to  Cures,  Cures.  A 
noun  in  apposition  is  used  with  or  without  in;  e.  g.  Cures, 
(in)  urbem  Sabinorum. 

(3)  The  same  also  applies  to  domus  and  rus.  Hence  to 
the  house,  home,  into  the  house,  is  expressed  by  domum,  or, 
when  several  houses  of  different  men  are  spoken  of,  by  domos 
(yet  even  then  the  singular  is  often  used),  yet  the  Latin  says, 
in  domum  meretriciam  induci,  in  domum  veterem  remi¬ 
grare  e  nova ;  to  the  country,  is  expressed  by  rus.  The  accu¬ 
sative  humum  is  not  so  used.  Domum  and  domos,  like  the 
genitive  domi,  can  have  a  possessive  adjective,  or  a  genitive 
joined  with  them  (§  69) ;  e.  g.  To  my  house,  domum  meam, 
tuam,  etc.;  domum  Caesaris. 

(4)  With  all  other  names  of  places,  in  with  the  accusative 
is  used;  e.  g.  Into  (to)  the  city,  in  urbem;  to  the  island , 
i  n  insulam  ;  i  n  mundum  ;  to  or  upon  the  mountain,  i  n  mon¬ 
tem  ;  i  n  librum. 

Ad,  however,  is  used  when  only  the  direction  towards  a 
place  is  denoted;  e.  g.  To  travel  to  the  coasts  of  Africa,  ad 
oras  Africae  proficisci ;  he  hastened  into  Volaterrae  to  the 
camp  of  Sulla,  ad  Volaterras  in — .  So  always  where  the 
march  of  an  army  to  a  place  is  spoken  of;  e.  g.  Caesaris  ad 
Brundusium  cursus,  Caesar's  march  to  Br. 


Examples. 

(Here  also  the  following  detached  expressions  may  be  used  first.) 

To  Asia.  To  Tusculum.  To  Baiae.  To  Asia  Minor. 
To  Capua.  Into  this  house.  To  his  house.  To  Carthage. 
To  Thebes.  To  Germany.  To  the  earth.  To  Ephesus. 


51 


§§  72,  73.]  USE  OF  CASES  TO  DESIGNATE  PLACE. 

Into  the  temple.  To  Gabii.  To  the  country.  To  the  war. 
To  Troy.  To  Neapolis.  To  Paris.  To  Palestine.  To 
Jerusalem.  Into  the  water.  Into  the  stable.  To  Cyprus, 
an  island  of  the  Mediterranean  sea.  To  Andes.  To 
Philippi.  To  Verona.  To  Aulo.  To  Ionia.  Into  the 
valley.  Into  the  grove.  To  your  house.  To  Patara.  To 
Delos,  the  birth-place  of  Apollo. 

72.  The  question  ,  W  hence ? 

This  question  is  used  to  denote  a  local  object,  or  a  place, 
out  of  which,  or  from  which,  something  comes. 

(1)  With  divisions  of  the  earth,  with  countries  and  large 
islands,  the  preposition  a  is  used  ;  e.  g .  To  come  from  Italy , 
ab  Italia  venire;  from  Sicily,  a  Sicilia. 

(2)  With  cities,  villages  and  small  islands,  not  only  the 
preposition  a  is  used,  but  also  often  the  ablative  alone,  with¬ 
out  a ;  e.  g.  To  come  from  Corinth ,  a  Corintho,  and 
Corintho.  At  the  close  of  Cicero’s  letters,  the  place 
from  which  the  letter  comes  is  usually  in  the  ablative ;  e.  g. 
Capua,  from  Capua ;  L  u  c  a  d  e,  from  Lucas ,  etc.,  where 
we,  according  to  our  mode  of  expression,  should  say,  Capua , 
Lucas,  to  denote  the  place  where  the  letter  was  written. 
Yet  sometimes  also  the  genitive  is  used,  (where  the  nouns 
are  of  the  first  or  second  declension,)  with  which  scripta  or 
scripsi  is  to  be  understood.  When  the  removal  or  going  from 
one  place  to  another,  or  from  the  place  where  something 
happens,  is  denoted,  a  cannot  be  omitted ;  e.  g.  From  Rome 
to  Neapolis,  a  Roma  ad  Neapolim;  he  was  carrying  on  war 
as  soon  as  he  left  Brundusium,  jam  a  Brundusio. 

73.  (3)  Domus  and  rus  are  put  in  the  ablative  without  a 
preposition;  thus,  To  come  from  home,  domo;  to  come  from 
the  country,  rure,  or  ruri.  The  ablative  humo  is  not  so 
used.  Domo  can  also  take  a  possessive  adjective  with  it, 
§  69 ;  e.  g.  To  come  from  my  house,  domo  m  e  a. 

(4)  With  other  relations  of  place,  the  prepositions  a,  de 
and  ex  are  used ;  a  mostly,  when  the  place  is  on  a  level  with 


52  USE  OF  CASES  TO  DESIGNATE  PLACE.  [§  74. 

the  other,  seldom  when  it  is  higher ;  dc  and  ex  mostly,  when 
it  is  higher ;  e.  g.  To  come  from  the  forum ,  a  foro ;  to  come 
from  Cicero,  a  Cicerone;  to  he  seen  from  the  tower ,  de  or 
e  x  turri. 


Examples. 

(The  following  detached  expressions  may  be  used  first.) 

From  Asia.  From  Tusculum.  From  Baiae.  From  Asia 
Minor.  From  Capua.  From  this  house.  From  my  house. 
From  Carthage.  From  Thebes.  From  Germany.  From 
Ephesus.  From  the  temple.  From  Gabii.  From  the  coun¬ 
try.  From  Troy.  From  Troas.  From  Neapolis.  From 
Paris.  From  Palestine.  From  Jerusalem.  From  the  stable. 
From  Cyprus.  From  Andes.  From  Philippi.  From  Ve¬ 
rone.  From  Ionia.  From  the  valley.  From  the  grove. 
From  your  house.  From  Patara.  From  Delos,  the  birth¬ 
place  of  Apollo. 

74.  Other  r  el  at  ions  of  place . 

All  other  relations  of  place  are  denoted  by  the  appropriate 
prepositions. 

Through,  per;  e.  g.  Through  Asia,  per  Asiam;  through 
the  city,  per  urbem;  through  Thebes,  per  Thebas. 

By,  near  by,  at,  apud,  ad,  prope;  e.  g.  At  or  near  Ther¬ 
mopylae,  apud  Thermopylas;  at  Nola,  ad  Nolam;  near 
Veseris,  ad  or  apud  Veserim;  near  by  the  city,  prope 
urbem ;  very  near  Rome,  proxime  Romam. 

Towards  a  place,  ad;  e.  g.  I  went  to  Capua,  profectus 
sum  ad  Capuam.  Comp.  §  71,  4. 

Before ,  ante ;  e.  g.  Before  the  city,  ante  urbem. 

Out  of  ,  e,  ex ;  e.  g.  Out  of  Italy,  ex  Italia;  out  of  Rome, 
e  Roma.  But  this  preposition  is  used  with  a  city,  only  when 
something  really  comes  out  of  it,  not  where  something  only 
comes  from  it;  e.  g.  Navis  Tyro,  Epheso,  Alexan¬ 
dria — venit,  the  ship  came  from  Tyre — not  ex  Tyro,  ex 
Epheso,  ex  Alex. 

Within,  intra ;  e.  g.  Within  the  city,  intra  urbem. 


USE  OP  CASES  TO  DESIGNATE  PLACE. 


53 


§74.] 

Around,  circa  and  circum;  e.  g.  Around  Capua,  circa 
Capuam. 

Without,  extra ;  e.  g.  Without  Rome,  extra  Romam. 

Even  to,  as  far  as,  ad,  usque*  (with  cities),  usque  ad  (with 
countries);  e.  g.  Even  to  Egypt,  usque  ad  Aegyptum; 
as  far  as  Delphi,  usque  Delphos,  or  Delphos  usque;  as 
far  as  the  borders,  a  d  fines. 

Above,  super  ;  e.  g.  Above  Macedonia  lies  Thrace,  super 
Macedoniam. 

Between,  inter ;  e.  g.  Between  the  Apennines  and  the  Alps, 
inter  Apenninum  Alpesque. 

Beyond,  trans,  ultra;  e.  g.  Beyond  the  Apennines,  trans 
Apenninum. 

On  this  side,  cis,  citra ;  e.  g.  On  this  side  of  Rome,  citra 
Romam.  And  so  the  other  relations  of  place  are  expressed 
by  the  appropriate  prepositions. 

Examples  on  §§  67 — 74. 

(1)  That  year,  the  Roman  people  were  not  more  quiet1 
at  home,  than  they  had  been  before2  in  war.  At  Constanti¬ 
nople3,  or,  at  Byzantium,  as  it  was  then  called4,  the  eastern* 
Roman  empire  was  established5.  At  Arpinum,  a  small  free 
city6  of  Latium,  Cicero  and  Marius  were  born.  In  Upper 
Italy7,  many  writers  were  born  ;  Catullus  at  Verona,  Livy8  at 
Padua9,  Virgil  at  Andes10,  a  village11  near  Mantua,  and  Cor¬ 
nelius  Nepos  probably12  at  Hostilia,  a  small  city  of  that  re¬ 
gion.  Cicero  came  near13  being  killed14  at  his  house  by  two 
Roman  knights15.  At  Venice16,  a  famous  ancient  city  of 
Upper  Italy,  is  the  extensive17  library  of  Saint18  Mark.  The 
largest  libraries  are  found19  at  Paris20,  Gottingen21,  Vienna22, 
Munich23  and  London24.  This  year  was  distinguished25  by 
nothing  at  home  or  abroad.  In  war,  Marius  rested26  mostly 
on  the  ground27.  "VVhat  happens  to-day  at  Tralles28,  does  not 
happen  at  Pergamus.  I  have  resolved29  to  send  him  to  the 
farms30  which  you  have31  at  Nola.  Pliny32  had  a  villa  near 
lake  Larius.  At  Pergamus,  Smyrna,  Tralles,  Apamea, 

*  Only  the  poets  and  the  later  prose  writers  use  usque  alone  with¬ 
out  ad. — Zumpt. 


5* 


54 


USE  OF  CASES  TO  DESIGNATE  PLACE. 


[§  74. 


Adramyttium  and  in  other  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  many  Roman 
bankers33  sojourned34.  The  poet  Archias  was  born  at  Anti¬ 
och35,  once36  a  famous  and  wealthy37  city.  I  had  rather38 
live  at  Rome  and  in  thy  house,  than  at  Mitylene  or  Rhodes39. 
Then  there  was  the  greatest  confusion40  in  the  whole  city. 
The  north-west  wind41  is  accustomed  to  blow42  in  this  place43. 

‘quietus.  2  antea.  3  Constantinopolis.  4  nominari.  *  oriens.  5  con¬ 
dere.  6  municipium.  7  Italia  superior.  8  Livius.  9  Patavium.  10  Andes, 
-ium.  11  pagus.  12  probabiliter.  13  paene.  14  interficere  (indic,  perf.) 
15  eques.  16Venitiae.  17  copiosus.  18  sanctus.  19  reperiri.  20  Parissii. 
21  Gottinga.  22  Vindobona.  23  Monachium.  24  Londinum.  25  insignis. 
26  quiescere.  27  humus.  28  Tralles, -ium.  29  destinare.  30  praedium. 
31  possidere.  32  Plinius.  33  negotiator.  34  morari.  35  Antiochea.  36  quon¬ 
dam.  37  copiosus.  38  malle  (had  rather).  39  Rhodus.  40  perturbatio. 
41  Caurus  (north-west  wind).  42  flare.  43  locus. 

(2)  I  was  with  him  at  Ephesus,  as  if1  in  my  house.  The 
soul  dwells  in  the  body,  as  if  in  another’s2  house.  The  Ro¬ 
man  exiles3  often  went4  to  Rhodes,  or  Mitylene,  or  Marseilles5. 
The  Luculli  received6  into  their  house  the  famous  poet,  Ar¬ 
chias,  when7  he  had  come  to  Rome.  Ten  thousand  Greeks 
marched8  to  Persia,  and  Xenophon  led  them  back9  to  Athens, 
after  a  bloody10  battle11  at  Cunaxa.  My  brother  went  by 
ship12  from  Ephesus  to  Athens,  I,  on  foot13,  through  Macedo¬ 
nia  to  Attica.  In  very  important14  business15  of  the  state, 
the  Roman  senators,  who  in  peace  lived  mostly16  on  their 
farms,  were  called  from  the  country17  into  the  city.  Cicero 
travelled  from  Tarsus  to  Asia,  and  he  made  his  journey18  in 
such  a  manner19  that  the  famine20,  which  then  was  in  all  Asia, 
was  checked21.  The  townsmen22  brought23  gold  and  silver 
and  other  expensive  articles24  into  the  royal  palace25.  The 
Vagenni  invited26  the  Romans  sojourning27  in  their  city,  to 
their  houses,  and  slaughtered28  them  all.  In  Sicily,  the  death 
of  Hiero  had  changed  everything,  and  at  Syracuse29,  many 
factions30  had  arisen31.  Then,  many  miraculous  signs32  ap¬ 
peared33;  at  Lanuvium,  the  ravens34  built35  a  nest  within  the 
temple  of  Juno;  in  Apulia,  a  green  palm-tree36  burnt37; 
near  Mantua,  the  river  Mincius  appeared  bloody38 ;  at  Cales39, 
it  rained40,  clay41,  and  at  Rome,  blood.  A  certain42  Hadri¬ 
anus  was  burnt43  alive44  by  the  Romans,  in  his  own  house  at 
Utica.  In  the  whole  camp  there  was  the  greatest  disturb¬ 
ance45.  The  pirates46  in  separate  bodies47  wandered48  over 
the  whole  sea.  I  have  commanded49  that50  the  fugitive51 
should  be  sought52  by  sea  and  land. 


USE  OF  CASES  TO  DENOTE  TIME. 


55 


§75.] 

1  tanquam.  2  alienus.  3exul.  4  se  conferre.  6  Massilia.  6  recipere. 
7 cum  (with  subj.).  8proficisci.  9  reducere.  10cruentus.  11  pugna. 
12  classe  (by  ship).  13  pedibus  (on  foot).  14  summus.  15  res.  16  plerum¬ 
que.  17  rus.  18  iter.  19  tam  (in  such  a  manner).  20  fames.  21  sedare. 
22  oppidanus.  23  comportare.  24  res  pretiosa  (expensive  article).-  25  do¬ 
mus.  26  invitare.  27  commorari.  28  obtruncare.  29  Syracusae.  30  factio. 
31  exoriri.  32  prodigium  (miraculous  sign).  33 apparere.  34  corvus, 
^facere.  36  palma.  37  ardere.  38  cruentus.  39  Cales,  -ium.  40  pluere 
aliqua  re.  41  creta.  42  quidam.  43  exurere.  44  vivus.  45  perturbatio. 
46  praedo  maritimus.  47  dispersus  (in  separate  bodies).  48  vagari. 
49  mandare.  50  ut.  51  fugitivus.  52  conquirere. 


USE  OF  CASES  TO  DENOTE  RELATIONS  OF  TIME. 

75.  Time  can  be  expressed  in  very  different  relations. 
In  English,  we  have  different  prepositions,  to  express  the  dif¬ 
ferent  ideas  of  time ;  e.  g.  in,  after,  before,  during ,  on,  about, 
etc.  In  Latin,  also,  time  is  variously  expressed,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  divisions. 

(1)  When?  in  or  at  what  time?  This  is  a  single  point 
or  period  of  time  in  which  something  happens,  and  is  often 
qualified  by  an  ordinal  number.  In  English  we  sometimes 
use  prepositions;  e.  g.  in,  on,  at,  upon;  sometimes  the  ac¬ 
cusative  merely;  e.  g.  The  first  of  January;  the  third  year. 
The  Latins  use  only  the  ablative;  e.  g.  in  a  moment  he  per¬ 
ished,  momento  interiit ;  at  the  sixth  hour,  sexta  hora; 
on  the  ffth  day,  quinto  die;  the  frst  of  January,  C  a- 
lendis  Januariis;  in  the  frst  month,  mense  primo; 
in  the  spring ,  v  e  r  e ;  loith  the  rising  of  the  sun,  o  r  t  u  solis ; 
at  mid-day,  meridie. 

Here  also  belongs  the  phrase,  in  war,  when*  the  war  is  definitely 
named,  because  it  then  denotes  time;  e.  g.  in  the  first  Punic  war, 
primo  bello  Punico,  or  bello  Pun.  primo.  In  bello 
would  not  denote  time.  So  festivals ;  e.  g.  at  the  Saturnalia,  Sa¬ 
turnalibus.  So  also  other  substantives,  which  do  not  of  them¬ 
selves  denote  time,  are  put  in  the  ablative  to  express  such  a  relation, 
with  and  without  in,  oftener  without;  e.  g.  initio  and  principio,  ad¬ 
ventu  and  discessu  alicujus,  comitiis  and  tumultu.  See  §  213,  (5). 

Here  also  belong  many  adverbs  of  time,  most  of  which  are  obsolete 
ablatives;  e.  g.  mane,  early ;  diluculo,  at  day-break;  diu ,  by 
day;  noctu,  by  night ;  sero,  late;  raro,  seldom ;  vesperi,  at 
evening;  luce  (luei),  early ,  at  day-break. 

Periods  of  life  form  an  exception  to  this  rule.  With  these  in  is 


56  USE  OF  CASES  TO  DENOTE  TIME.  [§§  76,  77. 

used,  because  the  whole  time  of  the  age  referred  to  is  meant  to  be 
included ;  e.  g.  in  boyhood ,  i  n  pueritia.  So  when  the  circumstances 
of  times,  condition ,  especially  dangerous  condition  are  translated  by  tem¬ 
pus,  in  is  also  used  with  it;  e.  g.  in  hoc  tempore,  in  this  condition , 
during  this  time.  In  tempore  or  merely  tempore  is  also  used  in  the 
sense  of,  at  the  right  time. 

76.  (2)  During ,  within  what  time  ?  A  space  of  time 
during  which  something  takes  place.  The  numeral  used  is 
a  cardinal  number,  or  such  words  as  biduum,  biennium,  are 
employed.  Cicero  uses  either  inter ,  or  intra,  or  per,  or  still 
more  frequently,  the  ablative  with  or  without  in;  Everything 
which  has  happened  within  ten  years,  inter  decem  annos ; 
no  one  in,  during,  within  the  last  twenty  years  was  an  enemy 
of  the  state,  (in)  h  i  s  annis  viginti;  this  happened  with¬ 
in  the  last  three  years,  per  hoc  triennium.  Moreover,  also, 
intervallo  or  spatio ;  e.  g.  spatio  bienni,  in  two  years. 

Where  an  action  is  repeated  within  a  given  period,  in  is  generally 
used,  being  omitted  but  seldom,  e.  g.  twice  a  day,  bis  in  die;  three 
times  a  year,  ter  in  anno. 

(3)  How  long?  The  period  during  which  an  action  or 
event  continues.  In  English  we  use  the  prepositions,  through, 
throughout,  during,  often  the  simple  accusative  without  a 
preposition.  The  Latins  use  the  preposition  per,  or  the  ac¬ 
cusative  without  a  preposition  ;*  e.  g.  Through  the  whole 
night,  per  totam  noctem,  totam  per  noctem,  totam  noc¬ 
tem;  I  have  tarried  here  two  months,  (p  e  r)  duos  menses 
hic  commoratus  sum.  But  the  preposition  per  must  stand 
before,  not  after  the  substantive. 

This  must  not  be  confounded  with  how  long?  i.  e.  how  much  time 
before  or  after  something,  for  which  see  below. 

77.  (4)  Before  or  after  what  time  or  event  ?  The  Latins 
express  this  by  ante  and  post  with  the  accusative ;  e.  g.  He 
came  to  me  two  days  before  or  ago,  ante  duos  dies;  I  re- 

*  Cicero  rarely  uses  the  ablative  to  denote  duration  of  time,  e.  g. 
Scriptum  est  trigenta  annis  vixisse  Panaetium. — De  Off.  This  usage 
is  more  frequent  in  the  writers  of  the  silver  age,  e.  g.  quatuordecem 
annis  exilium  toleravit. —  Tacit. 


§  77.]  USE  OF  CASES  TO  DENOTE  TIME.  57 

turn  after  two  years ,  post  duos  annos.  Here  the  reckon¬ 
ing  always  commences  from  the  present  time. 

(5)  How  long  before  or  after  an  event?  For  this  the 
Latins  use  the,ablative.  There  are  here  two  dates,  one  ear¬ 
lier  and  the  other  later,  or  one  later  and  the  other  earlier. 
The  earlier  or  later  event  is  either  positively  expressed  and 
put  in  the  accusative,  depending  on  ante  or  post,  or  it  must 
be  determined  from  what  precedes,  and  then,  in  English  we 
say,  before ,  or  before  that ,  after ,  or  after  that;  e.  g.  Homer 
lived  many  years  before  Hesiod ,  multis  annis  ante  He¬ 
siodum ;  Virgil  lived  many  years  after  Ennius ,  multis 
annis  post  Ennium ;  three  years  before,  or  before  that  this 
war  broke  out,  tribus  annis  ante,  or  tribus  ante 
annis;  two  years  afier  Horace  died,  duobus  annis 
post,  or  duobus  post  annis.  When  the  time  before  or 
after  which  anything  took  place,  does  not  stand  in  the  sen¬ 
tence  itself,  as  in  the  last  two  examples,  then  the  prepositions 
or  adverbs  ante  and  post  can  stand  with  two  words  which  are 
in  the  ablative,  after  or  between  them,  as  the  examples  show, 
but  seldom  before ;  e.  g.  A  n  t  e  multo,  long  before,  for  multo 
ante.  But  antea  and  postea  cannot  be  used  here. 

Here  also  belong  those  words  which  express  time  how 
long  before  or  after,  indefinitely;  viz.  long  (multo);  not 
long,  short  (non  multo,  paulo,  brevi) ;  not  very  long  (non 
ita  multo);  pretty  long  (aliquanto);  as  long  (quanto);  so 
long  (tanto) ;  e.  g.  This  happened  long  before  (after),  multo 
ante  (post). 

With  the  words  ante  and  post,  a  sentence  with  quam  is 
often  joined ;  e.  g.  I  knew  this  man  a  year  before  you  did, 
anno  ante,  q  u  a  m  tu  eum  cognovisti.  So  with  p  r  i  d  i  e, 
a  day  before,  and  postridie,  a  day  after,  often  followed 
by  quam;  e.  g.  Pridie,  quam  has  litteras  dedi,  the  day 
before  I  gave  this  letter.  Quo,  in  the  sense  of  after  that, 
sometimes  follows  such  words  as  biduo ,  triduo,  two,  three 
days. 


58 


USE  OF  CASES  TO  DENOTE  TIME. 


[§  78. 


Here  belongs  the  question,  by  kmc  much  time  something  is  longer 
or  shorter  than  another,  or  differs  from  another, — where  the  ablative 
only  is  used;  e.  g.  You  arc  two  years  older  (younger)  than  /,  duo- 
bus  annis,  not  duo  (duos)  annos. 

Finally,  the  rule  hoio  long  before  or  after  must  not  be  mistaken  for 
this.  That  denotes  the  real  continuance  of  an  action  before  or  after 
another.  It  is  put,  according  to  §  76,  3,  in  the  accusative  ;  e.  g.  Ma¬ 
rius  continued  seven  years  after  his  praetor  ship  without  authority ,  sep¬ 
tem  annos  post  praeturam,  i.  e.  seven  years  long.  There  is  also 
a  difference  between  the  question  how  long  before  or  after,  and  the 
similar  one,  When  before  or  after  something  else, — where  the  ablative 
is  used,  and  the  particular  point  of  time  is  marked  by  an  ordinal ;  e.  g. 
On  the  fifth  month  (quinto  mense)  after  the  death  of  her  husband, 
she  married  another. 


78.  (6)  When  before  the  present  time  ?  The  present  time 
is  expressed  by  abhinc ,  and  the  other  time  mentioned  is  usu¬ 
ally  put  in  the  accusative,  seldom  in  the  ablative;  e.  g.  My 
father  died  twenty  years  ago  (before  this  time),  abhinc 
viginti  annis  or  annos  mortuus  est,  for  ante  viginti 
annos,  which  is  equally  good. 

(7)  Since  when,  since  what  time  ?  Here  the  preposition 
ex  is  used ;  e.  g.  Since  that  time,  e  x  illo  tempore,  also  e  x 
illo  merely ;  since  or  since  the  time  that ,  ex  quo;  also 
eputim,  when  a  period  of  time  has  been  mentioned  before; 
e.  g.  since  the  first  Punic  war  broke  out,  ex  q  u  o  primum 
bellum  Punicum  exarsit;  it  is  four  years,  that  I  have  not 
seen  you,  or  since  I  have  seen  you,  q  u  u  m  t  e  non  vidi,  not 
quod  te  non  vidi,  which  is  found  only  after  the  classic  pe¬ 
riod.  The  similar  relation,  from  what  time,  is  usually  ex¬ 
pressed  by  a;  e.  g.  He  was  drunk  from  the  third  hour,  ab 
hora  tertia ;  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fourteenth,  a  b  undecimo 
die  (usque)  ad  quartum  decimum. 

(8)  About  what  time?  Here  ad,  sub  and  fere  are  used; 
e.  g.  Towards  or  about  day-break,  a  d  primum  auroram ; 
towards  (about)  evening,  sub  (ad)  vesperum;  towards, 
about  the  ninth  hour,  hora  fere  nona. 

(9)  Till  when?  to  what  time?  ox  for  what  time?  Here 
in  with  the  accusative  is  used ;  e.  g.  I  defer  this  matter  till 
to-morrow ,  in  crastinum  diem  eam  rem  differo ;  the 


USE  OF  CASES  TO  DENOTE  TIME. 


59 


§78.] 

auction  is  fixed  for  the  month  of  January ,  in  mensem  Janu¬ 
arium. 


Examples  on  §  75 — 78. 

(1)  In  the  second  Messenian1  war,  Aristomenes  was  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Messenians.  The  planet  of  Saturn  com¬ 
pletes2  its  course3  in  about4  thirty*  years,  but  the  moon  her 
course3  around  the  earth,  in  twenty-eight**  days.  In  the 
seventieth  year  before  the  birth  of  Christ5,  October  fif¬ 
teenth,***  Virgil  was  born,  and  he  died  in  the  nineteenth 
year,  Septemberf  twenty-second.  It  is  proper6  to  pluck  out7 
the  feathers8  of  the  goose  twice  a  year,  in  the  spring  and 
autumn.  The  gosling9  is  fed10  the  first  ten  days  in  the 
stable11.  Pompey  made  preparations12  for  this  war,  at  the 
close  of  the  winter13,  he  entered  upon14  it,  at  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  spring15,  and  ended16  it,  in  the  middle17  of  summer. 
A  hundred  and  six  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  Jugurtha 
was  taken  captive18  by19  Sulla.  The  very20  same21  day  on 
which  he  was  taken  prisoner,  Crassus  was  put  to  death  by 
Surena.  The  eclipses22  of  the  sun  can  be  foretold23  for  a 
thousand  years.  C.  Flaminius  first  proposed24  an  agrarian 
law25,  some  years  before  the  second  Punic  war.  It  pleased26 
Sulpicius  Gallus  to  predict  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon 
to  the  Romans  long  before.  At  length27  the  Macedonians 
with  the  Persians  came  at  the  same  time,  about  day-break28, 
into  a  valley  surrounded29  by  a  thick30  fog.  Animals  are 
born,  which  live  one  day;  among31  these,  that  which  died 
about  the  eighth  hour32,  died  in  advanced33  age.  Cicero 
travelled  from  Tarsus  on  the  fifth  of  January34.  On  the 
thirteenth  of  February35  he  held  court36  at  the  forum  of  Lao¬ 
dicea.  Thence37  he  returned  to  Cilicia,  where  he  remained38 
the  whole  month. 

1  Messenius.  2confic6re.  3  circuitus.  4  circiter.  *  triceni.  **duode- 
triceni.  5  Christus  natus  (birth  of  Christ).  ***  Idus  Octobres,  t  de¬ 
cimus  Calendas  Octobres,  22d  Sep.  6 licet  (it  is  proper).  7 evellere. 
8pluma.  9 anser  pullus  (gosling).  10pascere.  11  stabulum.  12apparare 
aliquid  (to  make  preparations  for  something).  13 exiens  hiems  (close 
of  winter).  14  suscipere  (to  enter  upon).  15  iniens  ver  (commence¬ 
ment  of  spring).  16 conficere.  17 medius.  18 capere  (to  take  captive). 
19  per.  20  ipse  (comp  §  126).  21  idem.  22  defectio  solis.  23  praedicere. 
24  ferre.  25 lex  agraria — aliquot  (some).  29 delectare.  27  aliquando. 
28  lux.  29  circumfusus.  30  densus.  31  ex.  32  hora.  33  provectus.  34  Nonae 
Januariae  (fifth  of  January).  35 Idus  Februariae  (the  thirteenth  of 
February).  36  agere  (to  hold  court).  37inde.  38  commorari. 


60  USE  OF  CASES  TO  DENOTE  TIME.  [§  78. 

(2)  I  will  deliberate1  fully2  with  you  concerning  this  thing, 
on  the  next3  day.  The  emperor  Tiberius  enjoyed  excellent 
health4,  during  almost  the  whole  time  of  his  government5. 
In  the  times  of  Pompey6  and  Cicero,  pirates  wandered7  over 
the  whole  sea.  Antony8  was  Cicero’s  school-fellow9  in  boy¬ 
hood10,  his  intimate  friend11  in  youth*,  and  his  colleague  in 
the  quaestorship.  Socrates,  a  few  days  before  his  death, 
could  have  fled12  from  prison.  The  command13  against  the 
Gauls  was  intrusted14  to  Julius  Caesar  for  many  years. 
Yesterday  evening,  the  seventh15  of  March,  I  received  your 
letter,  which  was  written  the  first  of  February16.  Julius 
Caesar  received  joyful  intelligence  at  mid-night;  therefore, 
on  the  following  day,  he  broke  up17  his  camp  at  day-break18, 
and  arrived  at  noon19,  at  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  After20 
Caesar  had  routed21  the  Treveri,  he  received  intelligence, 
after  some  days,  that22  the  Suevi  had  collected23  all  their 
forces24.  The  very  thing25  which  you  write  to  me,  I  had 
written  to  Cassius  four  days  before.  Ask26  him  why  he  left27 
the  city  so  long  after,  rather28  than  immediately29.  Not  very 
long  after  Horace,  his  patron30  and  friend  Maecenas  died. 
From  the  first31  of  January  to32  this  hour,  I  have  not  heard 
anything  of  you.  Caesar  sent  auxiliaries33  to  the  townsmen34, 
about  midnight35.  Charles  the  Great  subdued36  almost  all 
Germany,  but  after  twenty  years,  his  son  Lewis37  lost38  it 
again39.  A  monk40  predicted41  this  to  Charles  when  dying; 
Thy  son,  said42  he,  after  twenty  years,  will  lose  everything 
which  you  have  conquered43.  Appius  Claudius  died  a  year 
before  the  censorship  of  Cato,  and  nine  years  after  his  con¬ 
sulship.  Pythius  invited44  the  knight45  Canius  to  supper46,  on 
the  following47  day.  On  the  seventh  day,  in  the  night,  I 
came  home,  where  I  remained48  twenty  days. 

1  agere.  2  accurate.  3  proximus.  4  valere  optime  (to  enjoy  excellent 
health).  5imperium.  6  Pompeius.  7  vagari.  8  Antonius.  Condiscipu¬ 
lus.  J0pueritia.  11  familiaris  (intimate  friend).  *  adolescens.  12effugere. 
13imperium.  14 committere.  15Nonae  Martiae  (seventh  of  JV1  arch). 
16  Calendae  Februariae  (first  of  Feb.).  17  movere.  18  lux  prima.  19  tem¬ 
pus  meridianum.  20  postquam  (with  perfect  indic.).  21  fundere.  22  (ae¬ 
cus,  with  the  infin.).  23  contrahere.  24  copiae.  25  id  ipsum.  26  quaerere 
ex  aliquo  (to  ask  anyone).  27 relinquere  (comp.  §  48).  28 potius, 

^continuo.  30fautor.  31  Calendae.  32 usque  ad.  33 auxilia.  34oppidanus. 
35 media  nox.  36  subigere.  37LudovIcus.  38 amittere,  ^rursus.  40 mo¬ 
nachus.  41  praedicere.  42  inquit.  43  occupare.  44  invitare.  45  eques. 
46coena.  47  posterus.  48  commorari. 


§79.] 


ADJECTIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES. 


61 


ADJECTIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

79.  The  simpler  and  more  general  use  of  these  has  al¬ 
ready  been  treated  in  the  first  Part.  Other  remarks  will  now 
be  made  on  their  more  difficult  features. 

(1)  Sentences  containing  the  pronouns  who,  which,  or  & 
conjunction,  e.  g.  when ,  while ,  after,  as,  and  a  verb  belong¬ 
ing  to  these,  can  be  abridged  by  means  of  adjectives  and  par¬ 
ticiples.  As  in  English,  instead  of,  The  teachers  esteem  a 
scholar  who  is  attentive,  we  can  say,  an  attentive  scholar ;  or 
instead  of,  1  fear  the  storm  which  approaches,  the  approach¬ 
ing  storm; — instead  of,  Scipio  consecrated  the  temple  after  it 
had  been  built, — Scipio  consecrated  the  temple  built;  so  in 
Latin.  By  this  abridgement,  the  adjectives  and  participles 
become  qualifying  words,  and  agree  with  their  substantive  in 
gender,  number  and  case.  Hence  the  foregoing  examples 
can  be  translated,  Magistri  discipulum  attentum  (for 
qui  attentus  est)  aestimant;  timeo  tempestatem  im¬ 
pendentem  (for  quae  impendet);  Scipio  aedem 
exstructam  (for  quum  exstructa  esset)  conse¬ 
cravit. 

In  the  same  manner  also,  similar  sentences,  which  contain  a  sub¬ 
stantive,  are  abridged,  since  they  are  the  same  as  a  case  of  apposi¬ 
tion;  e.  g.  This  opinion  was  maintained  by  Torquatus  who  was  a 
learned  man,  a.  Torquato  homine  erudito,  for  qui  homo 
eruditus  erat. 

Examples. 

This  never  pleases  some1  who  are  not  very2  unlearned. 
Many  censure3  our  labor4,  which  is  by  no  means5  unpleasant 
to  us.  Who  does  not  willingly6  read  books  which  are  good 
and  useful  ?  Who  willingly  undertakes7  any8  exercise  of  the 
body,  which  is  laborious?  There  are  others  who,  much9 
unlike10  those,  are  simple-hearted11  and  ingenuous12.  The 
remembrance13  of  a  life  which  has  been  well  spent14,  affords15 
great  consolation16.  The  Romans  fled  for  succor17  to  any 
one18  who  was  distinguished19  for  his  virtue.  The  fear20  of 
an  affliction  which  threatens21,  torments22  us.  The  condi- 

6 


62 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§  80. 

tion23  of  men  when  dead24,  is  different25.  The  remembrance 
of  calamities26  which  are  past27,  is  pleasant.  We  rejoice  on 
account  of28  calamities  which  are  past.  You  name  to  me 
two  Romans,  who  are  not  only29  the  most  just30,  but  also31 
the  most  learned32  men.  We  see  the  changes33  of  the  moon, 
which  not  only34  increases35  but  also  decreases36.  We  ad¬ 
mire37  the  sun,  not  only  when  it  rises38  but  when  it  sets39. 
The  multitude  of  stars  which  do  not  wander40  in  the  heaven, 
is  very  great41.  The  Romans  went  against42  the  enemy, 
who  were  going43  to  Rome,  and  met  them  as  they  were  de¬ 
scending44  into  the  Alban45  vale.  T ullus  Hostilius  received46 
the  Albans  into  the  city,  after  they  had  been  conquered47. 
A  pleasing  message48  was  brought49  to  Cincinnatus,  when 
he  was  plowing. 

Quidam.  2admodum.  3 reprehendere.  4labor.  5mimme  (by  no 
means).  6libenter.  7suscipere.  8ullus.  9multum.  10dispar.  11  sim¬ 
plex  (simple-hearted).  12  apertus.  13  memoria.  14  actus.  15  praebere. 
16solatium.  17 confugere  (to  flee  for  succor).  18 unus  aliquis,  ^praes¬ 
tare.  20  timor.  21  impendere.  22  torquere.  23  status.  24  mori.  25  diversus. 
26labor.  27  praeteritus.  28  de  (on  account  of).  29  partim  (not  only). 
30bonus.  31  partim  (but  also).  32 eruditus.  33  varietas.  34  tum  (not only). 
35 crescere.  36senescere.  37 admirari.  38  oriri.  39 occidere.  40inerrans. 
41  maximus.  42 obviam  ire.  43 petere.  44 descendere.  45 Albanus,  ^ac¬ 
cipere.  47  vincere.  48  nuntius.  49 afferre. 

80.  (2)  Many  English  substantives  governed  by  a  preposi¬ 
tion,  may  be  translated  into  Latin  by  adjectives  or  participles, 
which  then  agree  as  adjectives  with  the  substantives  to  which 
they  refer.  Such  are,  against  one's  will ,  invitus ;  in  one's 
life ,  in  one's  lifetime,  vivus ;  contrary  to  expectation,  impru¬ 
dens,  necopinans,  inopinans;  with  knowledge,  sciens;  with¬ 
out  knowledge,  ignarus,  inscius,  insciens  ;  in  the  presence  of, 
praesens ;  in  the  absence  of,  absens ;  after  death,  mortuus, 
etc. 

In  English  we  often  unite  with  these  words  the  pronouns, 
my,  thy ,  his,  etc.,  but  in  Latin  these  are  omitted  ;  e.  g.  My 
brother  gave  this  to  me  against  my  will,  frater  mihi  invito; 
my  brother  gave  this  to  us  against  our  will,  frater  nobis 
invitis;  divine  honor  was  paid  to  Augustus  during  his  life 
and  after  his  death,  Augusto  vivo  et  mortuo  divinus 
honor  contigit. 


$81.] 


ADJECTIVES. 


63 


Examples. 

Great  honor  is  but  seldom1  paid2  to  great  men  during  their 
life.  We  have  erected3  a  statue4  to  that  emperor  against  our 
wishes.  The  Indian  sages  burn5  themselves  often  during 
their  life.  Cicero  surprised6  me,  contrary  to  my  expectation. 
In  war,  many  things  often  happen7  to  the  commanders,  con¬ 
trary  to  their  expectation.  Thou  hast  defended8  me,  with¬ 
out  my  knowledge.  The  Greeks  conveyed9  Achilles  to 
Troy,  contrary  to  his  wish.  Wicked  men  persecute10  their 
enemies11,  not  only  during  their  life  but  also  after  their 
death.  Nothing  will  be  more  pleasant  to  me  in  my  lifetime, 
than  thy  friendship.  I  have  written  two  letters  to  you  in 
your  absence.  Why  do  you  compel12  your  daughter  to  mar¬ 
ry13  against  her  wish  1 

1  raro.  2  contingere.  3  ponere.  4  statua.  5  cremare.  0  occupare.  7  ac¬ 
cidere.  8  defendere.  9  deducere.  10  persequi.  11  inimicus.  12  cogere. 
13  nubere. 

(3)  The  Latins  commonly  employ  adjectives  of  countries , 
islands,  cities  and  villages,  where  the  English  uses  both  the 
name  of  the  place  with  the  prepositions  of  or  from,  and  the 
adjective.  As  adjectives,  they  must  agree  with  the  sub¬ 
stantive  to  which  they  belong ;  e.  g.  Diodorus  of  Sicily,  Dio¬ 
dorus  Siculus;  Cicero  of  Arpinum,  Cicero  Arpinas; 
Virgil  of  Andes,  Virgilius  Andinus. 


Examples. 

(The  adjectives  not  given  below  may  be  found  in  the  Lexicon.) 

Miltiades  of  Athens  (or  the  Athenian).  Pausanias  of  La- 
cedemon  (or  the  Lacedemonian).  Pelopidas  and  Epami¬ 
nondas  of  Thebes1  (or  Thebans).  Timoleon  of  Corinth. 
Dion  of  Syracuse.  Hannibal  of  Carthage  (or  the  Cartha¬ 
ginian).  Zenodotus  of  Ephesus.  Heraclides  of  Pontus2. 
Aristophanes  of  Byzantium.  Livy  of  Patavium  (Padua). 
Theophrastus  of  Eresus3.  Aristotle  of  Stagira4.  Democri¬ 
tus  of  Abdera5.  Antipater  of  Tyre.  Ovid  of  Sulmo.  Ho¬ 
race  of  Venusia.  Catullus  of  Verona. 

Thebanus.  2  Ponticus.  3Eresius.  4  Stagirites.  5  Abderites. 

81.  (4)  When  two  or  more  adjectives  belong  to  a  sub- 


64 


ADJECTIVES, 


[§  81. 


stantive  and  denote  really  distinct  qualities,  they  are  con¬ 
nected  almost  wholly  by  et,  ac  or  atquc ;  e.  g.  A  long  and 
excellent  oration ,  oratio  longa  e  t  praeclara ;  a  great  and  wise 
man ,  vir  magnus  ac  sapiens.  So,  magnifica  et  praeclara 
defensio;  dubia  formidolosa  que  tempora;  nobilis  homo  et 
honestus.  But  when  adjective  pronouns,  e.  g.  hic ,  ille,  meus ; 
definite  and  indefinite  numerals,  e.  g.  multi,  plures,  duo;  ad¬ 
jectives  denoting  material,  e.  g.  aureus ;  time,  e.  g.  hodier¬ 
nus;  place,  e.  g.  Alexandrinus ;  or  a  person  (where  it  stands 
for  the  genitive),  e.  g.  civilis, — are  joined  with  adjectives  of 
quality,  or  when  an  adjective  with  its  substantive  expresses 
but  a  single  idea,  then  they  have  no  connecting  word ;  e.  g. 
Magna  mea  officia ;  multi  cives  Romani;  multa  parva  poe¬ 
mata;  vasa  argentea  nobilia;  tristis  hodiernus  dies;  clarus 
ille  portus  Alexandrinus;  novum  bellum  civile;  magna  mea 
vetera  officia ;  externi  multi  clari  viri.  Yet  the  adjective  that 
stands  in  connection  with  multi,  ae,  a  (many),  is  usually 
joined  to  it  by  et,  ac  or  atque,  in  order  that  the  specification 
of  the  number  may  be  expressed  emphatically,  by  itself ;  e.  g. 
tulit  ilia  insula  multos  et  crudeles  tyrannos,  not  only  many, 
hut  also  cruel.  Three  or  more  qualifying  words  are  all  con¬ 
nected  with  the  first  by  et,  ac,  atque ;  e.  g.  fortes  et  magni 
e  t  clari  homines.  Orators,  howrever,  in  animated  discourse 
allow  even  many  adjectives  to  follow  one  another,  without  a 
connective;  e.  g.  Jupiter  nos  justos,  temperatos,  sapientes 
non  efficit. — But  the  Latin  always  says  only,  Jupiter  optimus, 
maximus,  without  a  connective. 

Examples. 

The  whole  Campanian1  district2.  A  good  domestic  edu¬ 
cation.  The  other3  splendid4  buildings5.  A  brave  and  pa¬ 
triotic6  army.  The  frightful7,  insolent8  tribune  of  the  peo¬ 
ple9.  No  foreign10,  cruel11  enemy.  The  poor12,  barren13 
soil14.  A  good  and  popular15  law.  An  unadorned16,  rough17 
body.  The  little  Esquiline18  gate19.  There  are  many  ridicu¬ 
lous  fables  of  the  ancient20  gods.  Dionysius  carried21  away 
the  great  silver22  tables  from23  all  the  temples. 


ADJECTIVES. 


65 


§82.] 

1  Campanus.  2  ager.  3  ceterus.  4  magnificus.  5  aedificium.  6  patriae 
amans.  7  terribilis.  8  trux.  9  tribunus  plebis.  10  externus.  11  crudelis. 
12exllis.  13  macer.  14  solum.  15  popularis.  16  incultus.  17  horridus. 
18  Esquilmus.  19  porta.  20  veteres.  21  auferre.  22  argenteus.  23  de. 

82.  (5)  In  English,  as  before  remarked,  adjectives  are  not 
declined,  and  nothing  but  the  connection  can  determine 
whether  they  agree  with  this  or  that  substantive.  Hence,  in 
some  sentences  of  the  same  apparent  import,  the  meaning 
may  be  very  different.  This  is  frequently  the  case,  where 
the  words  first,  last ,  alone  and  the  like  occur.  Particular 
care  is  therefore  necessary  in  rightly  constructing  the  corres¬ 
ponding  Latin  words,  primus ,  prior ,  ultimus,  postremus,  ex¬ 
tremus,  solus,  unus,  totus ;  e.  g.  I  read  this  hook  first,  ego 
hunc  librum  primus  legi,  or  ego  hunc  librum  primum 
legi, — p  r  i  m  u  s,  \{ first  refers  to  I,  and  the  meaning  is,  I  was 
the  first  who  read  the  hook ;  primum,  if first  refers  to  book, 
and  the  meaning  is,  this  hook  was  the  first  which  I  read.  He 
said  this  to  me  first,  ille  m  i  h  i  primo  hoc  dixit,  ille  mihi 
hoc  primum  dixit,  or  mihi  i  1 1  e  primus  dixit,  accord¬ 
ing  as  the  word  first  relates  to  me,  to  this  or  to  he.  What 
writers  did  you  read  first  ?  quos  scriptores  primos  le¬ 
gisti  ?  Tell  it  to  me  alone  and  to  no  one  else,  die  mihi  soli. 
Did  he  alone  meet  you,  or  was  some  one  with  him  ?  solusne 
i  1 1  e  tibi  obviam  venit  1  Did  he  meet  you  alone,  or  was  some 
one  with  you,  tibine  soli  ille  occurrit  1  Twelve  vultures 
appeared  to  Remus  first,  Remo  priori. 

The  nominative  of  such  words  therefore  refers  to  the  sub¬ 
ject,  other  cases  to  a  subordinate  case  of  the  sentence.  So¬ 
lum  and  primum  are  also  used  as  adverbs,  when  they  refer  to 
the  verb  of  the  sentence  or  make  an  object  prominent,  only 
adverbially;  e.  g.  I  not  only  (solum)  retain  my  estate ,  hut 
also  increase  ii ;  wisdom  makes  only  happy,  solum  beatos, 
i.  e.  not  rich,  not  illustrious,  etc.  And  so  after  stands  in 
contrast  with  the  adverb  first. 

6* 


66 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§  83. 


Examples. 

The  pirates1  attacked2  every3  ship  in  the  rear4  first.  Aescu¬ 
lapius,  as5  it  is  said,  first  dressed6  a  wound7.  Manlius  Capi¬ 
tolinus  alone  had  then8  preserved9  the  Capitol.  Ceres  first 
gave10  laws  in  Attica  and  Sicily.  The  Thessalians11  first 
fought12  on13  horses,  and  the  nation  of  the  Phrygians14  first 
joined15  a  span16.  The  Stoics  alone,  and  the  first  among17  all 
philosophers,  asserted18  this.  I  have  often  said  this  to  you 
alone,  when  no  one  was  present19.  The  ancient  Germans 
communicated20  the  rumors  heard  to  the  magistrate21  alone. 
I  wish  to  read22  the  letter  of  my  brother  to  you  alone.  Thou 
alone  hast  betrayed23  my  secret24  to  my  brother.  Give  to  me 
this  letter  only,  the  others  I  do  not  wish25  to  read.  Furius 
weakened26  the  authority  of  the  aged27  Camillus  by  his  youth¬ 
ful28  age,  the  only  means  by  which29  he  vras  able.  The  Ae- 
tolians  were  forsaken30  by  the  Romans,  in31  whom  alone  they 
trusted32.  Among*  the  Grecian  states,  the  commander33  en¬ 
tered34  Corcyra  first.  This  did  not  happen35  to  you  alone. 
Bibulus  attributes36  this  to  himself  alone.  The  wise  man 
does  not  provide37  for  his  body  alone,  but  much38  more39  for 
the  mind40  and  soul41.  Only  those  indued42  with  virtue,  are 
rich. 

pirata.  2  adoriri.  3  quisque  (see  §  58).  4  postremus  (in  the  rear.) 

6  ut.  6  obligare.  7  vulnus.  8  tum.  9  servare.  10  ferre.  11  Thessalus. 
12  pugnare.  13  ex.  14  Phryx.  15  jungere.  16  bigae.  17  ex.  18  discere. 
19  nemine  praesente  (when  no  one  was  present).  20  communicare  cum 
aliquo  (to  communicate  to  any  one).  21  magistratus.  22  legere.  23  pro¬ 
dere.  24  res  secreta.  25  nolle  (not  to  wish).  26  levare.  27  senex.  28  juve¬ 
nilis.  29  qua  (means  by  which).  30  deserere.  31  (dative).  32  fidere. 

*  (genitive).  33  praefectus.  34  adire.  35  contingere.  36  attribuere.  37  pro¬ 
videre  (with  dative).  38  multo.  39  magis.  40  mens.  41  animus.  42  prae¬ 
ditus. 

83.  (6)  English  adverbs  are  sometimes  expressed  in  Latin 
by  adjectives,  when  they  qualify  not  merely  the  verb  in  a 
sentence,  but  also  the  subject,  of  which  the  verb  affirms 
something.  Otherwise  the  adverb  must  be  used ;  yet  even 
in  the  first  case,  the  adverb  might  be  retained  in  the  Latin. 

The  following  examples  will  illustrate  both ;  This  wheel 
runs  swiftly,  haec  rota  cita  or  cito  currit;  but  this  schol¬ 
ar  paints  beautifully ,  hic  discipulus  pulchre  (not  pul¬ 
cher)  pingit;  (for  if  a  wheel  runs  swiftly,  it  is  itself,  at  the 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS. 


6? 


§84.] 

same  time,  swift ;  but  if  a  scholar  paints  beautifully,  he  is 
not  therefore,  at  the  same  time,  beautiful  himself) ;  increase 
thy  estate  actively ,  strenuus  or  strenue  auge  rem  tuam 
familiarem;  you  have  expressed  your  opinion  clearly  and  per- 
spicuously ,  dilucide  et  perspicue;  I  live  happily ,  b  e- 
atus  or  beate;  I  do  this  willingly,  libens  or  liben¬ 
ter;  he  sits  very  near ,  proximus  or  proxime. 

Examples. 

Old  men1  walk2  slowly3.  The  woman  spoke4  fearlessly5. 
Aristotle  has  expressed6  this  thought7  very  happily8.  I  can 
by  no  means9  pass10  this  over  silently11.  This  is  silently 
granted12.  Since13  it  is  not  lawful14  for  them  to  speak 
freely15,  they  ask16  this  of  you  silently.  I  live  most  unhappi¬ 
ly17.  When  Epaminondas  had  heard  this,  he  died  joyfully18, 
and  breathed  out19  his  life20  fearlessly21. 

1  senex.  2  incedere.  3  tardus.  4  loqui.  5  non  timidus.  6  exprimere. 
7  sententia.  8  egregius.  9  nullo  modo  (by  no  means).  10  praeterire. 
11  tacitus.  12  concedere.  13  quoniam.  14  licere  (to  be  lawful).  15  liber. 
16  rogare.  17  miserrimus.  18  laetus.  19  efflare.  20  anima.  21  animosus. 

84.  (7)  In  English,  we  often  use  substantives  governed  by 
prepositions  to  denote  time  or  place,  e.  g.  in  the  beginning, 
in  the  middle,  where  the  same  may  be  expressed  in  Latin  by 
adjectives ;  e.  g.  In  the  beginning  or  first  part,  primus; 
in  the  middle,  medius;  at  the  end  or  last  part,  extre¬ 
mus,  ultimus;  on  the  summit ,  on  the  surface,  summus; 
in  the  inner  part,  intimus,  etc.  As  adjectives,  they  must 
agree  with  their  substantives ;  e.  g.  I  dwell  in  the  first 
part  of  the  city,  habito  in  prima  urbe ;  in  the  middle  of 
the  city,  in  media  urbe ;  in  the  extreme  or  most  remote  part 
of  the  city,  in  extrema  (ultima,  summa)  urbe;  on  the  top 
of  the  tree,  in  summa  arbore ;  I  touch  the  surface  of  the 
water,  tango  summam  aquam;  the  enemy  advanced  into 
the  middle  of  the  city,  in  mediam  urbem.  Hence,  auri¬ 
cula  infima,  the  ear-lap. 

Examples. 

At1  the  end  of  the  letter,  the  farewell2  is  omitted3.  In  the 


68 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§85. 

beginning  of  spring,  the  swallows4  and  the  storks5  appear 
first.  Decius  Mus  rushed6  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy. 
When  I  am  pushed7  in  the  middle  of  the  way8,  I  cannot  ac¬ 
cuse9  one  who  is  at  the  end10  of  the  way.  Many  worms11  do 
not  die,  when  they  are  cut12  in  two  in  the  middle.  The  an¬ 
cient  astronomers  placed13  the  earth  in  the  middle  of  the 
world.  Pompey  made  preparations14  for  this  war  at  the  end 
of  winter,  entered  upon15  it  in  the  beginning  of  spring,  and 
terminated16  it  in  the  middle  of  summer.  Anapis  and  Am¬ 
phinomus  carried17  their  father  through  the  midst  of  the 
flames  of  .'Etna.  In  the  inner  part  of  the  sanctuary18  was  an 
image19  of  Ceres. 

1  in.  2  vale.  3 deesse.  4  hirundo.  5  ciconia.  6  immittere.  7  impellere. 
8  via.  9  accusare.  10  summus.  11  vermis.  12  dissecare  (to  cut  in  two). 
13  ponere  (with  in  and  the  ablat.).  14  apparare  (to  make  prep.  for). 
15  suscipere  (to  enter  upon).  16  conficere.  17  gestare.  18  sacrarium. 
19  signum. 

85.  Comp  ar  ativ  e. 

The  force  of  the  Latin  comparative  may  be  expressed  in 
English  in  the  following  ways:  (1)  Somewhat,  very ,  pretty , 
a  little;  e.  g.  The  place  is  somewhat,  a  little  dark ,  locus  est 
obscurior.  (2)  Too,  too  much,  —  in  which  case  the  com¬ 
parative  is  usually  followed  by  quam  ut ;  e.  g.  The  times  are 
too  oppressive  for  us  to  rejoice,  tempora  graviora,  quam 
ut  gaudere  possimus.  (3)  So  —  as;  e.  g.  Nothing  is  so 
easy,  as  this,  nihil  est  facilius,  quam  hoc.  (4)  More  — 
than ;  e.  g.  This  man  is  more  fortunate,  than  prudent ,  hie 
homo  felicior  est,  quam  prudentior.  (5)  Not  so  —  as, 
where  in  both  members  of  the  English  sentence  the  positive 
is  used,  but  in  Latin  the  comparative,  yet  both  of  the  Latin 
comparatives  are  transposed,  and  the  word  not  is  omitted ; 
e.  g.  This  advice  was  not  so  pleasing  to  Alexander,  as  usef  ul, 
hoc  consilium  Alexandro  erat  utilius,  quam  carius. 
(6)  Less  —  than,  where  there  is  a  similar  transposition  of 
the  comparative ;  e.  g.  This  hook  is  less  entertaining ,  than 
prof  table  for  study,  salubrior  studiis,  quam  dulcior. 
But  it  is- to  be  observed  in  all  these  six  instances,  that  they 
can  be  translated  in  the  usual  way  by  positives. 


COMPARATIVE  DEGREE. 


69 


§§  86,  87.] 

86.  The  two  phrases,  as,  as  much,  and  as  little,  just  as 
little,  may  also  be  expressed  by  comparative  adverbs. 

As,  as  much,  may  be  translated  by  non  minus,  nihilo 
minus ;  e.  g.  Alcibiades  is  as  much  distinguished  by  his  vir¬ 
tues,  as  his  vices,  Alcibiades  non  minus  virtutibus,  quam 
vitiis. 

The  phrases,  as  little,  just  as  little,  may  be  expressed  by 
non  magis,  nihilo  magis,  or  non  plus,  nihilo  plus ;  e.  g.  That 
will  happen  as  little  to-day,  as  yesterday,  hodie  non  ma¬ 
gis,  quam  heri.  For  the  difference  between  magis  and 
plus,  see  under  §  547. 

87.  (1)  When  but  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of, 
the  comparative  is  used  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  although 
the  English  superlative  is  sometimes  used  here.  We  say  in 
regard  to  two  sons  of  a  father,  that  is  the  elder,  and  this  the 
younger.  So  the  Latin,  ille  est  natu  major,  hie  minor. 
He  spends  the  greater  part  of  the  year  in  the  country ,  the 
rest  in  the  city ,  majorem  anni  partem.  Hence  the  com¬ 
parative  is  also  used,  at  least  more  generally,  when  one  ta¬ 
citly  divides  a  great  whole,  containing  many  things,  into  two 
parts,  And  treats  of  one  of  them ;  e.  g.  Let  us  touch  upon  the 
more  important  only ,  potior  a  tantum  attingamus.  When 
a  discourse  has  two  parts,  then  the  first  part  is  prior  pars, 
and  the  second  and  last  —  posterior  pars,  and  when  the 
first  of  two  persons  answers,  he  answers  prior;  the  first 
six  of  twelve  books,  is  sex  priores,  of  more  than  twelve, 
sex  primi.  The  question  which,  is  here  asked  by  uter, 
utra,  utrum,  not  by  quis,  quae,  quid;  e.  g.  Which  (of  two) 
is  the  younger,  uter  est  minor? 

(2)  An  affirmative  superlative  can  also  be  well  expressed 
by  the  periphrastic  negative  nihil  est  with  the  comparative, 
followed  by  quam  with  the  nominative,  or,  instead  of  quam 
with  the  nominative,  the  ablative  alone  is  still  more  frequent¬ 
ly  used ;  e.  g.  The  world  is  the  most  magnificent  thing,  n  i- 
hil  est  praestantius,  quam  mundus,  or  nihil  est 


70 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§  88. 


mundo  praest  antius;  this  is  the  greatest  kingdom,  n i- 
hil  est  majus,  quam  hoc  regnum,  or  nihil  est  hoc  reg¬ 
no  m  aj  u  s,  or  quo  regno  nihil  est  majus. 

In  phrases  of  this  kind,  nihil  very  often  occurs  with  per - 
sojis,  for  nemo ;  e.  g.  No  one  was  more  cruel  than  Nero,  n  i- 
hil  fuit  crudelius,  quam  Nero,  or  nihil  fuit  Nerone 
crudelius.  The  idea  is  expressed  still  more  vividly  by 
the  interrogatives  quis  est,  quid  est,  with  the  comparative : 
duis  (quid)  fuit  crudelior  (crudelius)  Nerone? 


Examples. 

Nothing  is  so  desirable1  as  a  sound2  mind3.  Ulysses  was 
more  cunning4  than  brave.  The  winter  of  the  past5  year 
was  very  severe6.  This  wine  is  too  sour7  to  be  drunk.  (Lat. 
quam  ut  id  bibi  possit).  Old  age8  is  somewhat  reserved9  and 
morose10.  Aristides  was  not  so  timid  as  modest.  Themis¬ 
tocles  was  more  shrewd11  than  just.  Cicero’s  father  had  two 
sons, — the  elder12  is  the  renowned  orator.  The  poems13  of 
Catullus  are  too  licentious14.  These  houses  are  not  so  splen¬ 
did15  as  convenient16.  Between  Caesar  and  Pompey  a  civil17 
war  broke  out18 ;  the  cause19  of  the  one20  seemed21  the  better, 
that  of  the  other,  the  stronger22.  Jugurtha  feared23  his  broth¬ 
ers  just  as  little,  as  the  Senate  and  Roman  people.  Our  ac¬ 
quaintance24  is  most  intimate25.  Most26  of  the  exploits27  of 
Datames  are  very  obscure28*  Reason  is  the  best  thing,  (ac¬ 
cording  to  No.  2).  By  too  severe29  diseases  of  the  body,  the 
pleasure30  of  life  is  interrupted31.  No  one  is  more  dear32  to 
me  than  my  brother.  I  esteem33  Pompey  as  much  as  Caesar. 
Philosophy  is  affected34  just  as  little  by  threats35  as  by  entrea¬ 
ties.  I  have  received  from  you  two  letters ;  I  will  reply  to 
the  former  first. 


‘praestans.  *  sanus,  "mens,  ‘•versutus,  “praeteritus, 
acidus.  8  senectus.  9  tectus.  10  morosus.  11  callidus. 

3  carmen.  14  lascivus.  15  magnificus.  16  commodus.  17  civili 
lescere.  19  causa.  20  alter.  21  videri.  22  firmus.  23  timere.  24  fa 

5  pnninn(>tiis  (n  nnmrl  i  n  rr  lo  TVr»  QN  26  nlprinnp  27  TCS  gesta 

33  diliger 


13  carmen  _ _  _ s _  _ 

descere.  19  causa.  20  alter.  21  videri.  22  firmus.  2 
23  conjunctus  (according  to  No.  2).  26plerique. 
rus.  29  gravis,  "jucunditas.  31  impedire.  32  carus 
movere.  35  minae. 


ire 


88.  It  is  further  to  be  remarked,  that  three  different  abla¬ 
tives  can  be  connected  with  the  comparative.  The  one 
shows  in  what  respect  one  person  or  thing  excels  another, 


§  89.] 


ABLATIVE  WITH  THE  COMPARATIVE. 


71 


the  next  how  much  one  person  or  thing  excels  another,  and 
the  third  the  person  or  thing  that  another  excels ;  e.  g.  Man 
is  much  more  distinguished  in  boldness  than  woman ,  here  the 
words  in  boldness ,  much  and  than  woman,  are  expressed  by 
the  ablatives,  audacia,  multo,  muliere. 

In  reference  to  these  three  ablatives,  the  following  is  to  be 
observed : 

(1)  The  first  ablative  shows  wherein  ox  in  what  respect , 
one  person  or  thing  excels  another;  e.  g.  I  am  greater  in 
body,  corpore;  thou  art  more  distinguished  in  genius, 
ingenio. 

89.  (2)  The  second  ablative  shows  how  much  one  person 
or  thing  excels,  or  is  inferior  to  another,  in  any  respect ;  e.  g. 
Greater  by  half ,  dimidio  major;  smaller  by  two  feet, 
duobus  pedibus  minor;  three  years  older,  tribus 
a  n  n  is  major.  In  English  the  preposition  is  sometimes 
used,  sometimes  omitted ;  e.  g.  I  am  an  inch  larger,  or 
larger  by  an  inch,  u  n  o  digito  major  ;  a  day  younger,  or 
younger  by  a  day ,  uno  die  minor.  The  general  expres¬ 
sions  by  adjectives  and  pronouns  to  denote  measure  and  de¬ 
gree,  belong  here,  viz.  by  much,  much,  by  far,  multo;  by  a 
little,  little,  not  much,  parvo,  paulo ;  by  how  much,  how  much, 
how  far,  the,  quanto;  by  so  much,  so  much,  the,  tanto;  by 
which,  by  which  means,  the,  quo;  by  this,  so  much,  the,  eo  or 
hoc ;  by  a  considerable,  pretty  much,  considerable,  by  a  good 
deal,  aliquanto;  in  nothing,  in  no  respect,  nihilo,  etc.;  e.  g. 
The  closer  the  net  is,  so  much  (or  the )  better,  quo  (quan¬ 
to)  densius  est  rete,  eo  (tanto)  melius;  this  is  much  (by 
far)  more  useful  than  that ,  multo  utilius.  The  English 
even  and  still,  which  also  strengthen  the  comparative,  may 
be  expressed  by  etiam  or  multo;  e.  g.  This  pain  was  now 
still  more  troublesome  than  before,  nunc  etiam  moles¬ 
tior,  quam  antea.  In  sentences  of  general  import,  which 
do  not  speak  of  a  definite  subject  (this,  that,  this  disease, 
that  physician),  e.  g.  the  more  learned  any  one  is,  quo- 


72 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§  90. 


quis  or  quisque  is  seldom  used  classically  with  the  com¬ 
parative,  but  ut  quis  with  the  superlative.  Comp.  §  95,  2. 

90.  (3)  The  third  ablative  denotes  a  person  or  thing 
which  another  excels,  or  to  which  it  is  inferior.  This  abla¬ 
tive  consequently  expresses  the  object,  whether  a  person  or 
thing,  with  which  another  of  the  first  member  of  the  sen¬ 
tence  is  compared.  The  English  connects  the  two  objects 
compared,  by  the  particle  than.  The  Latin  expresses  this  by 
quam ;  but  according  to  Latin  usage,  qaam  can  also  be 
omitted,  in  some  instances,  and  instead  of  it,  the  declinable 
word  which  follows  it,  can  be  put  in  the  ablative;  e.  g.  The 
earth  is  smaller  than  the  sun ,  terra  est  minor,  quam  sol; 
or,  without  quam ,  terra  est  minor  sole;  and  with  the  usual 
transposition,  terra  est  sole  minor;  no  virtue  is  more  pleas¬ 
ing  than  liberality ,  nulla  virtus  liberalitate  est  jucun¬ 
dior,  for  quam  1  i  b  e  r  a  1  i  t  a  s. 

91.  But  this  change  to  the  ablative  without  quam ,  does  not 
always  take  place,  where  in  Latin  a  declinable  word  follows 
quam.  The  ablative  without  quam  can  be  used  only  in  the 
following  instances : 

(1)  When  the  nominative  follows  quam;  therefore  the 
subject  of  the  first  member  is  compared  with  another ;  e.  g. 
men  are  better  than  beasts,  meliores  quam  bestiae,  instead 
of  which,  meliores  bestiis,  or  bestiis  meliores ;  the  palms 
are  higher  than  other  trees,  altiores,  quam  aliae  arbores, 
instead  of  which,  altiores  aliis  arboribus,  aliis  ar¬ 
boribus  altiores. 

It  is  no  exception  to  this  rule,  if  such  a  sentence  is  pre¬ 
ceded  by  the  conjunction  that,  and  is  translated  into  Latin 
by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  by  which  construction 
both  the  English  nominatives  become  accusatives  in  Latin; 
e.  g.  It  is  certain,  that  men  are  better  than  beasts,  homines 
meliores  esse,  qu  a  m  bestias.  Here  also,  instead  of  quam 
bestias,  the  Latins  can  say  bestiis,  since  the  accusative 
takes  the  place  of  the  nominative. 


§§  92,  93.]  ABLATIVE  WITH  THE  COMPARATIVE.  73 

92.  (2)  When  an  accusative  follows  (quam)  than,  but 
which  in  English  can  be  explained  by  the  verb  to  be,  and  the 
nominative;  e.  g.  I  know  no  more  faithful  friend  than  this 
youth,  which  signifies,  than  this  youth  is,  quam  hunc  ju¬ 
vene  m, — instead  of  this,  hoc  juvene;  why  shall  I  consi¬ 
der  Herodotus  more  to  be  trusted  than  Ennius,  which  signi¬ 
fies,  than  Ennius  is,  quam  E  n  n  i  u  m,  or  instead  of  it,  E  n- 
n  i  o.  The  ablative  for  quam  with  the  accusative  of  the  ob¬ 
ject,  occurs  very  frequently  among  the  poets,  e.  g.  cur  olivum 
sanguine  viperino  cautius  vitat  1 — lior.  In  prose  this 
is  far  more  seldom,  but  yet  sufficiently  well  established,  e.  g. 
est  boni  consulis  suam  salutem  posteriorem  salute  com¬ 
muni  ducere. — Cicero. 

93.  On  the  contrary,  an  omission  of  quam,  and  a  variation 
of  the  case  (i.  e.  either  quam  and  the  nominative,  or  the  ab¬ 
lative  without  quam)  is  not  admissible  in  the  following  in¬ 
stances  : 

(1)  When  the  use  of  the  ablative,  instead  of  quam  with 
the  nominative,  might  occasion  ambiguity;  e.g.  Europa 
est  Asia  minor,  can  mean,  Europe  is  less  than  Asia,  and 
Asia  is  less  than  Europe. 

(2)  When  a  genitive,  a  dative,  an  accusative  (the  two 
cases  mentioned  under  §  91  and  92  excepted),  or  an  ablative, 
would  follow  quam,  then  quam  cannot  be  omitted;  and  still 
less,  can  it  be  omitted,  when  it  stands  before  an  indeclinable 
word.  Hence  in  the  following  phrases,  there  can  be  no  omis¬ 
sion  of  quam,  or  any  variety  in  the  construction  :  If  I  forget 
this  man  less  than  my  brother,  quam  fratris  mei,  or 
quam  fratrem  meum;  my  father  has  given  me  a  greater 
part  than  my  brother,  quam  fratri  meo;  my  father  has 
rewarded  me  more  amply  than  you,  quam  t  e ;  he  has  given 
me  more  than  I  was  expecting,  quam  expectabam;  the 
inhabitants  of  Delos  considered  A  polio  more  holy  than  any  of 
the  other  gods,  quam  quemquam  deorum. 

Cicero  and  others  do  not  always  use  the  ablative  when  it  could 

7 


74  ABLATIVE  WITH  THE  COMPAR 4TIVE.  [§  94. 

stand  according  to  the  rule,  but  they  often  introduce  quam  for  the 
purpose  of  speaking  more  definitely  and  distinctly.  Thus,  Cicero 
says,  Luna  autein,  quae  est  major,  quam  dimidia  pars  terrae, 
though  he  might  have  said,  dimidia  parte  terrae.  Catonem 
nostrum  non  tu  amas  plus,  quam  ego;  and  so  very  often. 

Quam  is  omitted  with  such  nouns  and  adjectives  as,  expectatione 
(opinione),  spe,  dir, to,  solito ,  justo ,  aequo  ;  e.  g.  Sooner  than  any  one 
supposed,  omnium  opinione  celerius  ;  less  than  usual,  sol  i  to  mi¬ 
nor;  too  long,  justo  (aequo)  longior.  So  the  Latins  often  speak. 

94.  Finally,  the  following  peculiar  usage  is  to  be  noticed. 
After  the  comparatives  plus,  amplius  and  minus  followed  by 
a  numeral,  quam  is  not  usually  expressed,  but  yet  the  nume¬ 
ral  with  its  substantive  suffers  no  change  of  case,  and  does  not 
pass  into  an  ablative;  e.  g.  This  field  cannot  support  more 
than  five  thousand  men ,  non  amplius  hominum  quinque 
millia;  not  more  than  two  hundred  horsemen  escaped ,  haud 
amplius  ducenti  equites;  with  not  more  than  ten  men , 
cum  haud  plus  decem  hominibus;  this  place  is  dis¬ 
tant  from  the  dtp  less  than  three  hundred  paces ,  minus  tre¬ 
centos  passus.  The  Latins  consider  plus  and  minus  as 
a  mere  addition,  therefore,  two  hundred  horsemen ,  not  more . 

Examples. 

(1)  The  more  cunning1  and  artful2  any  one3  is,  so  much 
the  more  hateful4  and  suspected5  is  he.  There  is  no  surer6 
bond7  of  friendship,  than  sympathy8  and  a  communion9  of 
counsels10  and  wishes11.  We  ought12  to  be  more  ready13  for 
our  own,  than  for  the  common14  dangers.  Nature  has  be¬ 
stowed15  upon  man  nothing  better  than  the  shortness  of  life. 
The  larger  every16  good  book  is,  the  better  it  is.  Nothing 
can  be  more  pleasant  and  dear  to  me,  than  thy  life.  In 
nothing17  can  we  more  easily  obtain18  the  favor  of  the  peo¬ 
ple19  than  by  civility20.  Although21  Hector  was  inferior22 
to  Achilles  in  courage23,  yet,  in  the  mildness  of  his  disposi¬ 
tion24,  he  was  more  distinguished25  than  he.  The  greater 
the  renown  which  we  obtain26,  the  more  shall  we  be  exposed27 
to  the  envy  of  others.  Doest  thou  believe28,  that29  anything 
is  better  for  man  than  friendship  ?  When  Mummius  had  de¬ 
stroyed30  Corinth,  he  was  in  no  respect  richer  than  before31. 
Wise  men  consider32  peace  better33  than  innumerable  tri¬ 
umphs.  Epammondas  held34  the  command35  four  months 


ADJECTIVES - SUPERLATIVE. 


75 


§95.] 

longer36  than  the  people  had  ordered.  Nature  has  given 
one37  more38  strength,  than  another.  There  are  animals 
which  do  not  live  more  than  a  year,  and  an  insect  which 
does  not  live  more  than  a  day.  The  Gymnasium  lies39  less 
than  three  hundred  paces40  from  the  city.  I  have  lived  with 
this  man  more  than  a  year.  The  life  of  Procles  was  a  year 
shorter,  than  that41  of  his  brother  Eurysthenes. 

'versutus.  2  callidus.  3  quis.  4  invisus.  5  suspectus.  6  certus. 
7 vinculum.  8 consensus.  9 societas.  10 consilium.  11  voluntas.  12 de¬ 
bere.  13  promptus.  14  communis.  15  praestare.  10  omnis.  17  nulla  re. 
1S  adi  pisci.  19  vulgus.  20  comitas.  2Ietsi.  22  parvus.  23fortitudo.  24mi- 
tis  animus  (mildness  of  disposition).  25  praestans.  26  adipisci.  27  prope. 
28  num  credis  (dost  thou  believe),  "(acc.  with  the  inf.).  30 delere. 
31  antea.  32ducere.  33  potior.  34  gerere.  35  imperium.  36  diu.  37  alter. 
38 plus  (with  the  genitive).  39 esse.  40 passus.  41  (comp.  §  125). 

(2)  Crassus  was  more  desirous  of  gold  than  of  renown. 
Anaxagoras  was  ignorant1,  that2  the  sun  was  much  larger 
than  the  whole  earth ;  for  he  believed,  that  it  was  only3  a  lit¬ 
tle  smaller  than  the  Peloponnesus.  Spare4  bodies  have  more 
blood5  than  the  corpulent6,  which  have  more  flesh7  than 
blood.  A  walk8  in9  the  open  air10  is  far  better  and  more 
healthful11,  than  in  a  colonnade12  —  better  in  the  sun,  than 
in  the  shade13.  Cicero  was  generally14  accustomed  to  praise 
Caesar  more15  than  Pompey.  The  Sicilians  and  the  other 
Greeks  sometimes16  made  the  month  longer,  by  one  or  two 
days.  Any17  peace  with  the  citizens,  seems  to  me  more 
advantageous  than  a  civil  war.  All  this  is  much  better 
known18  to  you  than  to  me.  The  Lacedemonians  lived 
more19  than  seven  hundred  years,  with20  the  same21  customs, 
and  with  unchanged22  laws.  Thy  letter  was  more  pleasing 
to  our  Atticus  than  to  me.  What  is  there  in  the  whole23 
heaven,  and  upon  the  earth,  more  godlike  than  reason?  A 
righteous  man  loves24  himself,  in  no  respect  more25  than 
another26.  Not  less  than  fifty  cities  revolted27  to  king  Philip. 

'nescire.  2 (acc.  with  inf.).  3 tantum.  4 tenuis.  5 sanguis  (gen.). 
6crassus.  7caro  (gen.),  "ambulatio.  9sub.  10 divum  (open  air),  "sa¬ 
luber  (salubris).  12  porticus.  13  umbra.  14  plerumque.  15  magis.  16  in¬ 
terdum.  17  omnis.  18  notus.  19  amplius.  20  (ablative).  21  unus.  22  immu¬ 
tatus.  23  omnis.  24  diligere.  25  plus.  26  alter.  27  deficere. 

95.  The  Superlative. 

This  is  used  as  follows: 

(1)  For  our  positive,  strengthened  by  prefixing  very,  ex - 


76 


ADJECTIVES - SUPERLATIVE. 


[§  95. 

ceedingly,  extraordinarily ,  right ,  wholly ,  perfectly ,  etc.  e.  g. 
A  very  learned  man ,  vir  doctissimus;  this  man  is  wholly 
like  you ,  tibi  simillimus.  In  general,  the  ancients  use 
it  more  than  we  do,  to  express  praise  or  blame. 

(2)  It  is  used  almost  always  for  the  comparative,  where 
the  word  the ,  before  a  comparative  in  one  clause,  is  followed 
by  so  much  the,  or  simply  the,  in  another.  This  usage  oc¬ 
curs  where  the  proposition  is  general,  and  is  not  confined  to 
a  single  definite  person  or  thing,  or  to  several,  as  1,  this,  the 
physician,  this  teacher,  but  to  what  is  indefinite,  as  any  one , 
one,  a  physician,  etc.  The  —  any  one  with  the  compara¬ 
tive,  is  expressed  in  Latin  by  ut  quisque  with  the  superlative, 
and  so  much  the,  or  simply  the ,  by  ita  with  the  superlative; 
e.  g.  The  more  learned  any  one  is,  so  much  the  more ,  (or  the 
more)  modest  is  he,  u  t  quisque  est  doctissimus,  ita 
est  modestissimus;  the  more  difficult  any  cause  is,  the 
more  able  (so  much  the  more)  advocate  should  be  employed, 
ut  quaeque  causa  dfficillima  est,  ita  optimus 
patronus  adhibendus  est.  Nevertheless,  the  com¬ 
parative  is  also  used  in  the  same  manner,  yet  seldom  by  the 
best  classical  writers;  e.  g.  quo  quis  or  quisque  est 
doctior,  eo  est  modestior.  With  the  comparative, 
quo  quisque  is  always  used,  when  a  substantive  belongs  to  it, 
but  without  a  substantive,  both  quo  quis  and  quo  quisque.  In 
one  of  the  two  clauses,  a  superlative  adverb  can  be  used. 
Comp.  §  96. 

Examples. 

The  girl  was  very  sad1.  What  is  true,  plain2  and  sincere3, 
is  perfectly  adapted4  to  nature.  The  more  powerful  and 
wealthy5  any  one  is,  the  more  luxurious  and  vicious  is  he. 
The  more  ignorant6  any  one  is,  the  more  haughty7  is  he. 
The  power8  of  conscience9  is  exceedingly  great.  The  more 
brave  any  one  is,  the  more  noble10  is  he.  A  very  great 
crowd11  of  men  accompanied12  the  emperor.  In  diseases  of 
the  body,  the  more  dangerous  they13  are,  the  better  and  more 
skilful14  physician  is  sought. 


§§  96,  97.]  ADVERBS - COMPARATIVE  AND  SUPERLATIVE.  77 

1  tristis.  2  simplex.  3  sincerus.  4  aptus.  5  opulentus.  6  imperitus. 
7  arroaans.  8  vis.  9  conscientia.  10  generosus.  11  turba.  12  comitari. 

3  O 

13  quisque.  14  nolulis. 

96.  What  has  been  said  of  the  two  degrees  of  adjectives, 
is  true  also  of  adverbs.  These  likewise  occur  in  the  com¬ 
parative  and  superlative,  not  merely  in  their  proper  and 
natural  signification,  but  also  with  the  significations  and 
different  constructions  already  mentioned,  of  which  adjec¬ 
tives  admit. 

In  English,  a  periphrasis  by  the  preposition  with  and  a 
substantive,  often  takes  the  place  of  an  adverb  of  quality,  in 
Latin  ;  e.  g.  With  pleasure ,  libenter;  with  more  (greater) 
pleasure ,  libentius;  icitk  the  greatest  pleasure ,  liben¬ 
tissime. 


Examples . 

A  calm1  tnind2  can  do3  everything  better.  Men  very  often 
err.  Death  and  pain  are  most4  feared5.  Socrates  lived  far 
more  happily6  than  Croesus.  Caesar  defended7  himself  with 
the  greatest  obstinacy8.  Darius  never  drank  impure  water 
with  greater  pleasure9,  than  when  he  was  thirsty10.  Men 
very  easily  believe  what  they  hope  for.  Many  men  speak 
eloquently11,  but  not  prudently12 ;  others  on  the  contrary13, 
do  not  speak  so  eloquently,  as  prudently.  The  ancient  Ro¬ 
mans  observed  nothing  with  more  conscientiousness14,  than 
an  oath15.  We  do  not  with  propriety16  call  him  happy,  who 
possesses17  much;  with  greater  propriety,  he  takes18  the 
name  of  happy,  who  wisely  employs19  ihe  gifts20  of  the  gods. 
Parents,  with  the  greatest  propriety,  intrust21  their  children22 
to  wise  men.  Thou  hast  pronounced23  this  syllable24  too 
short.  The  more  honestly  any  one  lives,  the  less  will  he 
injure25  others.  The  more  any  one  refers26  everything, 
which  he  does27,  to28  his  own  advantage29,  so  much  the  less 
is  he  a  good  man. 

tranquillus.  2  mens.  3  facere.  4  multum.  5 timere.  6 beatus,  ’de¬ 
fendere.  8  pertinaciter.  9 jucunde.  10 sitiens.  11  diserte.  12 prudenter. 
13contra.  14  religiose.  15  jusjurandum  16recte.  17  possidere,  ^occu¬ 
pare.  19 collocare,  “munus.  21  committere.  a'2 liberi.  23 pronuntiare. 
24  syllaba,  "offendere.  26 referre.  27  facere.  28  ad.  "commodum. 

97.  When  an  explanation,  by  the  preposition  of  or  among ,  is  con¬ 
nected  with  the  comparative  or  superlative,  it  is  more  usually  e** 

7* 


78 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


[§  98. 

pressed  in  Latin  by  the  genitive,  more  seldom  by  the  prepositions  ex 
and  in;  e.  g.  The  elder  of  the  brothers  pleased  vie  more ,  major  fra- 
trum;  Demosthenes  was  the  most  distinguished  among  the  orators  of 
antiquity,  maximus  or  summus  oratorum;  Thales  was  the  wisest 
among  the  seven  wise,  sapientissimus  in  septem  fuit  Thales.  See 
more  on  this  below,  under  the  genitive. 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 

(Let  the  student  learn,  first  of  all,  to  distinguish  the  cardinal  from 
the  ordinal  numbers.) 

98.  The  cardinal  numbers  show  how  many  persons  or 
things  are  meant,  and  hence  in  all  these  numbers  above  one 
(unus,  a,  um),  more  than  one  person  or  thing  is  denoted; 
e.  g.  Three  boys ,  twelve  scholars,  thirty  soldiers.  The  cardi¬ 
nal  number  often  occurs  in  English,  where  the  Latin  uses 
the  distributive.  Comp.  §  101. 

But  the  ordinal  number  never  denotes  more  than  one.  It 
denotes  what  one  in  a  series,  a  class  and  a  regularly  dis¬ 
posed  number;  e.  g.  The  third  month,  the  fifth  scholar,  the 
fourth  camp  (quarta  castra). 

We,  however,  often  exchange  the  ordinal  for  the  cardinal, 
when  we  place  the  numeral  after,  instead  of  before  the  sub¬ 
stantive;  e.  g.  The  year  twenty  before  Christ.  We  also 
sometimes  mix  the  cardinal  with  the  ordinal  numbers;  e.  g. 
We  say  twenty-third,  joining  twenty,  a  cardinal,  with  third, 
an  ordinal  number.  The  Latins  never  adopt  this  usage.  In 
both  the  cases  just  mentioned,  the  Latins  use  the  ordinal 
number,  e.  g.  anno  vicesimo  ante  Christum,  vigesi¬ 
mus  tertius. 

In  the  best  ancient  writers,  the  forms  of  certain  ordinals,  which 
have  crept  into  some  grammars,  are  not  used;  such  as  decimus  ter¬ 
tius,  decimus  quartus,  etc.  to  decimus  septimus.  In  all  these,  the 
smaller  number  must  stand  before  the  greater;  as,  tertius  decimus, 
etc.  Hence,  tertiadecimanus,  a  soldier  of  the  thirteenth  legion. 
But  from  twenty  upward,  the  greater  stands  either  before  or  alter 
the  smaller.  If  it  stands  before  the  smaller,  et  does  not  stand  be¬ 
tween,  e.  g.  tricesimus  sextus.  But  if  it  stands  after  the  smaller,  et 
is  almost  always  placed  between;  e.  g.  sextus  et  tricesimus,  not  sex¬ 
tus  tricesimus.  It  is  more  correct  to  say,  duodevigesimus,  not  octa¬ 
vus  decimus ;  duodeviginti,  not  decem  et  octo;  undevigesimus,  not 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


79 


§§  99,  100.] 

nonus  decimus ;  undeviginti. ,  not  decem  et  novem;  tres  et  viginti ,  not 
viginti  (et)  tres.  Where  hundreds  occur,  the  smaller  number  is  gen¬ 
erally  placed  after,  without  et ;  e.  g.  centesimus  quadragesimus. 

99.  The  word  thousand  is  expressed  either  by  mille  (mile), 
or  millia  (milia).  But  mille  signifies  only  a  thousand,  and 
millia ,  many  thousand.  The  singular,  rnillc,  is  seldom  used 
as  a  substantive,  and  is  generally  connected  only  with  geni¬ 
tives  denoting  money  and  measure;  e.  g.  mille  denarium, 
mille  passuum.  It  is  for  the  most  part  considered  as  an  ad¬ 
jective,  and  is  joined,  without  inflection,  to  any  case  of  a  sub¬ 
stantive;  e.  g.  Mille  milites,  mille  militum,  mille  mi¬ 
litibus.  But  the  plural,  millia ,  which  is  declinable,  is  always 
considered  as  a  substantive,  and  has  the  word  connected 
with  it,  in  the  genitive ;  e.  g.  in  the  nominative.  Two  thousand 
soldiers ,  duo  millia  militum,  in  the  genitive,  duorurn 
millium  militum,  in  the  dative,  duobus  millibus 
militum,  etc.  But  when  another  smaller  number  follows 
the  word  thousand,  and  the  substantive  belonging  thereto  is 
placed  after  this  smaller  number,  then  the  substantive  is  not 
considered  as  dependent  on  millia ,  but  is  put  in  any  case 
the  sentence  requires;  e.  g.  9300  knights,  tria  millia  et 
trecenti  equites;  2500  stadia,  duo  millia  et  quingenta 
stadia;  5417  sesterces  (accusative),  quinque  millia  qua¬ 
dringentos  septendecim  numos.  So  also,  when  the  sub¬ 
stantive  is  placed  first;  e.  g.  3300  knights,  equites  tria 
millia  et  trecenti,  where,  however,  the  genitive  also  can  be 
used.  But  if  the  substantive  is  placed  immediately  after  the 
word  thousand,  it  must  be  in  the  genitive,  and  the  smaller 
number  stands  after,  in  the  case  required ;  thus,  tria  millia 
equitum  et  trecenti. 

100.  When  the  word  every,  is  used  with  the  English  car¬ 
dinal  or  ordinal,  in  Latin  only  the  ordinal  is  found,  and  the 
word  every  is  expressed  by  quisque ,  which  is  placed  directly 
after  the  ordinal ;  e.  g.  He  comes  to  me  every  three  days,  or 
every  third  day ,  tertio  quoque  die  ad  me  venit;  every 


80 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


[§  101. 


jive  years,  or  every  fifth  year ,  quinto  quoque  anno. 
The  word  always ,  if  it  stands  with  an  ordinal,  is  also  ex¬ 
pressed  by  quisque ,  which  is  placed  after  the  numeral ;  e.  g. 
The  seventh  day  is  always  a  festival ,  septimus  quis¬ 
que  dies  est  festus. 

101.  The  distributives,  e.  g.  Two  and  two ,  two  by  two , 
three  and  three ,  three  by  three ,  b  i  n  i,  terni,  etc.,  are  used 
to  express  a  distribution  into  equal  parts,  among  several. 
Hence  they  are  employed  : 

(1)  To  denote,  that  the  number  named  belongs  especially 
to  each  person  or  thing  (of  two  or  more  that  are  named); 
e.  g.  He  gave  to  each  of  us  two  books ,  dedit  nobis  binos 
libros.  On  the  contrary,  dedit  nobis  duos  libros  would 
signify,  he  gave  us  two  books  in  all ,  which  we  must  divide 
among  ourselves.  The  each  or  every  ( unusquisque )  is  there¬ 
fore  contained  in  the  bini.  Yet  each  or  every  can  also  be 
translated  by  unusquisque  or  singuli.  In  this  case,  how¬ 
ever,  the  second  numeral  of  the  sentence  must  be  a  distribu¬ 
tive;  e.  g.  To  every  soldier  he  gave  one  (two,  three)  sesterce 
(sesterces),  singulis  militibus  dedit  singulos  (binos, 
ternos)  sestertios;  every  pillar  (singulae  columnae)  cost 
five  hundred  (quingenis)  sesterces;  to  every  one  of  you 
two  feet  of  land  is  assigned ,  unicuique  vestrum  bini 
pedes.  The  idea  of  each  is  also  contained  in  viritim , 
which  requires  the  distributive  in  connection  with  it. 

But  in  English  the  words,  each ,  every  are  sometimes  not 
expressed,  but  must  be  supplied  by  the  mind  ;  e.  g.  Lionesses 
first  produce  five  young,  i.  e.  each  lioness  produces,  —  hence, 
leaenae  primo  pariunt  quinos  fetus;  for  it  is  not 
affirmed  of  all  lionesses  together,  but  only  of  each  individually, 
and  not  of  any  definite  one.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
affirmed  of  any  single  definite  one,  the  cardinal  is  used,  e.  g. 
This  lioness  produced  five  young,  quinque  fetus.  In  the 
phrase,  This  lioness  produces  six  young,  whereas  they  are 
wont  to  produce  five,  —  the  number  six  must  be  expressed  by 
sex,  but  the  second  number  five,  by  quinos. 


§  101.] 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


81 


The  distributive  is  generally  used,  when  each,  every  or  al¬ 
ways  is  readily  supplied  by  the  mind,  or  is  contained  in  the 
sentence;  e.  g.  The  law  (always)  allows  three  hours  to  the 
(every)  orator ,  ternas  horas;  the  army  in  six  divisions, 
went  in  turn  every  six  hours  into  the  battle,  sen  is  horis  in 
orbem  successit  proelio;  the  laws  prescribe  three  (ternos) 
sesterces  as  the  highest  for  a  meal,  and  thirty  (tricenos) 
on  holidays,  i.  e.  three  for  each,  and  thirty  for  each ;  some 
continue  in  the  course  of  instruction  twenty  (v  i  c  e  n  o  s  an¬ 
nos)  years,  i.  e.  each  of  the  some  do  this;  the  walk  to  the 
right  and  left  is  ten  feet  wide,  i.  e.  is  always  so,  or  each  walk 
is  so  wide,  pedes  lata  denos;  he  made  divisions  on  the  shore, 
I  know  not  of  how  many  acres  (each),  nescio  quotenorum 
jugerum ;  so  the  distributive  is  always  used  with  numeral  ad¬ 
verbs,  e.  g.  How  much  is  twice  two,  quot  sunt  bis  bina  ? 

(2)  The  distributives  are  used  with  substantives  denoting 
time;  e.  g.  daily,  every  day,  singulis  diebus;  hourly, 
every  hour,  singulis  horis;  yearly,  singulis  annis. 
Yet,  instead  of  this,  in  horas,  quot  diebus,  in  dies,  in 
annos,  quotannis,  omnibus  annis,  quot  mensibus  ( every  month), 
monthly,  etc.  So  also  the  adjectives  quotidianus,  diurnus, 
horarius,  menstruus,  anniversarius  have  a  distributive  force. 

(3)  Distributives  stand  for  the  cardinal  numbers  with  those 
substantives  which  are  used  in  the  plural  and  signify  only  a 
single  thing,  or  with  those  substantives,  whose  plural  has  a 
different  signification  from  the  singular  ;  e.  g.  A  letter,  1  i  t- 
terae;  two  letters,  b  i  n  a  e  litterae,  (d  u  o  litterae  being 
two  letters  of  the  alphabet) ;  a  camp,  castra;  three  camps, 
trina  castra  (terna  castra  being  each  of  three  camps); 
an  army,  copiae;  two  armies,  biuaecopiae;  two  houses, 
binae  aedes;  two  temples,  duae  aedes.  To  these 
belong  also  catenae,  ludi  (public  games),  gladiatores,  molae 
(a  mill),  etc.  It  is  hence  to  be  noticed,  that  the  Latin  here 
does  not  say,  terni,  but  trim,  at,  a, — t.rni  retaining  its  dis¬ 
tributive  force;  thus,  trinae  litterae,  trinae  nuptiae, 


82 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


[§  101. 


trini  codicilli,  and  the  like.  So,  not  singuli, — ae ,  a,  but 
uni,  ae,  a, — singuli  also  retaining  its  distributive  force;  e.  g. 
Unae  scalae,  una  castra ;  and  so  also  with  centesimae, 
the  per  cent. ;  binae  cent.,  two  per  cent. ;  trinae,  etc. 

Examples  on  §  98 — 101. 

(1)  Ten  men  were  appointed1  to  write2  laws,  who,  after 
two  years,  proposed3  the  twelve  tables4.  The  Romans  con¬ 
tended  in  Spain  nearly5  two  hundred  years.  If  you*  add6 
four  pounds7  to  seven,  it  makes8  eleven  pounds  ;  and  if,  from 
twenty-seven  pounds,  you  subtract9  six,  twenty-one  remain10. 
If  two  hundred  and  forty-two  years  are  added  to  three  hun¬ 
dred  and  sixty-five,  there  is11  a  series12  of  six  hundred  and 
seven  years.  The  emperor  Tiberius  died13  in  the  seventy- 
eighth  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  twenty-third  of  his  reign14, 
the  sixteenth**  of  March,  in  the  seven  hundred  and  ninetieth 
of  the  city  of  Rome,  and  in  the  thirty-seventh  year  after  the 
birth  of  Christ15.  Mithridates,  with  three  hundred  and  forty 
soldiers,  conquered16  sixty  thousand  and  two  hundred  of  the 
enemy,  by  continual17  assaults18.  King  Crotimus,  with  seven 
hundred  and  thirty-three  companions19  laid  waste20  all  Egypt. 
The  olive-tree21  bears22  every  two  years.  Nero  usually23 
gave  the  consulship  for  only  six  months.  Turtle  doves24 
usually  lay25  three  eggs.  Numantia,  with  four  thousand  Cel- 
tiberians26,  withstood27,  fourteen  years,  an  army  of  forty  thou¬ 
sand  men28.  In  a  battle  of  Alexander  the  Great  against  Da¬ 
rius,  twenty-one  thousand  infantry29  and  ten  thousand  caval¬ 
ry30  were  killed31.  Archidamus  in  his  will  bequeathed32  to 
each  of  his  friends  five  talents33.  Every  five  years  the  Olym¬ 
pic  games34  were  celebrated35  in  Greece. 

1  creare.  2  conscribere  (subj.  with  ut).  3 proponere.  4  tabula.  5 prope. 
*§218.  6  addere  alicui.  7  libra.  8  confici.  9  deducere.  10  reliqui  fit 
summa  (with  the  genitive).  11  oriri.  12  serips.  13  mori.  14  imperium. 
**  septimus  decimus  Calendas  Apriles.  15  Christus  natus  (birth  of 
Christ).  16  vincere.  17  assiduus.  18  eruptio.  19  comes.  20  vastare. 
21  olea.  22  ferre.  23  plerumque.  24  turtur.  25  parere.  26  Celtiber,  -eri. 
27  sustinere.  28  miles.  29  pedes.  30  eques  31  occidere.  32  legare.  33  ta¬ 
lentum.  34  Olympia  (the  Olympie  games).  35  celebrare. 

(2)  Diodotus  lived  with  Cicero  in  one  house*.  One  thou¬ 
sand  two  hundred  and  seventy  Numidian1  and  Spanish2 
knights  revolted3  to  Marcellus.  In  the  battle  near  Cannae, 
forty  thousand  infantry,  two  thousand  seven  hundred  cavalry, 


PRONOUNS. 


83 


§  102.] 

and  nearly  as  many4  allies5,  were  killed.  Hannibal  offered6 
for7  each8  head,  as9  the  price10  of  ransom11,  five  hundred  ses¬ 
terces12  for13  every  knight,  three  hundred  for  every  foot14  sol¬ 
dier,  and  one  hundred  for  every  slave15.  I  received16  three 
letters17  from  you  in  one  day.  The  Pythian18  games  were 
celebrated,  at  first19,  every  nine  years,  afterwards20,  every 
four  years.  Christ  was  born21  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  forty-one  years  ago,  in  the  seven  hundred  and  fifty-fourth 
year  after  the  building  of  Rome22.  Caesar  made23  two24 
ditches25,  of  twelve  feet26  each.  An  Arcadian27  ass  was 
sold28,  in  Cicero’s  times,  for29  a  thousand  and  sixty  sesterces. 
Tiberius  made30  three  classes  of  companions31,  and  gave  to 
the  first,  six  hundred  sesterces,  to  the  second,  four  hundred, 
and  to  the  third,  two  hundred.  Until32  the  autumnal  equi¬ 
nox33,  the  hives34  are  to  be  opened35  every  ten  days.  In  the 
Picene36  district37,  a  goat38  produced39  six  kids40  at  one 
birth41 ;  generally42  they  produce  only  four. 

*  aedes.  ‘Numidicus.  3  Hispanicus.  3  transire.  4  totidem  (as  many). 
5  socius.  6  proponere.  7  in.  8  singuli.  9  (as  is  not  expressed  in  Lat.). 
10  pretium,  “redemptio.  12  sestertius.  13  (dative).  14  pedes.  15  servus. 
16  accipere,  “litterae.  18  Pythia  (Pythian  games).  19 initium.  20 postea. 
21  nasci.  22  Roma  condita  (building  of  Rome).  23  ducere.  24  duplex. 
25  fossa.  26  (genitive).  27  Arcadicus.  28  vendere,  29  (ablative).  30  fa¬ 
cere.  31  comes.  32  usque  ad.  33autumni  aequinoctium.  34  alveus. 
35  aperire.  36  Picenus.  37  ager.  38  capra.  39  edere.  4°hoedus.  41  uno 
fetu.  42  alias. 


PRONOUNS. 

102.  When  it  is  said  affirmatively  in  English,  This  is  my 
father,  or  interrogatively,  Which  is  my  father  ?  neither  hoc 
nor  quid  can  be  used  ;  but,  in  reference  to  the  following  pa¬ 
ter  (father) — h  i  c  and  q  u  i  s  est  meus  pater  ?  In  Latin,  the 
pronouns  agree  in  gender,  number  and  case  with  the  follow¬ 
ing  substantive.  Hence,  That  is  my  mother,  is  expressed 
by,  ilia  mea  est  mater;  what  is  the  cause  of  thy  grief? 
quae  est  causa  doloris  tui ;  I  consider  this  true  friendship, 
hanc  veram  habeo  amicitiam.  The  neuter  what ,  however, 
is  translated  by  quid,  when  the  property,  essence  and  nature 
of  a  person  or  thing,  is  to  be  denoted  ;  e.  g.  He  does  not 
know  what  God  is,  quid  Deus  sit  ;  what  is  the  memory, 
quid  est  memoria  ?  What  else  is  philosophy  ?  philosophia 


84  pronouns.  [§§  103, 104. 

quid  est  aliud  ?  So  the  negative  nihil  aliud ,  e.  g.  History 
is  nothing  else,  than,  nihil  a  1  i  u  d,  n  i  s  i. 

103.  On  the  contrary,  when  qui,  quae,  quod  has,  in  its 
sentence,  a  substantive  as  its  predicate,  referring  to  itself, 
the  pronoun  is  put  in  the  gender  and  number,  either  of  the 
preceding  substantive,  or  the  one  following,  though  the  last 
is  more  usual.  This  construction  is  particularly  found  with 
the  verb  sum  and  with  verbs  of  naming,  railing  and  considcr- 
ing,  e.  g.  dicere,  vocare,  appellare,  nominare,  habere,  pu¬ 
tare,  etc.  Hence,  Summa  pars  coeli,  q  u  i  (for  quae)  aether 
dicitur;  venio  ad  Catonem,  quod  (for  qui)  est  firmamen¬ 
tum — ;  domicilia  conjuncta,  quas  (for  quae)  urbes  dici¬ 
mus.  Yet  the  pronoun  might  refer  to  the  other  noun. 

Examples. 

This  is  the  nearest1,  and,  as  it  were2,  the  shortest3  way  to 
renown.  Both4  are  wholly  different5  opinions.  What  are 
the  best  writings6  of  the  ancients7?  These  are  the  best  ex- 
ercises8  of  the  mind9.  It  is  an  old  question10,  What  is  man  ? 
What  is  this11  voluntary  servitude12  ?  This  is  the  cause  of 
the  dissension13.  Our  ancestors14  regarded  this  as15  true 
riches,  this  as15  a  good  reputation16  and  great  renown17. 
The  Germans18  are  no  longer19  the  same20,  that  they  were 
before.  What  are  now  called  cities,  were  formerly21  vil¬ 
lages22.  I  am  towards23  you,  what  you  are  towards  me. 
That  which  we  find  in  ourselves,  is  the  best  remedy24  for25 
troubles26.  No  one  can  certainly27  say,  what  the  soul  is. 
These  are  not  the  faults28  of  art,  but  of  man.  The  study  of 
wisdom,  which  is  called29  philosophy,  is  ancient.  Philoso¬ 
phy,  the  mother  of  all  arts,  what  else  is  she,  than  a  gift  of 
the  gods  ?  This  shows  that  emotion30  of  the  mind,  which  I 
call  madness31. 

•proximus.  2  quasi  (as  it  were).  3  compendiarius.  4  uterque.  di¬ 
versus  (superlative).  6  scriptum.  7  veteres.  8exercitatio.  9ingenium. 
10 quaestio.  11  iste.  12servltus.  13 discordia.  14  majores.  13  (as  is  omit¬ 
ted).  16f'ama.  17  nobilitas.  18  Gerfnanus.  19  amplius.  20 idem.  21  olim. 
22  vicus.  23  in.  24  medicina.  23  (genitive).  26  labor.  27  certe.  28  vitium. 
29 dicere.  39 concitatio.  31  furor. 

104.  The  pronouns,  my,  thy,  his,  her,  your,  our,  their , 
are  not  expressed  in  Latin,  if  they  are  not  contrasted  with 


PRONOUNS. 


85 


*  104.] 

others,  and  especially,  if  they  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sen¬ 
tence  ;  e.  g.  The  righteous  man  is  also  happy  in  his  death % 
in  morte;  all  love  him  on  account  of  his  courtesy,  prop¬ 
ter  humanitatem;  I  love  my  brother,  as  I  ought,  f  r  a- 
trem  sic  arno,  ut  debeo.  But  if,  on  the  contrary,  they  do> 
not  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  and  there  is  an  evi¬ 
dent  antithesis,  and  a  particular  emphasis  is  placed  on  the 
pronoun,  or  if  indeed  the  word  own  is  connected  with  the 
English  pronoun,  then  it  is  expressed,  and  is  generally  placed 
before  the  substantive.  But  the  word  own  is  either  not  ex¬ 
pressed  at  all  in  Latin,  or,  if  so,  by  ipsius,  and  in  the  plural 
by  ipsorum  ;  e.  g.  You  prefer  your  interest  to  the  pttblic ,  tu 
t  u  a  m  utilitatem  praeponis  publicae;  I  wrote  this  with 
my  own  hand,  haec  me  a  manu  scripsi:  this  was  written 
with  his  own  hand,  ipsius  manu;  in  my  opinion,  this  is 
worihy  of  praise,  ad  m  e  u  m  sensum  ;  he  killed  his  daughter 
with  his  own  hand,  s  u  a  manu  ;  thy  speech  is  evidence  of  this, 
oratio  t  u  a, — where  the  addition  of  the  pronoun  is  not  super¬ 
fluous,  although  without  emphasis,  and  hence  it  is  placed  af¬ 
ter  the  substantive.  And  so  the  pronouns  are  often  supplied, 
when  the  relation  would  be  indefinite  without  them,  even 
when  they  refer  to  the  subject,  e.  g.  We  are  accustomed  to 
send  our  children  to  the  best  teachers,  liberos  nostros. 

Examples. 

I  learned1  this  from  thy  letter.  Pompey  showed2  his  kind¬ 
ness3  towards4  us  by  every5  address6.  The  lion  gently7  lick¬ 
ed8  the  feet  of  the  man,  and,  according  to  the  custom9  of 
fawning10  dogs,  wagged  his  tail11.  If  we  raise12  our  eyes  to 
heaven  at  night,  we  see  the  most  beautiful  spectacle.  You 
read  and  love  only13  your  own  writings,  but  the  writings  of 
others14  you  despise15.  We  make  our  way  through  Italy. 
Who  will  judge16  of17  our  disagreement18?  I  have  received 
your  letter,  and  was  surprised  that19  you  wrote  it  with  your 
own  hand.  Scipio  exceeded20  the  highest21  expectation22  of 
his  fellow-citizens23.  Oxen  defend24  themselves  by  their 
horns,  wild-boars25  by  their  tusks,  and  lions  by  their  bite26. 

8 


86 


PRONOUNS. 


[§  105. 


Romulus  killed27  his  brother  Remus.  We  speak  of  friends, 
who  are  not  before  our  eyes.  Cato  bore28  the  death  of  his 
son  calmly29 

1  cognoscere.  2  significare.  3  benevolentia.  4  in.  5  omnis.  6  oratio. 

“  O 

7  leniter.  8  demulcere.  8  ritu  (according1  to  custom).  10adulans.  11  cau¬ 
da.  12  tollere.  13  solum.  14  ceterus.  15  contemnere.  16  judicare.  17  de. 
18  dissensio.  19  quod.  20  superare.  21  summus.  22  spes.  23  civis.  24  tu¬ 
tari.  25  aper.  26  morsus.  27  interficere.  28  ferre.  29  equo  animo. 

105.  Since  the  possessive  pronouns  take  the  place  of  the 
genitives  of  their  personal  pronouns  ego,  tu ,  etc.  and  conse¬ 
quently  stand  for  mei,  tui,  etc.,  therefore  every  addition  or  ex¬ 
planation,  which  refers  to  the  ego ,  tu,  ille,  nos,  vos,  illi  con¬ 
tained  in  the  possessives,  is  put  in  the  genitive,  and  if  possi¬ 
ble,  directly  after  the  possessive  ;  e.  g.  an  oration  by  me,  (my 
oration),  is  expressed  by,  oratio  mea;  an  oration  by  me,  thy 
father,  m  e  a,  patris  tui,  oratio ;  my  own  hand,  m  e  a  i  p- 
sius  manus;  our  own  children,  nostri  ipsorum  liba¬ 
ri  ;  a  fault  of  myself  alone,  m  e  u  m  solius  vitium  ;  this 
is  the  mistake  of  myself,  who  disclaim  it,  hic  est  meus  error, 
negantis.  But  when  the  word  all  is  prefixed  to  or  follows 
the  words,  of  us,  of  you,  of  them,  the  Latin  usually  puts  both 
in  the  genitive  ;  e.  g.  of  all  of  us,  or  of  us  all,  nostrum  om¬ 
nium;  contrary  to  the  expectation  of  all  of  us,  praeter  nos¬ 
trum  omnium  (omnium  nostrum)  expectationem, 
not  nostram  omnium.  In  all  these  examples,  the  genitives 
are  in  apposition  or  agree  with  the  possessive  pronouns,  which 
contain  the  force  of  a  genitive. 

Examples. 

I  have  done  all  for1  my  own  sake2.  My  name  was  a  source 
of  honor3  to  him,  while  I  was  absent4,  and  now  my  prayers, 
when  I  am  present5,  have  profited*  him  much.  You  have 
done  this  for  your  own  sake  only6.  Our7  anxiety8,  when  we 
are  absent9,  is  relieved10  by  frequent11  letters.  I  have  under¬ 
taken12  the  journey  for  thy  sake  alone13.  Camillus  recount¬ 
ed14  the  wars  which  had  been  carried  on15  by16  the  direction17 
of  himself  alone18.  Thou  hast  often  seen  my  eyes,  when  I 
was  weeping19.  I  perceived20  thy  zeal21  when22  thou  wast  a 
youth.  The  state  is  saved23  by  my  efforts24  alone.  We  have 


PRONOUNS. 


87 


§  106.] 

disappointed25  the  expectation  of  all  of  you.  You  have  ex¬ 
ceeded26  the  expectation  of  us  all.  Our  country  is  the  com¬ 
mon27  parent28  of  us  all. 

^ablative).  2  causa  3  honor  (dative,  source  of  honor).  4  absens 
(while  I  was  absent).  5  praesens.  *  prodesse.  8  solum.  7  (the  posses¬ 
sive  pronoun  in  Nora  ).  8  desiderium.  9  absens.  10 lenire.  11  creber. 
12  suscipere.  13  unus.  14  commemorare.  15  gerere.  1(5  sub.  17  auspicium. 
18  solus.  19  flens  (when  1  was  weeping).  20  perspicere.  21  studium. 
22  adolescens  (when  thou — ).  23  salvus.  24  opera.  25  fallere.  26  su¬ 

perare.  27  communis.  28  parens. 

1C6.  Quis ,  quid  is  used  when  we  speak  of  more  than  two ; 
on  the  contrary,  uter,  utra ,  utrum t  only  when  we  speak  of 
two  ;  thus,  which  of  t?co  ;  e.  g.  Virgil  and  Horace  are  great 
poets;  which  pleases  you?  uter  tibi  placet?  Virgil ,  Ho¬ 
race  and  Tibullus  are  distinguished  poets  ;  which  pleases  you? 
qu  is  tibi  placet  ?  If,  in  these  two  questions,  an  adjective  or 
an  adverb  occurs,  the  comparative  is  used  with  utcr ,  because 
it  speaks  of  but  two  (see  §  8?)  ;  but  the  superlative  with 
quis,  because  it  speaks  of  several,  though  where  a  compar¬ 
ison  is  made,  the  comparative  degree  must  be  used,  even 
when  the  who  or  what  does  not  refer  to  two  substantives  al¬ 
ready  named  ;  e.  g.  which  (amongtwo  already  named)  pleases 
you  more  ?  u  t  e  r  tibi  magis  placet  ?  Which  (of  these  two) 
is  the  better  ?  utrum  est  melius?  Which  (among  more 
than  two  named)  pleases  you  more  ?  quis  tibi  maxime 
placet?  Who  is  more  eloquent  than  Demosthenes ?  quis 
Demosthene  eloquentior? 

The  same  is  true  of  nullus  and  neuter.  Nullus  refers  to 
more  them  two ,  neuter  to  two  only ,  and  hence  signifies  neither 
of  two.  Docs  Eutropius  or  Justin  please  you  ?  neither  pleases 
me ,  neuter  mihi  placet.  Hast  thou  read  a  tragic  poet  of 
the  Grecians  ?  as  yet,  no  one ,  adhuc  n  u  1 1  u  m. 

Examples. 

Lydus  and  Tyrrhenus  determined  by  lot1,  which  of2  them 
should  leave8  the  country.  Which  do  you  consider4  the 
greatest  general,  Caesar,  Scipio  or5  Hannibal  ?  Which  do 
you  consider  the  better  orator,  Cicero  or  Demosthenes  ? 


88 


PRONOUNS. 


[§  107. 

Thou  hast  read  two  tragedies6  of  Sophocles;  which  pleases 
you  more  ?  Epaminondas  when*  dying,  asked7  which  had 
conquered,  the  Thebans  or  Peloponnesians  ?  These  are  the 
different8  opinions  of  Philosophers  concerning9  the  Deity ; 
which  seems  to  you  the  most  reasonable?  Which  is  the 
richer,  he,  who  is  rich  in  mind10,  or  he,  who  is  rich  in  gold? 
Epicurus  and  Zeno  are  of  different  opinions  respecting  the 
highest  good  ;  but  the  opinions  of  neither  please  me.  If  thy 
neighbor11  had  a  better  farm12  than  thou  hast,  which  farm 
wouldst  thou  prefer13  We  here  bring14  to  you  war  and  peace ; 
which  pleases  you  ?  The  river  Arar  flows  into  the  Rhone 
very15  gently16,  so  that  it  cannot  be  determined17  by  the  eye 
which  way18  it  flows.  When  Hercules  saw  two  ways,  the 
one19  of  pleasure,  and  the  other  of  virtue,  he  doubted20  which 
it  was  better  to  enter21. 

1  sortiri  (to  determine  by  lot).  2  ex.  3 relinquere.  4  ducere.  8  an. 
*  tragoedia.  *  see  §79.1.  7  interrogare.  8  diversus.  9  de.  10  mens. 

11  vicinus.  12  fundus.  13  malle.  14  portare.  15  incredibilis.  16  leni¬ 
tas.  17judicare.  18  pars.  19unus.  20  dubitare.  21  ingredi. 

107.  The  phrases,  and  this  too,  and  that  too,  and  these  too, 
and  besides,  and  even,  which  connect  an  important  additional 
circumstance  belonging  to  what  precedes,  especially  an  ad¬ 
jective  with  a  foregoing  substantive,  are  expressed  in  Latin 
by  et  is,  et  hie,  isque;  in  like  manner,  and  at  the  same  time , 
at  once,  and  also,  are  expressed  by  et  idem  or  idemque.  As 
pronouns,  is,  hie  or  idem  must  agree  with  their  preceding 
substantives.  But  when  they  do  not  refer  to  a  preceding 
substantive,  but  to  the  whole  foregoing  sentence,  especially 
to  the  verb,  they  are  put  in  the  neuter  singular ;  thus,  et  id, 
idque,  et  idem ;  e.  g.  I  have  received  a  letter,  and  that  too  (or 
and  that)  a  short  one,  epistolam,  eamque  (et  eam)  brevem 
accepi,  or  litteras,  easque  (et  eas)  breves  accepi.  He 
made  use  of  historical  illustrations ,  and  besides  (or  and  these 
too)  beautiful  ones,  exemplis,  i  isque  illustribus.  Epicu¬ 
rus  spent  a  happy,  and  at  the  same  time ,  the  last  day  of  his 
life,  beatum  et  eundem  supremum  diem.  He  accom¬ 
plished  his  journey ,  and  that  too,  in  a  short  time,  cursum  con¬ 
fecit,  idque  (et  id)  brevi  tempore.  But  if  the  additional 
circumstance  is  negative,  then,  instead  of  et  or  que ,  the  word 


PRONOUNS. 


89 


§  108.] 


nec  or  neque ,  is  used ;  e.  g.  At  length  he  sent  me  a  letter ,  and 
that  too,  not  a  long  one,  epistolam,  neque  eam  longam. 
The  adverb  quidem  is  often  joined  to  the  pronoun  is;  there¬ 
fore,  et  eas  quidem  breves;  et  eis  quidem  illustri¬ 
bus. 

Examples. 

You  sent  me  a  single1  book  yesterday,  and  that  too  a  bad 
one.  We  find,  in  most  places  of  the  earth,  warm  water,  and 
that  too  in  the  winter.  To  philosophize2  does  not  please* 
some3,  and  those  too,  not  very4  learned  men.  Pompey 
fought5  against  Mithridates,  and  even  with  a  small  army6. 
The  tyrant  Alexander  always  had  a  barbarian7  with8  him  and 
that  too,  tattooed  with  Thracian10  letters.  In  all  the  letters, 
which  I  sent  to  Caesar,  1  subjoined11  a  recommendation  of 
you12,  and  besides,  no  common13  one.  Many  bestow14  upon15 
dark,  and  at  the  same  time  not  necessary  subjects16,  much 
pains17.  The  mind  has  a  recollection,  and  that  too,  unlimi¬ 
ted18,  of  innumerable  things.  This  food  is  the  most  deli¬ 
cious19  and  also  the  most  wholesome20. 

1  anus.  2  philosophari.  *  displicere  (not  to  please).  3  quidam. 

4  admodum.  5  pugnare.  6  exercitus.  7  barbarus.  8  cum.  9 compunctus. 
10  Threicius.  11  adjicere.  12  commendatio  tui.  13  vulgaris.  14  con¬ 
ferre.  15  in.  1G  res.  17  opera.  18  infinitus.  19  suavis.  20  saluber  (salu¬ 
bris). 

108.  The  reflexive  pronouns,  sui,  sibi,  se  and  suus  must, 
according  to  their  nature  and  signification,  refer  back  to  the 
subject  or  the  most  important  word  in  the  sentence ;  but  the 
demonstrative  pronoun,  is,  ea,  id,  does  not  refer  to  the  sub¬ 
ject,  but  to  some  other  substantive. 

The  reflexive  pronouns,  himself,  herself,  themselves,  etc. 
in  their  appropriate  cases,  are  expressed  by  the  reflex¬ 
ives  sui,  sibi,  se,  although  the  English  does  not  always  use  a 
reflexive  pronoun  where  the  Latin  does.  This  is  particular¬ 
ly  the  case,  in  the  construction  of  the  Acc.  with  the  Inf., 
when  the  Latin  uses  the  reflexive  ;  e.  g.  my  brother  said  that 
he  would  come,  frater  dixit,  se  venturum  esse.  So  also,  the 
English  generally  use  the  personal  pronoun  without  the  re¬ 
flexive  form,  where  the  Latin  reflexive  and  the  substantive  to 
which  it  refers  are  in  different  clauses ;  e.  g.  The  general 

8* 


PRONOUNS. 


90 


[§§109—111. 


feared  that  the  soldiers  would  desert  h  i  m,  dux  metuebat,  ne 
milites  se  desererent. 

109.  The  reflexive  pronouns  sui,  sibi,  se ,  are  used  : 

(1)  When  they  refer  to  the  subject  of  their  own  sentence; 
e.  g.  Phidias  inclosed  a  form  like  himself  in  a  shield ,  s  u  i 
similem  speciem.  He  mentioned  the  honor  bestowed  upon 
himself  (sibi).  They  mentioned  the  honor  bestowed  upon 
themselves  (sibi). 

110.  (2)  When  the  pronoun  stands  in  a  dependent  sentence, 
and  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  leading  or  principal  sentence. 

Dependent  sentences  are  such  as  do  not  stand  alone,  but  re¬ 
quire  some  other  sentence  to  precede  them,  which  contains  the 
principal  verb  or  thought,  to  which  the  dependent  sentence  re¬ 
fers.  Sentences  denoting  a  purpose,  object,  or  result,  and  intro¬ 
duced  by  u  t,  that,  in  order  that,  n  e,  ihat  not,  in  order  that  not, 
fjuo,  in  order  that,  and  the  like,  and  also  indirect  questions, 
belong  to  dependent  sentences.  Sentences,  likewise  contain¬ 
ing  an  Acc.  with  the  Inf.,  are  dependent. 

111.  In  such  dependent  sentences,  the  Latins  use  the  re¬ 
flexive  pronouns,  when  the  pronouns  refer  to  the  person 
speaking  or  thinking,  and  he  speaks  or  thinks  of  himself  (d  e 
s  e) ;  e.  g.  Whoever  believes,  that  he,  (the  one  believing)  can 
he  unhappy,  is  not  happy,  se  (not  eurn)  posse  miserum 
esse  ;  men  do  not  often  think,  that  evils  can  befall  them  (the 
men  thinking),  mala  sibi  (not  e  i  s)  accidere  posse  ;  Ver¬ 
res  asked  Dolabella,  that  he  would  send  him  (Verres  speak¬ 
ing)  to  king  Nicomedes,  ut  se  (not  eu  in)  ad  regem  Nico¬ 
medem  mitteret ;  Cicero  requested  Pompey,  that  he  would 
not  demand  this  of  him  (the  one  requesting),  ne  hoc  a  s  e 
(not  eo)  postularet. 

From  these  examples  it  will  be  evident,  that  here  the  one 
speaking  or  thinking,  always  speaks  or  thinks  of  himself 
(de  s  e ). 

(3)  There  are  some  instances  in  which  one  reflexive  refers 
to  the  subject  of  the  principal  sentence,  and  another  to  the 
subject  of  the  subordinate  sentence  ;  e.  g.  The  Scythians  re- 


PRONOUNS. 


91 


§  §112 — 115.] 

quested  Alexander  to  marry  the  daughter  of  their  Icing ;  Scy¬ 
thae  petebant  ab  Alexandro,  ut  regis  sui  (sc.  Scytharum) 

filiam  matrimonio  sibi  (sc.  Alexandro)  jungeret. 

112.  When  the  dependent  sentence  has  a  subject,  to  which  the  re¬ 
flexive  pronoun  might  also  be  easily  referred,  the  pronoun  ipse  can 
be  employed  to  prevent  this  ambiguity,  although  in  such  cases,  also, 
the  reflexive  is  almost  always  used  ;  e.  g.  Jugurtha  sent  ambassadors 
to  the  consul,  to  ask  life  for  himself  and  his  children  ;  J .  legatos  ad  con¬ 
sulem  mittit,  qui  ipsi  liberisque  vitam  peterent,  where  ipsi  can  refer 
only  to  Jugurtha,  whereas  sibi  might  have  referred  to  legatos  also.  On 
the  contrary,  ipse  is  often  found  where  there  is  no  ambiguity,  since  it 
always  expresses  the  contrast  more  emphatically  than  the  reflexive. 
Cicero  uses  this  ipse  in  the  intermediate  clause,  as  much  as  in  his 
power ,  quantum  in  ipso  est,  where  others  use  in  se. 

113.  On  the  contrary,  the  demonstrative  is,  ea,  id,  in  its 
different  cases,  is  used  : 

(1)  When  the  pronouns  in  the  leading  and  subordinate 
propositions,  do  not  refer  to  the  subject  of  these  propositions; 
e.  g.  Cicero  promised  all  to  him  (ei)  ;  Laelius  did  everything 
for  his  sake  (for  the  sake  of  another),  e  j  u  s  causa  ;  Cicero 
left  the  city,  when  this  had  been  announced  to  him  (ei) ;  Ci¬ 
cero,  who  was  favorable  to  him  (ei),  defended  him  (eum).  In 
the  last  two  sentences,  Cicero  does  not  speak  of  himself,  but 
another  speaks  of  him. 

114.  (2)  When  the  pronouns  stand  in  dependent  sentences 
and  refer  neither  to  the  subject  of  these,  nor  to  that  of  the 
leading  sentence  ;  e.  g.  Cicero  hereby  showed  that  he  (Galba) 
had  been  rash,  eum  (not  s  e)  vehementem  fuisse  ;  some  one 
told  Claudius ,  that  the  consulship  would  be  offered  to  him,  e  i 
consulatum  oblatum  iri.  Here  sibi  could  not  properly  be 
used,  for  the  some  one,  does  not  speak  of  himself,  but  of  Clau¬ 
dius.  Cicero  spoke  so  convincingly ,  that  every  one  believed 
him,  ut  e  i  quisque  crederet,  not  sibi,  for  Cicero  does  not 
say  this  of  himself,  but  another  says  it. 

115.  From  these  examples  it  will  be  seen,  that,  even  when,  in  in¬ 
termediate  and  introductory  sentences,  the  person  of  the  leading  sen¬ 
tence  is  spoken  of,  the  reflexive  cannot  be  used,  if  the  person  does 
not  speak  of  himself  (de  se),  but  another  speaks  of  him  (de  eo). 
There  is  a  difference  between  the  following  examples :  Prusias  said 
when  Hannibal  lived  with  him  in  exile — and  Prusias  said  that  when 
Hannibal  Lived  icith  him  in  exile.  The  first  with  him  would  be  ex¬ 
pressed  by  apud  eum,  for  Prusias  does  not  speak  of  himself;  the 


92 


PRONOUNS. 


[§  115. 

other  by  apud  se,  for  here  Prusias  speaks  of  himself  (de  se).  Alex¬ 
ander  was  vexed ,  that  the  city  Miletus  obstructed,  him — and,  Alexander 
was  vexed ,  because  the  city  Miletus  obstructed  him.  The  former  him 
isexpressed  by  s  i  b  i,  because  Alexanderthere  speaks  ofhimself  (de  se); 
the  latter  him  by  e  i,  because  it  is  only  related  of  him  (eo).  Cincinna¬ 
tus  was  informed ,  that  he  (emu)  had  been  appointed \  Dictator — and,  Cin¬ 
cinnatus,  heard  that  he  (se)  had  been  appointed  Dictator.  And  so  in  ma¬ 
ny  subordinate  clauses,  the  reflexive  or  demonstrative  pronoun  isused 
according  as  the  sentiment  expressed  is  that  of  the  subject  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  sentence,  or  that  of  the  writer;  e.  g.  Ambiorix,  in  Aduatucos, 
qui  erant  ejus  regni  finitimi,  proficiscitur;  here  the  subordinate 
clause,  qui  erant  ejus  r.  fi,  contains  a  remark  of  the  writer;  yet  the 
sentence  could  have  been  expressed  as  the  sentiment  of  Ambiorix, 
and  would  then  have  been  written  qui  essent  sui  regni  fin. 

Examples. 

(1)  Some1  scholars  do  not  care2,  that3  others  are  prefer¬ 
red4  to  themselves  ;  but  others  are  unwilling5  that6  they  should 
be  surpassed7  by  any.  A  judge  casts8  his  eyes  upon  the 
countenance9  of  the  accused10;  and  the  fear  and  embarrass¬ 
ment11  of  the  same,  are  to  him  the  surest12  proofs13  of  the 
crime14  committed15.  The  tyrant  Dionysius  ordered16,  that17 
his  daughters  should  burn18  off  his  beard.  The  Spartans 
feared,  that19  king  Philip  would  come  upon  them,  and  sub¬ 
jugate20  them.  Since  you  ask21  me  concerning22  this  orator, 

I  will  say  to  you,  that23  he  was  destitute24  of  many  qualifica¬ 
tions  of  an  orator,  although25  he  himself  believed,  that  he 
had26  all  qualifications.  The  Allobroges  (Allobrox)  entreat¬ 
ed27  Umbrenus  to28  have  pity  on29  them.  Chabrias  wished, 
that30  a  statue  should  be  erected31  to  him,  in  that  posture32,  in 
which  he  had  gained33  a  victory.  Dionysius  entreated  Da¬ 
mon  and  Phintias*,  to34  admit35  him  also,  as36  the  third  in 
friendship.  We  praise  that  youth,  who,  as  much  as37  is  in 
his  power,  strives38  to  be  accomplished39.  Vespasian  thank¬ 
ed40  the  Senate,  that  it  had  thought  him  worthy41  of  the  hon¬ 
or42  of  a  triumph.  The  same  dreamt43,  before44  the  dignity 
of  an  emperor45  had  been  conferred  on  him,  that  his  fortune, 
and  that  of  his  friends,  would  begin,  as  soon  as46  a  tooth  of 
Nero  had  been  extracted47 ;  and  it  truly48  came  to  pass49, 
that50  the  physician,  on  the  following  day,  showed51  him  a 
tooth,  that  moment52  extracted.  Jugurtha  admonishes53  the 
soldiers  to54  defend  him  and  his  kingdom  from  the  avarice 

O 

of  the  Romans. 

1  quidam.  2 nihili  facere.  3(acc.  with  inf.).  4  praeponere.  5  moleste 
ferre.  6  (acc.  with  inf).  7  superare.  8  conjicere.  9  vultus.  10  reus. 

II  perturbatio.  12  apertus.  13  indicium.  14  facinus.  15  commissus.  16  in- 


PRONOUNS. 


93 


§  116.] 

stituere.  17  ut.  19adurere.  19  ne.  20  subigere.  21  rogare.  22  de.  23  (acc. 
with  inf.).  24  deesse.  25  quamvis  (subj.).  26  esse.  27  orare.  28  ut. 
29  misereri  (to  have  pity  on).  30  ut.  31  facere.  32  status.  33  adipisci. 
*  Phintias,  ae.  34  ut.  35  adscribere  36  ( as  is  omitted).  37  quantum  (as 
much  as).  38  studere.  39  perfectus.  40  gratias  agere.  41  dignari  (to  think 
worthy).  42  (ablative).  43  somniare.  44  priusquam.  45  dignitas  impera¬ 
toria.  49  simulae  (as  soon  as).  47  eximere.  48  vere.  49  evenire  (to  come 
to  pass).  50  ut.  31  ostendere.  52  tantum  quod  (that  moment).  53  mon¬ 
ere.  34  ut. 

(2)  All  commanders  cannot  call  to  mind1  wars  successful¬ 
ly2  carried  on3  by  themselves.  Cicero,  from  the  beginning 
of  his  consulship,  had  taken  care4  that5  Curius  should  betray6 
to  him  the  plans7  of  Catiline.  Angry8  men  have  no  control9 
of  themselves;  hence  Alexander,  while  angry,  put  to  death 
Clitus  who  was  most  dear  to  him.  A  fugitive10  of  king  Pyr¬ 
rhus  came  to  the  camp  of  Fabricius,  and  promised11  him,  if 
he  would  offer12  him  a  reward13,  that14  he  would  return  to  the 
camp  of  Pyrrhus,  and  destroy15  him  with  poison16.  And  tru¬ 
ly17,  this  man  did  not  foresee18,  that19  Fabricius  would  cause20 
him  to  be  led  back21.  The  Syracusians  entreated,  that22  they 
might  be  pardoned23  because24  they  had  not  yet  given  thanks25 
for  the  favors26  shown27  to  them.  The  senators  exclaimed28, 
that29  justice  and  freedom  were  snatched30  from  them,  and 
the  Roman  citizens  entreated  me,  not31  to  withdraw32  from 
them.  Nevertheless33, 1  could  not  promise  them  this.  Show34 
them  the  folly35  of  their  resolution36,  in  order  that37  they  may 
understand38  how39  destructive40  it  may  be  to  them. 

^recordari.  2  bene.  3  gestus.  4  efficere.  3ut.  6  prodere.  7  consilium. 
8  iratus.  9  esse  compos  (to  have  control  of).  10  perffiga.  11  polliceri. 
12  proponere.  13  praemium.  14  (acc.  with  inf).  13 tollere.  16  venenum. 
17  vere.  18  divinare.  19  (acc.  with  inf ).  20  curare.  21  reducendum.  22ut. 
23ignoscere  (see  §  220).  24  quod.  25  gratias  agere.  26 beneficium,  ^tri¬ 
butus.  28  clamare.  29  (acc.  with  inf).  30  eripere.  31  ne  (not  to).  32  dis¬ 
cedere.  33  neque  tamen  (nevertheless — not).  34  ostendere.  33  stultitia. 
36  consilium.  37  ut  (in  order  that).  38  intelligere.  39  quam.  40  pernici¬ 
osus. 

The  pronouns  his ,  her ,  its,  their,  and  the  Latin  suus,  a, 
urn,  and  ejus,  eorum,  and  earum. 

116.  The  pronoun  suus,  a,um,  (his,  her,  its,  their)  is  an 
adjective,  which  must  agree  in  gender,  number  and  case, 
with  the  substantive  to  which  it  belongs;  but  the  other  words, 
ejus  (his,  her,  or  of  him,  of  her),  corum  and  earum,  (their, 
or  of  them),  are  the  genitives  of  is,  and  in  Latin,  do  not  qual¬ 
ify  substantives,  but,  as  genitives,  are  governed  by  them. 


94 


PRONOUNS. 


[§§  117,118. 


As  the  English  words  his,  her,  its,  their,  have  a  double 
sense,  viz.  a  reflexive  and  demonstrative,  there  is,  consequent¬ 
ly,  some  difficulty  in  translating  them  into  Latin.  When  I 
say,  Cicero  was  accustomed  to  write  down  his  orations ,  his 
would  be  expressed  by  suns ;  but  when  I  say,  I  am  accustom¬ 
ed  to  note  his  orations,  his  is  expressed  by  ejus.  His,  in  the 
first  example,  is  reflexive,  in  the  second,  demonstrative. 

Hence,  for  the  sake  of  a  more  clear  distinction,  it  may  be 
observed,  that  the  words  his,  her,  its,  their,  are  to  be  trans¬ 
lated  by  suus,  a,  inn: 

117.  (1)  When  the  pronoun  refers  to  the  subject  of  its 
own  sentence  ;  e.  g.  But  a  very  small  part  of  mankind  know 
their  own  faults  and  vices,  s  u  o  s  errores  ac  vitia;  most  men  do 
not  know  their  vices ,  sua  vitia;  they  guard  the  life  of 
their  king,  regis  s  u  i  vitam  ;  he  considers  me  the  first  of  his 
defenders,  suorum  defensorum  principem;  many  love  us 
for  the  sake  of  their  own  advantage,  s  u  i  commodi  causa. 
His,  her  and  their  are  often  so  emphatic,  that  the  word  own 
stands  with  them ;  this  is  not  translated  into  Latin  by  any 
corresponding  word,  but  is  expressed  by  placing  suus  before 
the  substantive, — for  when  it  is  placed  after,  it  is  often  used 
without  emphasis,  merely  to  prevent  ambiguity. 

118.  (2)  When  the  pronoun  stands  in  a  dependent  sen¬ 
tence,  and  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  leading  sentence. 
Compare  the  remarks  above,  §110  and  111.  What  was 
there  said,  is  applicable  here  also.  When  the  words  his ,  her, 
their,  in  a  dependent  sentence,  refer  to  the  subject  of  the 
leading  sentence,  and  that  subject  speaks  or  thinks  of  itself 
(de  se),  i.  e.  when  the  sentiment  expressed  is  that  of  the  sub¬ 
ject,  they  must  be  translated  by  suus ;  e.  g.  The  Macedonians 
hope,  that  you  will  he  their  king,  te  regem  s  u  u  m  fore ; 
Philodemus  commanded  this  to  he  announced  to  his  son,  ut  hoc 
filio  suo  nuntiaretur ;  Horatius  confessed,  that  his  sister  was 
slain  hy  his  hand,  su  a  manu  sororem  (s  u  a  m)  interfectam 
esse ;  It  is  pleasing  to  him  (i.  e.  he  rejoices),  that  his  praise 
is  spread  abroad,  jucundum  ei  est,  su  am  laudem  proferri. 


PRONOUNS. 


95 


§  §  119—121.] 

When  a  dependentsentence  has  for  its  subject  a  personal  substan¬ 
tive,  and  consequently  the  use  of  suus  might  cause  ambiguity,  then, 
instead  of  suus ,  the  genitives  ipsius  or  ipsorum  (ipsarum)  are  substi¬ 
tuted  ;  e.  g.  The  Macedonians  entreated  Cicero  to  defend  their  cause ,  ut 
causam  ipsorum  (for  suam)  tueretur.  Suam  would  not  have  been 
incorrect,  but  a  little  ambiguous,  as  it  might  refer  to  Cicero.  Still, 
even  then,  the  ancients  used  suus  almost  wholly.  Hence,  when  the 
subjects  of  the  principal  and  subordinate  sentences  are  different,  only 
the  connection  can  determine,  to  which  of  the  subjects  the  reflexive 
refers  ;  e  g.  in  the  following  sentences,  the  reflexive  can  refer  either 
to  Caesar  or  to  Milites:  Caesar  milites  hortatur,  ut  de  salute  sua 
acriter  dimicarent  5 — Caesar  speravit,  milites  de  salute  sua  acriter  di¬ 
micaturos  esse. 

The  nature  of  the  connective  particle,  also,  by  which  two  sub¬ 
stantives  are  united,  determines  which  of  the  pronouns  is  to  be 
used;  e.  g.  dux  ejusque  exercitus  capti  sunt,  for  by  que  or  ct  two 
clauses  independent  of  each  other  are  connected  ;  but  dux  cum  s  u  o 
exercitus  captus  est,  for  by  cum,  the  idea  expressed  by  exercitus  is 
connected  with  that  expressed  by  dux.  The  first  construction  is 
coordinate ,  the  second,  subordinate.  So,  Isocrates  et  discipuli  ejus 
adfuerunt,  but  lsoc.  c  u  m  discipulis  suis  adfuit. 

119.  (3)  When  the  pronoun  with  its  substantive  refers  to 
another  subordinate  substantive,  (i.  e.  a  substantive  in  an 
oblique  case)  in  the  same  sentence;  e.  g.  His  lusts  enticed 
Verres  to  conduct  shamefully ,  Verrem  suae  libidines  flagi¬ 
tiose  facere  admonebant;  rubbers  ivaylaid  the  consul  at  his 
own  house,  consuli  domi  suae;  you  deprive  this  discourse 
of  its  ornament ,  s  u  o  ornatu. 

120.  (4)  When  the  pronoun  stands  in  a  sentence  contain¬ 
ing  a  general  truth  ;  e.  g.  It  is  good  to  know  one's  own  vices, 
bellum  est  sua  vitia  nosse.  It  would  be  properly  expressed 
by  aliquem  (that  one)  sua  vitia  nosse.  Therefore  it 
strictly  belongs  to  No.  (1). 

121.  On  the  contrary,  the  genitives  ejus,  eorum  and  earum 
are  used,  where  there  is  no  such  reference,  either  to  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  their  own,  or  to  that  of  the  leading  sentence,  and 
therefore  where  a  person  does  not  speak  and  think  of  him¬ 
self;  e.  g.  Verres  is  led  to  a  certain  Janitor,  and  his  com¬ 
panions  to  others,  comitesque  ejus  ad  alios;  some  live  in 
such  a  manner,  that  their  life  contradicts  their  profession,  ita 
vivunt  quidam,  ut  eorum  vita  refellat  (e  o  r  u  m)  orationem. 
You  grieve  on  account  of  the  death  of  your  brother.  Think 


PRONOUNS. 


96 


[$  121. 


of  his  modesty ,  and  all  his  words  and  actions ,  cogita  ejus 
modestiam  et  omnia  ejus  dicta  et  facta. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  passages,  that  his,  her ,  their,  are  express¬ 
ed  by  ejus,  eorum  and  earum,  when  their  sentences  do  not  depend  on 
each  other.  This  will  be  evident  from  comparing  the  different  ways 
by  which  the  following  sentence  can  be  expressed  :  Verres  believed 
that  an  inheritance  had  fallen  to  him,  because  Antiochus  had  come  into 
his  kingdom.  The  last  clause  can  be  expressed  in  Latin  in  two  ways. 
First  by,  quod  Antiochus  in  ejus  regnum  venerat;  second  by,  quod 
Antiochus  in  suu  m  regnmn  venisset.  In  the  first,  ejus  is  used,  be¬ 
cause  the  sentence  is  not  dependent  on  the  preceding;  Verres  does 
not  speak  of  himself,  [n  the  other,  suum,  because  the  sentence  is 
dependent  on  the  preceding  ;  Verres  himself  speaks  of  his  own  (s  u  o) 
kingdom.  So  also  in  the  following  sentence:  The  Aeiolians  were 
grieved,  because  the  Romans  were  not  thus  disposed  toward  their  peo¬ 
ple.  The  phrase,  toward  their  people,  is  either,  erga  suam  gentem, 
or  erga  eorum  gentem,  according  as  the  Aetolians  are  considered 
as  speaking  of  themselves,  or  some  one  else  of  them. 

Examples. 

(1)  When  king  Astyages  was  angry1  with2  Harpagus,  he 
killed3  his  son.  Whoever  values  little4  his  own  estate5,  will 
value  still6  less  the  estate  of  others.  Lucullus  was  the  rich¬ 
est  man  in  Rome;  but  his  wealth7  is  differently8  estimated9. 
Those  who  cannot  subdue10  their  passions11,  are  seduced12 
into  evil  deeds ;  but  when  we  afterwards13  hear  their  com¬ 
plaints14,  they  cast15  the  blame16,  not  upon  their  passions,  but 
upon  some  other  things17.  The  Corinthians  presented18 
Alexander  the  Great  with  the  freedom  of  their  state19;  but  he 
derided20  their  gift21.  In  Homer,  the  aged  Nestor  proclaim¬ 
ed22  his  own  virtues, — and*  he  does  not  seem23  to  be  too  lo¬ 
quacious24,  for  his  speech25  flows26  from27  his  tongue  sweeter 
than  honey.  The  general  and  all  his  troops  were  taken  cap¬ 
tive  by  the  enemy.  I  saw  Isocrates  with  his  disciples. 

1  iratus.  2(dative).  3 interficere.  4  parvi  facere  (to  value  little).  5res 
familiaris.  6 multo,  ’divitiae.  8  varie.  9  tradere.  10 domare.  11  animi 
commotio.  12  inducere.  13  postea.  14  querela.  15  transferre.  16  culpa. 
17  res.  18  donare  aliquem  re  (to  present  some  one  with  something). 
19jus  civitatis  (freedom  of  the  state).  20  irridere.  21  donum,  ^praedi¬ 
care.  *  nec  (and — not).  23  videri.  24  loquax.  25  oratio.  26  fluere.  27  ex. 

(2)  Let  the  virtues  be  most  desired1  by  man,  because  their 
pleasure  is  permanent2  When  Alcibiades  was  thrown  out3 
unburied4,  a  friend  covered5  his  body  with  his  mantle6. 
Most  men  do  not  know7  their  faults,  but  when  they  judge8 
concerning  their  enemies,  they  believe,  that*  they  know  their 


PRONOUNS. 


97 


§  122.] 

faults  best.  Kleobis  and  Biton  were  sons  of  a  priestess9. 
When  their  mother  could  not  be  carried10  to  the  temple,  be¬ 
cause**  the  cows  delayed1'2,  they  laid  aside13  their  gar¬ 
ments14  and  carried  their  mother  to  the  temple.  Verres 
brought15  home  the  young16  and  beautiful17  of 18  the  pirates19,, 
who  had  been  taken,  and,  in  their  place20,  Roman  citizens 
were  executed21.  A  good  father  believes,  that22  nothing 
must  be  neglected  in  respect  to23  his  son ;  hence24,  his  educa¬ 
tion25  and  the  formation  of  his  character26  are  his  greatest 
solicitude27. 

'exoptatus.  2 perpetuus.  3 projicere.  4  inhumatus.  5 tegere.  6 pal¬ 
lium.  7novisse.  8judicare.  *(acc.  with  inf.).  9 sacerdos.  10  vehi. 
11  bos.  **ob.  12 morans.  13 ponere.  14 vestis,  '’abducere.  16 adolescens. 
17formosus.  lsex.  19pirata.  20locus.  21  necare.  22(acc.  with  inf.). 
23  in  (in  respect  to).  24  quare.  25  educatio.  26  formatio  (formation  of 
character).  27  maxime  esse  cordi  (to  be  his  greatest  solicitude). 

122.  The  English  pronouns,  some  one ,  any  one,  and  in  the 
neuter,  something,  anything,  are  expressed  in  Latin  by  ali¬ 
quis,  quis,  quisquam  or  ullus.  Aliquis  has  an  affirmative 
sense,  and  denotes  some  person  or  thing  indefinitely  known, 
and  the  neuter  aliquid  and  aliquod,  something  indefinitely 
known.  Aliquis  is  also  used  in  the  sense  of  the  English 
somebody ,  to  denote  a  person  of  distinction  ;  so  aliquid , 
something. 

But  quis,  quisquam  and  ullus,  have,  as  it  were,  a  nega¬ 
tive  sense,  and  hence,  they  are  used,  sometimes  in  sentences 
which  contain  a  negative,  and  sometimes  in  questions  which 
imply  a  negative. 

Some  examples  :  I  do  not  wish,  that  any  one  should  depart  in  sad¬ 
ness  from  me,  nolo  quern  q  u  a  m,  for  neminem.  Take  care  not 
to  trust  any  one,  cave  c  u  i  q  u  a  m.  IVho  is  it,  that  fears  anything  ? 
quis  est,  qui  q  u  i  d  qu  a  m  timeat  P  When  nothing  was  written  to  me, 
either  by  you  or  any  one  else,  ab  u  1 1  o  alio  q  u  i  d  q  u  a  rn  scriberetur, 
instead  of  which  Cicero  elsewhere  says,  quum  nihil  mihi  neque  a 
te  ipso,  neque  ab  u  11  o  alio  scriberetur.  Just  as  if  any  one  of  us  be¬ 
lieves  this,  quasi  quisquam.  Without  virtue  we  cannot  secure 
friendship,  nor  anything  desirable,  neque  ullam  rem.  Thou  canst 
prefer  him  without  the  censure  of  any  one,  sine  cujusquam  repre¬ 
hensione.  Who  has  esteemed  any  one  (quemquam)  so  highly  as  I 
have  Pompey  ?  Hence,  and  no  one ,  neque  quisquam,  and  nothing, 
neque  quidquam. 

It  is  otherwise  in  the  following  sentences.  Every  body  is  either 
water  or  air,  or  something,  ichicli  is  composed  of  these  or  some  part  of 
themj  aut  aliquid,  quod  est  concretum  ex  his,  aut  ex  aliqua 

9 


98 


PRONOUNS. 


[§  122. 


parle  eorum.  We  are  offended  with  actors ,  as  soon  as  any  of  the  plea¬ 
sure  is  diminished,,  simulatque  imminuitur  aliquid  de  voluptate, 
(any,  aliquid,  even  a  little).  This  happened  to  us  first ,  and  never 
to  any  one  else,  nec  alicui  unquam,  where  alicui,  as  is  often  thq 
case,  stands  in  the  definite  signification  of  any  one  else ,  for  nulli,  alii 
or  alii  cuiquam. 

It  is  further  to  be  observed,  that  after  the  words,  si,  nisi, 
num,  ne,  an,  quo,  quando,  etc.,  quis  and  quisquam  are  mostly 
used  to  denote  only  something  general  and  indefinite,  and 
aliquis,  only  something  definite  and  limited.  So  alicubi  and 
aliquando  are  definite,  cubi  in  sicubi,  and  quando  after  si  and 
others,  are  indefinite  and  general.  Hence  si  quando  signi¬ 
fies  if  ever,  whenever,  when  indefinite,  i.  e.  it  can  refer  to 
any  time  ;  si  a  1  i  q  u  a  n  d  o,  if  at  some  time,  at  some  certain 
time,  which  refers  either  to  a  past  or  a  future  time ;  si  quis, 
if  any  one,  if  one ;  s  i  a  1  i  q  u  i  s,  if  some  one ;  n  e  quis,  that 
no  one,  that  one  may  not — is  general ;  n  e  aliquis,  that 
some  one  may  not — is  limited.  The  following  examples  will 
illustrate  this : 

If  any  one  (if  one )  on  a  walk  muses  on  a  place  or  thinks  attentively 
of  anything  else,  si  quis — meditetur,  aut  si  quid  aliud  cogitet. 
Jin  affection  is  produced,  when  we  have  found  some  one,  whose  charac¬ 
ter  harmonizes  with  our  own,  si  aliquem  nacti  sumus.  If  we,  by 
our  labor,  have  added  anything  to  the  praise  of  oratory,  si  aliquid 
oratoriae  laudi  attulimus.  If  any  misfortune  befalls  you,  si  quid  tibi 
adversi  accidit.  If  ever  a  friend  has  saved  another,  who  does  not  praise 
him,  si  quando  amicus  — .  Ji  spacious  house,  if  it  stand  empty,  is 
a  reproach  to  its  possessor,  especially  if  it  was  once  much  frequented, 
while  another  possessed  it,  et  maxime  si  aliquando.  Did  any  one 
ever  give  thanks  to  the  gods,  because  he  — ,  num  quis  gratias  egit  — ? 
If  any  one  was  a  wise  man,  he  was  that  man,  si  quisquam,  ille  sapi¬ 
ens  fuit. 

Examples. 

Pompey  obtained1  the  highest2  dignity3  without  any  recom¬ 
mendation4  of  his  ancestors5.  In  all  these  narrations,  there 
is6  a  certain7  hue*  of  truth,  without  any  embellishment8. 
Take  care9  not  to10,  do  anything  else,  than  what  I  command 
you.  No  one**  can  be  named11,  more  friendly12  to  my  wel¬ 
fare13  and  honor,  than  you.  I  may  not  write  to  you  immedi¬ 
ately14,  unless  perchance15  something  new16  occurs17.  The 
pirates18  entered19  the  harbor20  without  any  fear21.  I  do  not 
believe,  that22  anything  has  been  omitted23  in  this  discourse, 


§§  123,  124.] 


PRONOUNS. 


99 


which  belongs24  to  the  subject.  Neither  this  nor  that  can 
happen25  to26  any  one  of  us.  If  any  one  (definite)  had  killed27 
a  tyrant,  he  was  praised  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  is 
contrary  to  nature,  to  take28  anything  from  another.  Does 
any  one  deny29  this  7  Alexander  seems  to  be  somebody. 

1  adipisci.  2  superus.  3  honor.  4  commendatio.  5  major.  6inesse. 
7quidatn.  *color.  “fucus.  9curare.  10ne  (not  to,  with  subj.).  **(§527). 
11  dicere.  12  amicus.  13  salus.  14  statim.  15  forte.  16  (genitive).  17  acci¬ 
dere.  18  pirata.  19  penetrare.  20  portus.  21  metus.  22  (acc.  with  inf.). 
23  praetermittere.  24  pertinere.  25  cadere.  26  in.  27  occidere.  23  detra¬ 
here.  29  negare  ( num  is  to  be  placed  before  the  pronoun.) 

123.  The  pronouns  he,  she,  it,  these,  those,  (is,  ea,  id)  are 
often  omitted  in  Latin  before  the  pronouns  who,  which,  (qui, 
quae,  quod).  This  omission  occurs,  when  the  pronoun  has 
no  special  emphasis;  it  lakes  place  most  frequently,  when 
the  relative  clause  stands  first,  or  when  the  omitted  demon¬ 
strative  denotes  some  indefinite  object,  and  has  the  sense  of 
aliquis ,  or  when  the  relative  qui  can  be  resolved  into  si  quis, 
and  also  particularly  where  the  relative  and  antecedent  are  in 
the  same  case;  quis  (for  quibus)  opes  nullae  sunt,  (i  i)  bonis 
invident. — Utile  est,  uti  motu  animi,  qui  (=  s  i  q  u  i  s)  uti  ra¬ 
tione  non  potest ;  e.  g.  He,  who  loves  virtue,  is  dear  to  me, 
qui  virtutem  amat,  mihi  carus  est.  I  have  seen  those  whom 
you  expect,  vidi,  quos  tu  exspectas.  Yet  where  definiteness 
is  required,  the  pronoun  must  be  expressed. 

124.  The  Latins  sometimes  put  the  antecedent  and  the 
relative  in  the  same  clause,  and  instead  of  saying:  The  let¬ 
ters  which  you  sent  me  are  short,  they  say,  what  letters  you 
sent  me,  these  are  short,  q  u  a  s  epistolas  mihi  misisti,  eae 
breves  sunt.  1  meet  you  in  the  place,  in  which  you  wish, 
quo  loco  vis,  e  o  te  convenio.  Thus  the  substantive  is 
attracted  to  the  relative,  and  is  put  in  the  same  case  with  it. 
Before  the  principal  clause,  which  stands  after  the  other,  is, 
ea,  id,  or  idem  referring  to  that  clause,  is  usually  placed,  as 
the  above  examples  show,  viz.  eae  and  eo  ;  the  pronoun,  how¬ 
ever,  is  often  omitted,  when  it  is  not  emphatic ;  e.  g.  urbem 
quam  statuo,  vestra  est. 


100 


FRONOUNS. 


[§  125. 


This  mode  of  construction  and  agreement  must  always  be 
adopted,  when  a  substantive,  to  which  qui,  quae,  quod  refers, 
stands  alone,  and  is  in  apposition  with  another ;  e.  g.  Mum¬ 
mius  destroyed  Corinth,  a  city,  which,  at  that  time ,  was  the 
most  magnificent  in  Greece,  quae  urbs  (not  urbem  quae) 
tum  amplissima  Graeciae  erat.  A  state,  which,  quae  civ¬ 
itas;  a  place,  which,  qui  locus;  everything ,  which, 
quae  omnia,  quae  res  o  m  n  e  s  ;  at  the  time  when,  quo 
tempore;  Alexander  died  in  his  thirty-third  year,  at  an 
age,  which,  quae  aetas,  not  aetate,  quae.  The  ad¬ 
jective,  also,  is  sometimes  put  in  the  relative  clause,  and  made 
to  agree  with  the  relative,  instead  of  with  the  substantive  to 
which  the  relative  refers,  e.  g.  veniat  Caesar  cum  copiis,  quas 
habet  firmissimas. 

Examples. 

The  money,  which  we  have  borrowed1  from  others,  cannot 
be  called  ours.  Those  evils,  which  we  suffer2  with  many, 
seem  to  us  lighter3.  The  year  in  which  Tarquinius  Super- 
bus  was  banished4  from  Rome,  the  Athenians  banished  Hip¬ 
pias.  The  herbs5,  which  the  flocks6  do  not  eat7,  men  often 
eat.  The  men,  whom  you  commended,  are  worthy  of8  com¬ 
mendation.  The  expectation,  which  you  have  raised9  of10 
yourself,  is  great.  I  live  content11  with  that  lot12  which  I 
have  chosen13  for  myself.  The  Germans  abandoned  the  booty14 
which  they  had  obtained15.  A  thought16,  which  lessens17  all 
trouble18.  Verres  sends  to  king  Antiochus  to  ask  for  those 
most  beautiful  vases,  which  he  had  seen. 

1  mutuari.  2pati.  3  levis.  4  expellere.  5  herba.  6pecbra.  7  edere. 
8  (ablative).  9  concitare.  10  de.  11  contentus.  12  sors.  13  dare.  14  prae¬ 
da.  15  nancisci.  16  cogitatio.  17  extenuare.  18  molestia. 

125.  The  pronouns  that  and  those,  followed  by  a  substan¬ 
tive  governed  by  the  preposition  of,  are  expressed  in  Latin 
by  hie  or  ille  referring  to  a  person  or  thing  before  named,  or 
to  a  place,  when  that  substantive  does  not  denote  a  second 
person  or  thing  contrasted  with  a  preceding  one.  Sometimes 
instead  of  the  pronouns  hie  or  ille,  the  substantive  itself  is  re¬ 
peated  ;  e.  g.  Virtue  seeks  no  other  reward,  than  that  (prae- 


PRONOUNS. 


101 


§  126.] 

ter  h  a  n  c)  of  praise  and  renown.  (He  had  before  spoken 
of  this).  Not  only  is  all  arrogance  hateful ,  hut  that  of  ge¬ 
nius  and  eloquence  is  by  far  the  most  offensive ,  cum  omnis  ar¬ 
rogantia  odiosa  est,  tum  illa  ingenii,  atque  eloquen¬ 
tiae;  there  is  no  speed  ichic/i  can  compare  with  the  speed  of 
the  mind ,  nulla  est  celeritas,  quae  possit  cum  animi 
celeritate  contendere. 

But  often  both  the  pronouns  hic ,  ille  and  the  substantive 
itself  are  omitted  before  the  genitive.  This  takes  place,  when 
the  genitive  is  contrasted  with  a  preceding  genitive.  But  in 
English  we  must  often  supply,  this ,  that ,  these,  those ;  e.  g.  I 
prefer  the  art  of  memory  to  that  of  forgetfulness,  memori- 
a  e  artem,  quam  oblivionis  malo ;  the  lineaments  of  the 
mind  are  more  beautiful  than  those  of  the  body ,  animi  lin¬ 
eamenta  sunt  pulcriora,  quam  corporis.  Comp.  Rams- 
horn’s  Lat.  Gram.  p.  317. 

Examples . 

The  letters  of  Cicero  are  more  frequently1  read  than  those 
of  Pliny.  The  name  of  Themistocles  is  more  renowned2, 
than  that  of  Solon.  There  are  three  kinds3  of  blessings;  the 
greatest  are  those  of  the  mind4,  the  second  those  of  the  body, 
and  the  third  external5.  In  Gaul  there  are  two  kinds  of  hon¬ 
orable6  men,  one  that  of  the  Druids7,  the  other  that  of  the 
knights.  The  diseases  of  the  mind  are  more  dangerous  than 
those  of  the  body.  Publius  Considius  had  been  in  the  army8 
of  Sulla,  and  afterwards  in  that  of  Marcus  Crassus.  I  can 
find  no  more  beautiful9  saying10,  than  that  of  Seneca.  The 
life  of  a  man  is  not  preserved11,  as  that  of  a  vine12  and  a  tree. 
This  letter  is  not  that  of  a  counsellor13,  but  that  of  a  peti¬ 
tioner14.  The  body  of  a  sleeper  lies15  like  that  of  a  dead 
man. 

Creber.  2  illustris.  3  genus.  4  animus.  5  externus.  6  honoratus. 
7  Druida.  8  exercitus.  9  praestans.  10  dictum.  11  conservare.  12  vitis. 
13  suasor.  14  rogator.  15  jacere. 

126.  The  pronouns  he  himself,  she  herself,  this  or  that  one 
himself ,  etc.  and  also  the  neuters,  this  or  that  thing  itself,  are 
expressed  in  Latin  by  ipse  ille,  ipse  hie,  or  also  by  ille  ipse,  hie 
ipse;  but  even  he,  this  or  that  very  person  or  thing  is  expres- 


102 


PRONOUNS. 


[§  127. 


sed  only  by  hic  ipse ,  ille  ipse  not  ipse  ille.  These  two,  there¬ 
fore,  must  not  be  confounded  with  each  other ;  The  self-same 
Gorgias  (or  Gorgias  himself)  professes  in  that  very  hook  of 
Plato,  ipse  ille  Gorgias  in  illo  ipso  Platonis  libro.  With 
other  pronouns  also,  very  or  even  are  expressed  by  ipse ,  but 
it  is  always  placed  after  the  other  pronoun. 

Examples. 

Thou  hast  attributed1  something  to  Epicurus,  which  was 
never  said  by  himself.  This  very  thing,  which  you  write  to 
me,  has  been  most  pleasing  to  me.  If  any  one  has  been  seiz¬ 
ed2  with  a  bloody3  sword4,  in  the  very  place  where  a  murder¬ 
ed  man5  lies6,  suspicion  will  fall  on  him.  What  can  be  found 
which  is  more  repugnant  to  itself7  even.  Timoleon  perform¬ 
ed8  the  most  successful  acts9  on  his  very  birth-day10.  This 
very  thing,  to  do  nothing  and  to  be  wholly*  inactive11,  de¬ 
lights12  me.  Those  very  men,  who  are  devoted13  to  the  pur¬ 
suits  of  science14  and  wisdom,  employ15  their  knowledge  for16 
the  benefit  of  men.  This  is  the  very  thing  which  is  called 
useful. 

1  attribuere.  2  comprehendere.  3  cruentus.  4  gladius.  5  occisus.  6  ja¬ 
cere.  7  sibi  repugnare.  8  gerere.  9  res.  10  dies  natalis.  *  plane.  11  ces¬ 
sare.  12  delectare.  13  deditus  (see  §  79).  14  intelligentia.  15  conferre. 
16  ad. 

127.  The  pronoun  ipse  in  different  sentences  can  express 
different  relations. 

It  usually  stands  as  the  antithesis  of,  or  in  contrast  with, 
another  person  or  thing,  or  even  several.  A  different  case  is 
used,  according  to  the  difference  of  the  antithesis.  If  the 
antithesis  is  in  the  nominative,  and  consequently  the  subject 
of  the  sentence  or  the  actor  is  to  be  considered  antithetic, 
rather  than  the  object  to  which  the  action  is  directed,  the 
pronoun  is  in  the  nominative.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  anti¬ 
thesis  is  in  an  oblique  case,  (in  the  genitive,  dative,  accusa¬ 
tive  or  ablative,)  and  the  word  self  refers  to  the  person  or 
thing  to  which  the  action  is  directed,  and  if  it  is  also  the 
same  as  is  contained  in  the  subject,  and  consequently  the 
same  person  as  the  actor,  the  word  ipse  stands  in  the  oblique 
case.  If,  e.  g.  it  is  said,  Know  thyself  ‘  and  the  meaning  is, 


PRONOUNS. 


103 


§  127.] 

do  you  yourself,  and  no  other  one,  know  and  examine  your¬ 
self,  then  the  word  self  refers  to  the  subject,  and  stands  in  the 
nominative,  and  the  idea  is  expressed  by  nosce  te  ipse  or 
ipse  te  nosce;  but  if  the  meaning  is  know  yourself,  your 
own  self,  and  no  other  one,  then  it  refers  to  the  accusative  te, 
and  is  expressed  by  nosce  te  i  p  s  u  m.  Further ;  the  phrases, 
mihi  ipse  faveo,  and  rnihi  ip  si  faveo,  have  different  mean¬ 
ings.  In  the  first,  the  speaker  contrasts  himself  with  others, 
who  do  not  favor  him,  hence  ipse  ;  in  the  second,  with  others, 
whom  he  does  not  favor,  hence  ipsi.  Further ;  scribam  i  p- 
s  e  de  me,  or  scribam  de  me  ipso;  in  the  first  case,  he  him¬ 
self  will  do  it,  no  other  one  shall  do  it ;  in  the  second  case, 
he  will  make  himself  and  no  other  one  the  object  of  his  writ¬ 
ing,  i.  e.  he  will  write  of  himself  alone.  The  connection, 
therefore,  must  always  determine  to  whom  the  speaker  refers 
the  pronoun. 

In  the  phrase  hy  himself,  herself,  itself,  ipse  always  belongs 
to  the  subject,  therefore  per  se  ipse,  or  ipse  per  se.  And  so 
in  classical  writers  the  nominative  is  often  used,  where,  on 
account  of  a  possible  and  conceivable  contrast,  the  case  of 
the  other  pronoun  connected  with  it,  might  be  expected.  On 
the  contrary,  in  connection  with  egomet — tumet — through  all 
the  cases,  the  strengthening  ipse  is  put  in  the  same  case  with 
these  ;  therefore,  egomet  ipse,  mihimet  ipsi,  memet  ipsum ,  no- 
hismet  ipsis,  etc. 

Examples. 

Nero  was  accustomed  to  proclaim1  himself  the  conqueror, 
in  the  sacred'2  contests3,  not  the  public  crier*.  If  we  do  not 
persuade**  you  to  write4  our  exploits5,  we  will  write  ourselves. 
Pardon6  me,  if  I  say7  something  of  myself.  If  I  deplore8  the 
neglect9  of  eloquence,  I  seem  to  complain10  of  myself.  Jus¬ 
tice  must  be  honored,  in  order  that  we  may  be  pleasing  to 
ourselves  and  the  immortal  gods.  If  we  praise  ourselves,  it 
is  not  necessary11  that  others  should  praise  us  ;  but  if  we  cen¬ 
sure12  ourselves,  it  is  also  proper13  to  censure  others.  One14 
of  the  vestals15  killed  herself.  That  is  the  best  remedy16  in 
trouble17,  which  we  find  in  ourselves.  Virtue  has  so  great 


104 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§§  128,  129. 

strength18,  that  she  can  protect19  herself.  That  man  is  wise20 
to  no  purpose21,  who  cannot  benefit22  himself.  I  esteem23 
myself  more24  daily25,  since26  you  began27  to  esteem  me. 
There  are  none,  who  hate28  themselves.  I  say  all  these  things, 
partly29  for  myself,  partly  for  you  and  others.  I,  who  en¬ 
courage30  you,  cannot  encourage  myself.  Caesar  must  fall31, 
either  by  his  enemies32,  or  by  himself.  Lentulus,  whom  I 
prefer33  to  all  and  to  myself,  did  not  think  otherwise34. 

'pronuntiari.  2  sacer.  3  certamen.  *  praeco.  **  impetrare  (fut.  per¬ 
fect).  4  scribere.  6  res  gesta.  6  ignoscere.  7  praedicare.  8  deplorare. 
9  intermissio.  10queri.  11  necesse  esse  (followed  by  subjunctive  with¬ 
out  ut.)  12  reprehendere.  13  licere.  14  alter.  15  Vestalis.  16  medicina. 
17  labor.  18  vires.  19  tueri.  20  sapere.  21  nequidquam.  22  prodesse.  23  fa¬ 
cere.  24  pluris.  25  quotidie.  26  ex  quo.  27  coepisse.  28  odisse  (subjunct.). 
29  partim.  30  confirmare.  31  corruere.  32  adversarius.  33  anteponere. 
34  aliter. 


(B.)  PARTICULAR  RULES. 

I.  Government  of  the  Cases  of  declinable 

words. 

128.  It  has  already  been  shown,  in  the  first  Part,  that  the 
different  cases  of  declinable  words  depend  mostly  on  words 
which  are  in  the  same  sentence.  Sometimes  the  cases  are 
dependent  upon  substantives,  adjectives,  pronouns,  verbs,  ad¬ 
verbs  and  prepositions ;  sometimes  the  case  is  determined  by 
a  particular  thought,  which  is  to  be  expressed.  But  since  there 
is  a  marked  difference,  in  the  two  languages,  in  respect  to 
what  the  different  words  govern,  it  is  important  to  be  able  to 
understand  the  principal  points  of  difference.  The  order  of 
the  cases  will  be  followed. 

THE  NOMINATIVE. 

129.  The  nominative  case  is  either  the  subject  or  t\\e  pre¬ 
dicate  of  a  sentence. 

In  stating  the  subject,  the  English  seldom  differs  from  the 
Latin,  because  the  subject,  consequently  the  nominative,  re¬ 
mains  in  most  instances,  the  same  as  in  English,  and  is  used 
for  the  subject  in  the  nominative.  There  is  a  difference,  how- 


NOMINATIVE  CASE. 


105 


§  129.] 

ever,  where  the  Latin  employs  the  accusative  with  the  infini¬ 
tive,  which  becomes  the  nominative  in  English,  and  also  where 
a  phrase  is  changed,  because  a  verb,  wholly  different  from 
the  one  in  Latin,  is  used,  e.  g.  when  the  verb  to  have  is  ex¬ 
pressed  by  esse,  compare  §  172.  a,  often  also  with  imperson¬ 
al  verbs,  see  §  189  and  §  220. 

The  two  languages  more  frequently  differ  in  stating  the 
predicate.  A  certain  class  of  verbs,  of  themselves,  give  only 
an  imperfect  idea,  which  is  completed  by  the  addition  of  a  de¬ 
finite  predicate  or  explanatory  word,  which  may  be  a  substan¬ 
tive  or  an  adjective.  As  the  predicate  is  in  the  same  case  as 
the  object  of  which  it  is  predicated,  it  must  be  in  the  nomin¬ 
ative,  since  it  is  the  predicate  of  the  subject.  In  English 
this  predicate  sometimes  stands  simply  as  a  nominative,  e.  g. 
Hercules  became  a  demi-gocl;  sometimes  also  it  is  preceded 
by  an  explanatory  word,  e.  g.  as,  for  —  which  explanation  the 
Latin  omits;  e.  g.  Brutus  was  given  him  for  or  as  a  com¬ 
panion  (comes);  Claudia  was  known  as  the  most  chaste 
(castissima).  Of  this  class  of  verbs  are  esse,  feri,  evade¬ 
re,  reddi,  creari,  nominari,  haberi,  and  many  others  similar, 
which  express  but  an  incomplete  idea.  That  the  word  add¬ 
ed  to  the  subject  and  defining  it  more  clearly,  is  its  predicate, 
is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  the  subject  and  predicate  can  be 
united ;  for  when  Cicero  was  chosen  consul,  he  was  the  Con¬ 
sul  Cicero.  Explanatory  adjectives  are  to  be  considered 
in  the  same  manner ;  as,  My  brother  has  arrived  safe,  sal¬ 
vus. 

When  such  a  phrase  as  the  following  is  used,  viz.  Virtue  is  seldom 
taken  for  what  it  really  is,  we  must  refer  to  §  103,  according  to  which, 
it  must  be  expressed,  Raro  virtus  (e  a)  habetur,  quae  revera  est, 
not  id  quod.  The  nominative  is  rarely  used  in  exclamations,  these 
being  oftener  expressed  by  the  accusative  ;  e.  g.Omagna  vis  ve¬ 
ritatis,  quae  facile  se  per  se  ipsa  defendat. 

Examples. 

Many  dreams1  prove2  true.  No  one  is  born  rich.  The  Chi¬ 
nese3  have  become  wiser  by  the  instructions4  of  Confucius. 
Scipio  was  chosen5  as  a  commander  against  Hannibal.  Virtue 


106 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  130. 


is  justly  considered6  as  the  greatest  good,  and  vice  the  great¬ 
est  evil.  Everything  earthly7  must  be  considered  weak8  and 
perishable9.  Brutus  and  Tarquinius  Collatinus  were  appoint¬ 
ed10  the  first  consuls  of  Rome.  Those  who  are  honored11,  seem 
happy,  but  those  unhappy12,  who  are  without  honor13.  This 
whole14  world  must  be  considered  as  a  common  state  of  gods 
and  men.  The  poets  were  always  considered  by  the  ancients 
as  sacred15,  and  were  so16  called.  That  which  at  first  was  con¬ 
sidered  by  me  as  joy,  afterwards  proved17  the  greatest  destruc¬ 
tion18.  We  are  seldom  taken  for  what  we  really19  are. 

^omnium.  2  fieri.  3  Chinensis.  4  praecepta.  5eligere.  6existimare. 
7  terrestris.  8  cadacus.  9  fragilis.  10  creare.  11  honoratus.  12  miser. 
13  inglorius.  14  universus.  15  sanctus.  16  (so  is  omitted).  17  existere. 
18  exitium.  19  revera. 

130.  Opus  est. 

When  to  be  in  need  of  or  to  be  necessary ,  is  expressed  by 
opus  esse,  in  English,  the  person  or  thing  in  need  of  some¬ 
thing  is  put  in  the  nominative,  and  the  thing  needed,  in  the 
accusative  (objective)  after  the  verb  or  a  preposition.  Butin 
Latin,  the  former  is  put  in  the  dative,  and  the  latter  in  the 
nominative  or  ablative,  more  frequently  in  the  ablative.  When 
the  nominative  is  used,  the  verb  esse  depends  upon  it,  and 
must  agree  with  it  in  number.  But  when  the  ablative  is  used, 
the  verb  is  impersonal,  and  stands  without  a  subject,  and  only 
in  the  singular  ;  e.  g.  I  need  aid ,  m  i  h  i  opus  est  auxili¬ 
um  or  auxilio;  I  need  guards,  mihi  opus  sunt  cus¬ 
todes,  or  mihi  opus  est  custodibus.  The  word 
opus  is  never  declined. 

Where  this  phrase  occurs,  all  the  tenses  and  all  the  modes  can  be 
used ;  e.  g.  The  father  was  surprised ,  that  his  son  was  so  soon  in  need 
of  money,  quod  filio  jam  nunc  opus  esset  pecunia.  When  the 
construction  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  occurs,  then,  in¬ 
stead  of  the  nominative,  the  accusative  is  used,  and  the  verb  agrees 
with  it ;  e.  g.  That  helpers  will  be  needed,  adjutores  opus  esse 
futuros.  But  the  ablative  is  not  changed,  and  the  verb  in  the  neu- 
ter  gender  is  joined  with  opus  ;  thus,  That  there  will  be  need  of  help¬ 
ers,  adjutoribus  opus  esse  futurum. 

It  is  to  be  noticed,  also,  that  substantives  are  usually  put  in  the  ab¬ 
lative,  but  adjectives  and  neuter  pronouns,  for  the  most  part,  in  the 
nominative,  because  the  ablative  of  the  neuter  pronouns  could  not  be 
distinguished  from  the  masculine  ;  e.  g.  H  ae  c  mihi  opus  sunt  (1 
have  need  of  these),  not  h  i  s  mihi  opus  est,  but,  I  have  need  of  help, 
mihi  opus  est  auxilio,  more  seldom  auxilium. 


GENITIVE  CASE. 


107 


§  131.] 

When  instead  of  the  substantive,  a  verb  is  connected  with  opus  esse , 
e.  g.  It  is  not  necessary  for  you  to  sit  here,  then  it  is  not  the  dative  with 
the  infinitive  that  is  used,  but  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive. 
Therefore,  Nihil  opus  est  te  hic  sedere,  not  t  i  b  i. 

Examples. 

The  unfortunate1  have  need  of  help  only,  not  mere9  com¬ 
miseration3.  Where  there  are  proofs4  of  action,  the  judges 
have  no5  need  of  words.  Thou  hast  promised6  me  every¬ 
thing,  which  I  needed.  We  believe  that  we  shall  need  no 
expense7  for  this8.  For  life,  we  need  many  things,  but  for  a 
happy  one,  only9  a  sound10  mind11  and  a  sound  body.  If, 
for  a  happy  life,  men  needed  gold,  silver,  and  other  suchlike19 
things,  many  must  be  regarded13  as  the  most  unfortunate  men. 
Fleet14  horses  will  never15  need  spurs16.  Why17  did  you  have 
need  of  this  ship  ?  We  do  not  need  to  go18  home.  It  is  not19 
necessary  for  you  to  wait  longer90 

1  raiser.  2  solus.  3  miseratio.  4  documentum.  3  non.  8  polliceri. 
7  sumptus.  8  ad  hoc  (for  this).  9  tantum.  10  sanus.  11  mens,  ^ejusmo¬ 
di.  13  habendus.  14  currens.  15nunquam.  16  calcar.  17quid.  ,8proficisci. 
19  nihil.  20  diu. 


THE  GENITIVE. 

131.  This  case  generally  denotes  the  object  from  which 
something  proceeds,  and  has  its  origin,  and  that  which  refers  to 
the  object.  It  marks  quality,  character  and  obligation,  ex¬ 
presses  the  relation  of  the  whole  to  its  partsj  worth  and  price, 
and  more  fully  explains  the  meaning  of  a  substantive,  adjec¬ 
tive,  verb  and  adverb. 

GENITIVE  WITH  SUBSTANTIVES. 

After  substantives,  any  other  substantive  can  stand  in  the 
genitive,  when  it  does  not  form  with  them  a  single  idea(e.  g. 
Cicero  orator). 

This  genitive  denotes  sometimes  the  person  acting,  or  the 
efficient  cause ;  sometimes  the  possessor,  either  a  person  or 
thing,  to  which  something  belongs ;  e.  g.  The  order  of  the 
commander  (imperatoris);  the  how  of  Diana  (D  i  a- 
n  ae). 


108 


GENITIVE  OF  THE  OBJECT. 


[§§  132—134. 


The  relation  between  the  Latin  genitive  and  the  substan¬ 
tive  by  which  it  is  governed,  is  usually  expressed  in  English 
by  the  preposition  of.  For  exceptions  to  this,  see  §  134. 

132.  Gerunds  in  the  genitive  are  also  governed  by  the  sub¬ 
stantives  which  they  explain  ;  e.  g.  The  art  of  reading  well 
is  difficult,  ars  bene  legendi;  my  hope  of  spending  a  hap¬ 
py  life  is  idle,  mea  spes  beatam  vitam  agendi  vana  est. 

133.  Instead  of  the  substantive  pronouns  mei,  tui,  sui,  nos¬ 
tri,  vestri,  in  the  genitive,  the  Latins  use  the  possessives  me¬ 
us,  tuus,  suus,  noster,  vester,  agreeing  in  gender,  number  and 
case  with  their  substantives.  When  to  these  possessive  pro¬ 
nouns,  which  are  used  instead  of  the  Gen.  of  the  substantive 
pronouns,  any  explanatory  word  is  added,  to  define  more 
clearly  the  person  contained  in  the  possessives,  such  explana¬ 
tory  word  must  be  in  the  genitive,  as  stated  above,  §  105. 
These  pronouns  are  sometimes  rendered  into  English  as  if 
they  were  in  the  genitive. 

Examples. 

Many  orations  of  Cicero  are  lost1.  The  people2  of  Spain3 
revolted.  Your  last  letter  was  not  pleasing4  to  me.  The 
art  of  riding5  well  is  difficult.  The  desire6  of  doing  good7  is 
strong  in  many  men.  Scarcely8  a  trace9  of  Corinth  is  left10. 
Herds11  of  oxen12  and  horses  feed13  near  Clitumnus.  Ti¬ 
granes,  king  of  Armenia,  received  Mithridates,  king  of  Pon¬ 
tus,  kindly14.  Men  have  the  faculty  of  speaking  and  think¬ 
ing15.  Yesterday  I  received16  some  letters  of  yours.  I  see, 
that17  my  last18  writings19  are  known  to  very  few  men.  In 
the  houses  of  the  Spartan  kings,  no  one  could  see  any20  evi¬ 
dence21  of  luxury. 

’deperditus.  2  gens.  3  Hispania.  4  jucundus.  5  equitare.  6  voluntas. 

7  benefacere.  8  vix.  9  vestigium.  10  relictus.  11  grex.  12  bos.  14  pasci. 
14  amice.  15  cogitare.  16  accipere.  17  (acc.  with  inf.).  18  novissimus. 
19  scriptum.  20  (comp.  §122.)  21  signum. 

GENITIVE  OF  THE  OBJECT. 

134.  When  the  genitive  denotes  the  object  to  which  the 
action  implied  in  the  other  noun  refers,  it  is  called  the  ob¬ 
jective  genitive,  or  the  genitive  of  the  object.  The  object 


GENITIVE  OF  OBJECT. 


109 


§  135.] 

here  receives  the  action,  i.  e.  is  passive,  and  is  not  an  actor 
or  possessor.  The  Latins  usually  employ  the  genitive  here, 
as  they  consider  one  substantive  as  dependent  on  the  other. 

Where,  however,  ambiguity  would  arise  from  the  use  of 
the  Gen.,  the  Latins  use  the  preposition  with  its  proper  case. 
The  preposition  is  used,  when  the  genitive  of  a  personal  sub¬ 
stantive  follows,  because  such  a  substantive  more  frequently 
denotes  the  actor  or  possessor,  than  it  does  the  passive  object ; 
e.  g.  Love  for  learning ,  is  expressed  by,  amor  litterarum; 
but,  love  for  parents,  by  amor  in  parentes,  not  amor 
parentum,  which  signifies  the  love  which  parents  have 
for  others.  So  impietas  in  deos  for  deorum.  But 
yet,  very  often  with  these  and  other  substantives,  the  genitive 
only  is  used  ;  e.  g.  Desire  for  one's  father,  desiderium 
parentis. 

In  English  also  there  is  often  ambiguity  ;  e.  g.  The  love  of 
God,  i.  e.  either  the  love  which  he  exercises,  or  that  of  which 
he  is  the  object.  So  the  Latin  amor  Dei.  So,  injuria  s  o- 
ciorum;  odium  O  p  p  i  a  n  i  c  i ;  misericordia  hujus  ad¬ 
olescentis,  etc.  In  such  examples,  the  connection 
must  determine  the  sense.  The  objective  genitive  is  expres¬ 
sed  in  English  by  different  prepositions. 

Examples  of  such  genitives  :  Memoria  patriae,  memory  of  one's 
country  ;  recordatio  itineris,  recollection  of  or  respecting  the  jour¬ 
ney ;  laetitia  victoriae,  joy  on  account  of  victory ;  admonitio 
virtutis,  encouragement  to  virtue  ;  praemium  industriae,  re¬ 
ward  for  industry ;  reverentia  religionis,  respect  for  religion  ; 
solatium  doloris,  consolation  in  affliction  ;  judicium  t  u  i  facti, 
judgment  respecting  thy  act ;  peritia  h  i  s  t  o  r  i  se,  acquaintance  with 
history  ;  excusatio  senectutis,  excuse  on  account  of  old  age ; 
studium  salutis  meae,  desire  for  my  welfare  ;  via  laudis  et 
gloriae,  the  way  to  praise  and  glory  ;  gloria  posteritatis,  re¬ 
nown  with  posterity  ;  Pyrrhi  pax,  peace  icith  Pyrrhus ;  poenae  d  o- 
loris,  punishment  for  pain  ;  aditus  honorum,  access  to  places  of 
honor  ;  deorum  opinio,  belief  in  the  gods  ;  laudatio  mortis,  en¬ 
comium  upon  death,  etc. 

135.  But  when  the  English  personal  pronoun  denotes  the 
object  of  the  substantive  with  which  it  is  connected,  the  Latin 
possessive  is  not  used,  but  the  genitives  of  the  personal  pro- 

10 


110 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  135. 


nouns,  mei ,  tui ,  sui ,  nostri ,  vestri,  sui ;  Memoria  m  e  i,  re¬ 
membrance  of  me;  desiderium  nostri,  desire  for  us.  Here 
the  mei  is  the  object  of  memory,  or  the  object  remembered, 
and  the  nostri ,  the  object  of  desire.  There  is  need  of 
care  therefore  in  choosing  between  mei  and  meus,  tui  and 
tuus,  etc.,  although  meus  and  tuus  are  sometimes  used  am¬ 
biguously  ;  e.  g.  Injuria  m  e  a,  the  injury  done  to  me.  M  e  a 
conservatio,  signifies,  that  I  preserve  another ;  in  e  i  conserv¬ 
atio,  that  I  am  preserved  by  another ;  m  e  a  memoria,  that  I 
think  of  some  person  or  thing ;  mei  memoria,  that  I  am 
thought  of,  i.  e.  am  the  object  of  which  some  one  thinks.  The 
pronouns  meus,  tuus,  etc.  properly  denote  the  actor,  and  the 
genitives  mei,  tui,  etc.  the  person  receiving  the  action. 


Examples  on  §§  134,  135. 

(1)  The  recollection  of  their  past1  life  is  very  pleasant  to 
many.  Pleasure  is  an  enticement2  to  baseness3.  The  re¬ 
membrance  of  you  always  filis4  me  with  the  greatest  joy  ;  and 
I  doubt5  not,  that6  the  remembrance  of  me  gives7  joy  to  you 
also.  Regulus  burned8  with  love  for  his  country.  Confi¬ 
dence9  in  our  strength  gives  us  courage10.  The  contest11  for 
riches,  honor,  and  glory  is  common12  to  almost13  all.  I  am 
very  solicitous  concerning14  your  recommendation15,  although 
I  have  said  everything,  which  could  recommend  you.  Not 
the  fear  of  punishment,  but  the  inculcating16  of  duty  is  the 
best  incentive17  to  virtue.  Many  have  a  desire  for  nothing, 
except18  for  pleasure.  Almost  all  animals  have  strength  for 
their  defence19.  All  men  are  not  captivated20  by  equal  de¬ 
sire  for  glory.  Patience  is  the  best  remedy21  for  affliction. 
Cato  was  inflamed22  with  deadly23  hatred24  against  Car¬ 
thage.  Tiberius  Gracchus  left25  an  ardent  longing  for  him¬ 
self  among  the  Roman  people. 

’superior.  2  illecebra.  3  turpitudo.  4  afficdre.  5dubitare.  6quin. 
7  parare.  8  flagrare.  9  fiducia.  10  animus.  11  certamen.  12  communis. 
13  fere.  14  de.  15  commendatio.  16  admonitio.  17 incitamentum.  18  nisi. 
19  tutela.  20  tenere.  21  medicina,  22  inflammare  (active).  23  perniciosus. 
24  odium.  25  relinquere. 

(2)  T  will  cause1  you  to2  rejoice  in  the  midst3  of  your  af¬ 
fliction  and  your  desire  for  us.  Nature  has  implanted4  in 


GENITIVE  OF  THE  OBJECT. 


Ill 


§§  136,  137.] 

man  a  desire  for  truth5  and  rectitude6.  Epicurus  when  dying, 
asked,  that  not  only  his  memory,  but  also  that  of  Metrodorus 
might  be  celebrated.  May  every7  recollection  of  discord  be 
obliterated8  by  perpetual9  forgetfulness10.  Glory  is  the  great¬ 
est  incentive  to  danger  and  toil11.  We  pray  you  always12  to 
retain13  the  remembrance  of  us.  To  whom  his  own  preser¬ 
vation  is  an  object  of  solicitude14,  to  him  all  parts  of  the  body 
are  dear15  also. 

1  facio.  2  ut  (with  subj.).  3  medius.  4  ingignere.  5  verum.  6  rectum. 
7  omnis.  8  delere.  9  sempiternus.  10  oblivio.  11  labor.  12  perpetuo. 
13  servare.  14  cordi  esse  (object  of  solicitude).  15  carus. 

136.  But  the  genitive  stands  in  such  phrases,  only  when  in  Latin 
there  is  a  substantive,  on  which  the  genitive  depends  ;  for  when  in¬ 
stead  of  the  substantive,  some  other  word  is  used,  then  the  genitive  is 
put  in  the  case  which  that  word  requires  ;  e.  g.  /  Long  for  my  country , 
mihi  est  desiderium  p  at  r  i  ae,  but  desidero  patriam.  /  take  into 
consideration  your  industry ,  rationem  habeo  tuae  industriae, 
but  respicio  industriam.  /  care  for  thy  father ,  mihi  cura  est  t  u  i 
patris,  but  curo  tuum  patrem,  and  provideo  (prospicio,  consulo) 
tuo  patri, — and  so  in  similar  instances. 

137.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  many  phrases,  in  which  there 
is  no  substantive,  but  which  in  Latin,  are  expressed  by  phrases  con¬ 
taining  a  substantive,  as  the  principal  word,  and  hence  it  takes  a  gen¬ 
itive  ;  e.  g.  To  regard  something ,  rationem  habere  alicujus  rei  ; 
to  mention  something ,  mentionem  facere  alicujus  ;  to  avenge  some¬ 
thing,  vindicem  esse  alicujus  ;  to  advise  something ,  to  relate  some¬ 
thing,  auctorem  esse  alicujus  ;  to  try  something,  periculum 
facere  alicujus  ;  to  know  something,  to  be  acquainted  with  something, 
scientiam  habere  alicujus  ;  to  reckon  among  something,  in  nu¬ 
mero  alicujus  habere  ;  to  end  something,  alicujus  rei  finem  fa- 
cere  ;  and  also  many  other  similar  phrases.  Hence,  Balbus  relates 
this  occurrence,  is  expressed  by  hujus  rei  auctor  est  Balbus. 


Examples  on  §§  136,  137. 

Why1  dost  thou  mention2  this  worthless3  man  ?  He  who 
does  not  regard4  the  dignity  of  him,  with  whom  he  lives,  is 
called  foolish5.  I  always  advise6  to  peace,  not  to  war.  Cae¬ 
sar  considered7  Pompey  and  others  among8  the  enemies9  of 
the  state.  The  furies  revenge10  the  crimes11  and  wicked¬ 
ness12  of  men.  Epaminondas,  Caesar  and  Hannibal  were 
better  acquainted13  with  military  affairs14,  than  any  others15. 
Regard16  thine  own  advantage  first,  then17  mine.  Hesiod 
first  related18  this  fable.  Demosthenes  closed19  his  oration 
unexpectedly20. 

1  quid.  2  mentionem  facere.  3  infimus.  4  rationem  habere.  5  ineptus. 
6  auctor  esse.  7  habere.  8  in  numero.  9  hostis.  10  vindex  esse.  11  faci¬ 
nus.  12  scelus.  13  scientiam  habere.  14  res  militaris.  15  ante  omnes  (bet* 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


112 


[§138. 


ter  than  any  others).  16  rationem  habere.  17  deinde.  18  auctor  esse. 
19  finem  faceie.  20  improviso. 


138.  Some  Latin  substantives  govern  a  genitive,  whether 
they  are  translated  by  adverbs  or  other  parts  of  speech  :  (1) 

I  n  s  t  a  r  (a  likeness),  as,  like,  just  as ;  (2)  more,  m  o  d  o, 
and  r  i  t  u  (according  to  the  manner,  or  custom  of),  as,  like , 
like  as ;  (3)  causa,  gratia  and  ergo,  on  account  of, 
for,  for  the  sake  of 

The  words  causa  and  gratia  do  not  usually  stand  before 
their  genitives,  but  after  them.  My,  thy,  his,  etc.  are  here 
rendered  by  the  possessive  mca,  tua,  sua ,  nostra,  vestra  and 
sua,  placed  before  their  substantive,  but  not  by  mei,  tui,  etc. 
When  ipse,  unus  or  solus,  are  joined  with  mea,  tua,  etc.,  the 
former  are  put  in  the  genitive, — in  the  singular  with  mea,  tua, 
sua,  and  in  the  plural  with  nostra,  vestra  and  sua  (plural). 

Some  examples:  Like  a  mountain,  instar  montis;  as 
the  beasts,  more  (ritu)  pecudum;  for  the  sake  of  my  fa¬ 
ther,  mei  patris  causa  (gratia);  for  my  sake,  mea 
causa ;  for  the  sake  of  myself  alone,  mea  unius  causa  ; 
on  account  of  victory,  victoriae  ergo ;  for  example,  e  x- 
e  m  p  1  i  causa  or  gratia  ;  for  the  sake  of  walking,  a  m  b  u-  ' 
landi  causa ;  for  the  sake  of  writing  a  letter,  epistolam 
scribendi  causa. 


Examples. 

We  do  not  live  for  our  own  sake  alone,  but  also  for  the 
sake  of  other  men.  Thy  last  letter  was  like1  a  little  book2. 
The  years  of  our  life  pass3  like4  the  waves5  of  swiftly  run¬ 
ning6  water.  Most7  men  do  everything  only8  for  their  own 
sake.  I  ask  you  to9  undertake10  this  for  the  sake  of  my  hon¬ 
or.  Give  up11  common12  pleasures  for  the  sake  of  obtain¬ 
ing13  greater  pleasures,  and  endure14  pain  for  the  sake  of 
avoiding15  greater  pain.  Thou  doest  everything  for  thy 
own  sake.  Many  pass16  their  lives  in  obscurity17,  like18  the 
herds19.  Cicero  valued20  Brutus  and  Cassius  more21  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  state,  than  on  account  of  his  familiarity  with 
them.  This  place  was  not  like22  a  village23,  but  like  a  city. 


GENITIVE  OF  QUALITY. 


113 


§§  139, 140.] 

We  do  not  live  for  ourselves.  Beware24  for  thine  own  sake. 
We  do  everything  for  the  sake  of  living  happily25. 

'instar.  2  libellus.  3  transire.  4  more.  5  unda.  6  cito  fluens.  7plerique. 

8  tantum.  9  ut  (with  subj.).  10 suscipere.  11  omittere.  12  vulgaris,  ^adi¬ 
pisci.  14  suscipere.  15  effugere.  16  transigere.  17  silentio.  18  ritu.  19  pe¬ 
cora.  20  diligere.  21  plus.  22  instar.  23  vicus.  24  cavere.  25  beate. 

139.  English  adjectives  also,  which  qualify  substantives, 
are  often  expressed  in  Latin  by  a  substantive  in  the  genitive. 
This  mode  must  in  all  instances  be  adopted,  when  the  Latin 
adjective  is  either  not  in  use,  or  does  not  have  the  appro¬ 
priate  meaning;  e.  g.  Mental  (bodily)  pleasure ,  animi 
(corporis)  voluptas. 

GENITIVE  OF  QUALITY. 

140.  The  English  and  the  Latin  express  the  qualities  of  a 
substantive  both  by  adjectives  and  substantives  ;  e.  g.  He  is  a 
man  of  great  eloquence ,  instead  of,  a  very  eloquent  man. 

In  Latin,  the  substantives  denoting  quality  are  put  either 
in  the  genitive  or  ablative;  e.  g.  Homo  generosae  na¬ 
turae,  or  generosa  natura;  opus  summae  artis, 
or  summa  arte. 

But  such  genitives  or  ablatives  of  quality  never  consist  of 
a  substantive  merely;  there  must  alyvays  be  united  with  the 
substantive  an  adjective  or  numeral,  or  prohoun  expressing 
quality. 

For  the  purpose  of  writing  Latin,  therefore,  it  is  of  great 
importance  to  iftij,  iw  how  English  adjectives  are  expressed  by 
such  a  periphrasi^^English  positives  can  seldom  be  render¬ 
ed  into  Latin  peripirastically  ;  e.  g.  Good ,  swij^greaff We 
cannot  say  in  Latin,  t<y  denote  £/^dft  man,  vj^  cel  eTita-' 
tis  or  celerita  t  e.  N  But  by  a  circuif^cution 

is  of  great  swif  n c am  7 non ly  modest ,*  of  uncomi^j^mod- 

esty.  Hence,  besides  the  substantive  of  quality,  the  words 
magnus,  maximus ,  summus ,  ingens ,  eximius  and  the  like  are 
used.  The  word  so,  becomes  such  a  (t  a  1  i*s,  is);  so  very 
z=iso  great ;  how,  how  very— what,  how  great  ;  and  so  others 

10* 


114 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


K 141- 


similar.  An  accurate  analysis  will  explain  each  example. 
In  the  same  manner  comparatives  are  expressed  by  major, 
and  superlatives  by  maximus ,  summus ;  e.  g.  Very  virtuous= 
of  great  virtue,  magnae  virtutis;  uncommonly  virtu¬ 
ous— of  greater  virtue,  majoris  virtutis;  most  virtu - 
ous—ofthe  greatest  virtue,  summae  virtutis;  how  virtu¬ 
ous— of  what  virtue,  cujus  (qualis,  quantae)  vir¬ 
tutis. 

141.  The  genitive*  of  quality  is  used,  where  the  quality  is 
represented  as  an  essential  one,  as  belonging  to  the  very  na¬ 
ture  of  the  object,  whereas  the  ablative  represents  the  quality 
as  accidental  not  essential.  Hence  substantives  denoting  the 
measure  of  number,  time  and  space,  are  always  expressed  in 
the  genitive  ;  this  Gen.  is  also  very  often  employed  to  qualify 
a  substantive,  more  seldom  as  a  predicate.  Therefore,  it 
is  always  said,  iter  (via)  unius  diei,  not  uno  die; 
alia  ejus  generis,  ejusmodi,  not  eo  genere,  eo 
modo ;  fossa  pedum  trium,  not  pedibus  tribus; 
res  magni  laboris,  parvi  momenti;  classis  sep¬ 
tuaginta  navium. 

Both  the  Gen.  and  Abl.  of  quality  are  used  sometimes  to 

*  By  the  genitive,  an  object  is  represented  as  it  is  (in  the  view  of 
the  speaker),  by  the  ablative,  as  it  shows  itself  or  appears.  Thus,  e.  g. 
Quanto  fuerim  dolore,  meministi,  could  not  be  expressed  by 
quanti  doloris.  Hence,  if  an  internal  quality,  intellectual  or  moral, 
is  to  be  represnted  as  a  predominant  characteristic ,  and  as  denoting  the 
nature  of  a  person,  the  genitive  only  can  be  used.  On  the  contrary, 
if  a  quality  is  to  be  represented  as  only  appearing  in  a  person  without 
belonging  to  his  nature,  the  ablative  alone  caq  be  used.  It  will  be 
readily  seen,  therefore,  from  this  distinction,  fq$v  the  writer,  in  cer¬ 
tain  places,  views  a  quality  and  wishes  to  represent  it.  Murena  me¬ 
diocri  ingenio,  sed  magno  studio  rerum  veterum,  mul¬ 
tae  industriae  et  m  a  gn,i  laboris  fuit.  M.  shotced  little 
genius, *But  a  great  passion  for  antiquity ;  diligence  and  exertion  be¬ 
long  tojiis  nature.  The  Abl.  however,  could  be  used  here  in  place 
of  thelGen.,  though  expressing  a  different  relation. 

Qualities  of  the  body  also,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  the  whole  body, 
and  belong  to  its  nature,  can  be  expressed  in  the  Gen.  Other  quali¬ 
ties  of  the  body  are  denoted  by  the  Abl.  only.  Thyus,  homo  maxi- 
mi  corporis,  terribili  facie,  quod  et  niger  et  capillo  lon¬ 
go  barbaque  erat  promissa.  See  .Rrtlger’s  Lat.  Gram.  &  398. 
Rem.  1. 


GENITIVE  OF  QUALITY. 


115 


§  142.] 


qualify  another  substantive,  and  sometimes  as  the  predicate, 
in  which  case  they  are  connected  with  their  subjects  by  esse 
ox  Jieri ;  e.  g.  Lysander ,  a  man  of  the  greatest  bravery ,  a 
most  brave  man,  Lysander  summae  virtutis;  Lysan¬ 
der  was  very  brave,  Lysander  erat  summae  virtutis. 

For  the  purpose  of  uniting  the  quality  with  the  subject,  in¬ 
stead  of  the  verb  to  be,  we  generally  use  the  verbs  to  have  or 
to  possess,  or  to  prove  or  some  other  one  ;  the  Latins  only 
esse ;  e.  g.  Cato  possessed  the  greatest  prudence,  Cato  erat 
summae  prudentiae. 

Compare  these  remarks  with  what  will  be  said  of  the  abla¬ 
tive  of  quality,  §  192, 


.  Examples. 

Cato  was  a  man  of  tried1  fidelity  and  ardent2  love  for  his 
country.  Catiline  was  a  most3  inconstant4  man.  Sempronia 
had  done5  many  manly6  and  audacious7  acts8.  The  squirrel 
is  a  very9  gluttonous10  animal.  In  the  Roman  state,  many 
very  brave  citizens  were  found11.  This  easy12  business  has 
been  committed13  to  me.  Lucius  Torquatus,  a  man  of  the 
noblest  disposition14,  of  the  greatest  penetration15,  and  of  un¬ 
common16  firmness17,  was  the  most  intimate  friend18  of  Ci¬ 
cero.  The  emperor  Titus  was  so  kind19  and  liberal20,  that 
he  never  refused21  anything  to  any  one.  Caius  Serranus  was 
a  man  of  respectable22  talents23  and  judgment24.  Instruct25 
our  Lentulus,  a  most  hopeful26  and  virtuous27  youth.  Virtue 
has  so  great  strength28,  that29  she  can  protect30  herself  An 
armistice31  of  thirty  days  has  been  made.  The  pyramid  of 
Cheops,  king  of  Egypt,  was  eight  hundred  feet  high.  A 
thanksgiving32  of  twenty-two  days  was  decreed33. 

1  spectatus.  2  flagrans.  3  summus.  4  inconstantia.  5  committere. 
6  virilis.  7  audacia.  8  facinus.  9  plurimus.  10  cibus.  11  reperiri.  12  par¬ 
vus.  13  committere.  14  animus.  15  consilium.  16  singularis.  17constan- 
tia.  18  amicissimus  (the  most  intimate  friend).  19  facilitas.  20  liberall- 
tas.  21  denegare.  22  satis  magnus.  23  ingenium.  24  consilium,  ^erudi¬ 
re.  26  eximia  spes.  27  summa  virtus.  28  vires.  29  ut.  30  tueri.  31  induti 
ae.  32  supplicatio.  33  decernere. 

142.  The  genitive  of  a  substantive,  without  another  sub¬ 
stantive  to  govern  it,  very  often  stands  with  the  verb  esse, 
and  with  the  passives  duel  and  haberi  (to  be  considered),  etc., 


116 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


§  142.] . 

when  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  an  infinitive,  or  the  verb 
is  in  the  third  person  singular  without  a  subject.  This  geni¬ 
tive  denotes  the  peculiarity ,  the  mark,  the  character,  the  na¬ 
ture,  the  employment,  the  duty,  the  habit,  of  some  person  or 
thing.  The  following  among  other  phrases  may  be  noticed; 
It  is  the  duty  of  a  young  man,  est  adolescentis;  it  is 
the  habit,  nature,  characteristic  of  an  experienced  judge,  est 
periti  judicis;  it  is  a  sign,  mark,  peculiarity  of  a  weak 
mind,  est  imbecilli  animi;  it  is  the  nature  of  every 
man,  est  cujusque  hominis. 

So  also  without  a  substantive;  e.  g.  It  is  my  duty,  est 
m  e  u  m  ;  it  is  our  duty,  est  nostrum;  the  father  believed 
that  it  was  his  duty,  s  u  u  m  esse  putabat. 

Further;  this  genitive  is  used  in  translating  many  English 
phrases,  e.  g.  It  is  conformable  to  duty  ;  he  is  wont ;  it  shows, 
it  indicates ;  it  bespeaks,  gives  proof  of;  it  is  incumbent  on  ; 
it  is  a  peculiarity  of,  etc.;  e.  g.  To  perceive  this  gives  proof 
of  prudence,  to  do  it,  of  courage,  hoc  sentire  prudentiae 
est,  facere  fortitudinis;  we  cannot  judge,  non  est  nos¬ 
tri  judicii;  this  is  most  conformable  to  duty ,  hoc  maxime 
officii  est ;  some  one  must,  est  a  1  i  c  u  j  u  s ;  some  one  ought 
not,  non  est  a  1  i  c  u  j  u  s ;  your  education  requires  it,  est  h  u- 
manitatis  tuae. 

Examples. 

A  wise1  husbandman*  is  accustomed2  to  pluck  off3  the 
superfluous4  leaves5  of  the  vine.  To  be  angry  on  account 
of6  the  fault  of  another7,  is  a  proof  of  a  contracted  mind8. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  magistrate  to  withstand9  the  rashness10 
of  wicked  men.  It  is  a  proof  of  a  noble  nature  always  to 
hope  ;  but  to  strive11  in  vain12  is  a  proof  of  the  greatest  folly. 
It  is  a  proof  of  insatiable  avarice,  to  desire13  too  much14,  as15 
it  ought16  to  be  considered17  a  mark  of  a  temperate18  man, 
not  to  desire  too  much.  It  is  our  duty  to  forget  discord.  It 
is  an  evidence  of  luxury  to  desire19  delicate20  things.  It  is 
the  duty  of  men  to  pity21  the  unfortunate22.  It  is  a  charac¬ 
teristic  of  a  grateful  people  to  reward23  meritorious24  citizens, 
as  it  is  the  characteristic  of  brave25  men  not  to  be  influenced26 


GENITIVE  OF  THE  POSSESSOR. 


117 


§  143.] 

by  punishment27.  Nothing  proves  so  narrow28  and  contract¬ 
ed29  a  mind,  as  to  love  riches. 

1  sapiens.  *  rusticus.  2  esse.  3  decerpere.  4  supervacuus.  5  frons, 
-dis.  6  ob.  7  peccatum  alienum.  8  angustum  pectus.  9  resistere.  10  te¬ 
meritas.  11  niti.  12  frustra.  13  concupiscere.  14  nimium  (too  much). 
15  sicut.  16  debere.  17  ducere.  18  continens.  19  desiderare.  20  delicatus. 
21  misereri.  22  infelix.  23  praemiis  afficere.  24  bene  meritus.  25  fortis. 
26  movere.  27  supplicium.  28  angustus.  29  parvus. 

143.  The  Latins  use  the  genitive  with  the  verb  esse ,  to  de¬ 
note  the  possessor  and  owner  of  anything,  where  we  say  in 
English,  to  be  in  the  possession  of  any  one ,  to  belong  to  any 
one.  But  the  English  personal  pronoun  is  rendered  by  the 
Latin  possessive  instead  of  the  genitive.  Fieri  is  also  used 
in  the  same  manner  ;  to  come  into  the  possession  of  any  one , 
to  become  the  property  of  any  one ;  e.  g.  This  book  belongs  to 
my  father,  is  in  the  possession  of  my  father,  hie  liber  est  m  e  i 
patris;  this  belongs  neither  to  me,  nor  to  any  one  of  us,  hoc 
est  neque  meum  neque  cujusquam  nostrum;  Mile¬ 
tus  came  into  the  power  of  Alexander  the  Great ,  Miletus  facta 
est  Alexandri  magni.  But  when  pronouns  are  em¬ 
ployed,  the  possessives  are  used  ;  e.  g  I'his  book  belongs  to  me, 
hie  liber  meus  est.  But  there  is  some  difference  between 
the  sentences,  This  book  belongs  to  my  father — wad,  My  fa¬ 
ther  has  a  book;  the  first  is  expressed  by,  hie  liber  est  pa¬ 
tris  mei;  the  other  by,  patri  meo  est  liber,  where  esse 
is  used  with  the  dative.  The  genitive  is  used,  when  the  pro¬ 
perty  is  to  be  represented  as  necessarily  belonging  to  the  pos¬ 
sessor  ;  the  dative,  on  the  contrary,  is  used,  when  it  is  to  be 
generally  expressed,  that  some  one  has  or  possesses  some¬ 
thing. 

Examples . 

The  city  of  Rome  was  then  wholly  in  the  possession  of  the 
Gauls.  In  the  time  of  Augustus,  almost  the  whole  known1 
world2  belonged  to  the  Romans.  Nothing  belongs  to  a  fool3, 
as4  the  wise  affirm5.  Two  men  sail6  upon  the  high  sea;  the 
ship  belongs  to  one7,  and  the  cargo8  to  the  other.  It  was 
an  ancient  proverb,  The  ship  and  cargo  ought  to  belong  to 
those,  who  have  preserved9  the  ship  in  a  storm10.  Every- 


118 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


§§  144, 145.] 

thing  which  belongs  to  me,  belongs  also  to  my  friends.  Eu¬ 
rope  never  wholly  belonged  to  any  one11  master,  but  the 
greater  part  of  it  once12  belonged  to  the  Romans. 

1  notus.  2 orbis  terrarum.  3 stultus.  4  ut.  “dicere.  6 navigare.  7 alter. 
8  onus.  9 servare  (fut.  perf.).  10  tempestas.  11  unus.  12 quondam. 


GENITIVE  DENOTING  A  PART,  OR  THE  PARTITIVE 

GENITIVE. 

144.  When  substantives,  adjectives,  numerals,  pronouns 
and  adverbs,  stand  in  connection  with  a  word,  which  ex¬ 
presses  a  divisible  whole,  and  they  denote  only  a  part  of  the 
whole,  not  the  whole  undivided,  then  the  declinable  word 
which  denotes  the  whole,  is  put  in  the  genitive,  which  is 
called  the  partitive  genitive.  Thus,  the  substantive,  Ro¬ 
mans ,  expresses  a  great  divisible  whole,  and  this  whole  is 
divided,  when  I  say,  many ,  Jew ,  no  one ,  one ,  among  or  of 
the  Romans. 

We  express  the  relation  of  this  genitive  in  English  by  the 
prepositions  of  or  among ;  e.  g.  Many  of  us  ;  no  one  among 
the  Greeks. 

Almost  all  kinds  of  words  can  express  this  relation  of  the 
part  to  the  whole,  whenever  they  contain  the  idea  of  a  small 
or  great  number,  abundance  or  want  of  anything,  and  the 
like ;  or  generally,  when  they  stand  in  such  a  connection 
with  a  divisible  whole,  that  it  no  longer  seems  whole,  but 
divided  thereby. 

Some  examples :  None  among  all  societies,  nulla  o  m  n  i  u  m 
societatum;  every  one  of  or  among  us,  unusquisque 
nostrum;  the  first  among  all  virtues,  princeps  omnium 
virtutum;  many  of  these  trees ,  multae  istarum  arbo¬ 
rum;  which  of  us  two  ?  uter  nostrum! 

Remarks. 

145.  (1)  The  English  phrases,  Both  of  us,  we  both,  both  of  you , 
both  of  these,  both  of  xohom,  and  the  like,  when  they  refer  to  two  in¬ 
dividual  persons  or  things,  are  expressed  only  by  uterque  nostrum , 
vestrum ,  horum — and  quorum  uterque,  as  uterque  signifies  each  of  two. 


§  146.] 


PARTITIVE  GENITIVE. 


119 


All  of  these,  when  uterque  is  the  subject,  take  the  verb  in  the  third 
person  singular  ;  e.  g.  Both  of  vs,  or  we  both  have  received ,  uterque 
nostrum  accepit.  Besides  the  pronouns  nostrum ,  vestrum ,  etc., 
no  substantive  stands  in  the  genitive  with  uterque ,  but  in  the  same 
case;  e.  g.  Uterque  miles,  uterq.  dux,  uterq.  exercitus.  The 
plural,  utrique ,  which  is  used  when  there  are  several  on  both  sides, 
never  governs  a  genitive;  hence,  Nos  utrique,  both  of  us  (e.  g. 
poet  and  orators),  and  so  all  similar  phrases. 

(2)  Instead  of  the  genitive,  the  Latins  very  often  use  the  preposi¬ 
tions  ex,  de  or  in;  e.  g.  None  of  (among)  ail  the  emotions  of  the  mind , 
nulla  ex  omnibus  animi  perturbationibus;  the  wisest  of ',  or  among 
the  seven,  sapientissimus  in  septem;  who  of  our -people,  quis  de  nos¬ 
tris  hominibus  ? 

(3)  In  this  construction  with  ex  or  de,  the  word  unus ,  in  the  best 
writers,  always  has  the  sense  of  the  numeral  one,  and  then  does  not 
govern  the  genitive  ;  e.  g.  He  seems  to  me  one  of  the  fortunate ,  unus 
ex  fortunatis;  he  is  one  of  or  among  the  best,  unus  ex  optimis, — 
where  unus  can  also  be  omitted.  But  when  unus  stands  as  a  pronoun 
in  the  sense  of  the  one,  where  it  is  connected  with  an  alter  (the  other), 
then  it  governs  the  genitive  ;  e.  g.  The  one  of  these  is  an  Athenian, 
unus  eorum;  the  one  of  these  cities  is  the  so  called  island,  harum 
urbium  una  — . 

(4)  As  the  word  among  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Latin  geni¬ 
tive,  there  is  need  of  caution,  since,  in  other  instances,  that  preposi¬ 
tion  is  expressed  by  inter  or  in;  e.  g.  That  man  is  not  even  known 
among  (in  ter)  his  friends  ;  Hercules  was  umong  (i  n)  the  most  pleas¬ 
ing  citizens  ;  he  fell  among  (i  n)  robbers. 

146.  (5)  There  are  many  phrases,  containing  a  definite  or  indefi¬ 
nite  numeral,  in  which  there  is  no  division  of  the  whole,  because  the 
definite  or  indefinite  numeral  only  denotes  how  great  the  whole  is  to 
be  considered.  In  such  cases,  the  Latin  does  not  use  the  genitive, 
but  the  nominative,  when  it  is  the  subject,  or  the  accusative,  when 
it  is  the  object.  The  expressions,  of  whom,  of  which,  of  us,  of  you, 
of  them,  often  occur  in  this  connection.  This  is  the  case  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  phrases  :  There  are  ten  of  us  (of  you),  or  we  arc  ten,  etc., 
nos  sumus  (vos  estis)  decern;  thy  friends,  of  whom  (quos) 
thou  hast  so  many  ;  l  ivonder,  that  there  are  so  few  of  you,  or  that  you 
are  so  few,  vos  estis. 

(6)  In  like  manner,  when  it  is  not  necessary  to  consider  the  whole 
as  divided,  or  when  the  whole  is  not  to  be  expressly  opposed  to  the 
parts,  the,  genitWe  is  not  used,  but  the  noun  agrees  in  case  with  the 
numeral’;  e.  g.  Many  of  the  soldiers  (many  soldiers),  multi  milites; 
how  many  of  the  scholars ,  quot  discipuli  ;  many  of  our  regulations, 
multa  instituta  nostra;  tioo  of  the  most  sacred  things,  i.  e.  the  two 
most  sacred  things,  duae  res  sanctissimae.  So  in  many  other 
connections;  e.  g  Very  many  of  our  books,  1  i  b  r  i  nostri  com¬ 
plures;  no  one  of  our  commanders,  nullus  noster  imperator; 
one  of  his  laics,  lex  quaedam  sua;  no  one  of  my  words ,  even  the 
least, m  ullum  meum  minimum  dictum.  So  also,  The  most 
of  you  remember,  can  be  expressed  by,  plerique  meministis;  who¬ 
ever  of  you  has  come  to  Enna,  has  seen,  qui  Ennam  venistis,  vi¬ 
distis. 


120 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


§  146.] 


Examples  on  §§  144 — 146. 

Verres  was  a  more  detestable1  tyrant  at  Syracuse,  than  any 
one9  of  the  former3.  Who  among  all  is  more  learned  than 
Aristotle  ?  Not  every  one4  among  us  knows,  what  is  useful 
for  him.  Another  example  does  not  occur5  to  every  one6  of 
us.  Which  of  those  two  combatants7  obtained8  the  victory? 
P.  Cornelius  Scipio  had  tw^sbns,  the  elder9  of  whom  routed10 
Hannibal  at  Zama,  and  tne  younger11,  Antiochus  at  Magne¬ 
sia.  In  the  battle  at  Cannae,  one12  of  the  consuls  escaped, 
the  other  fell13.  No  one  among  men  is  always  prosperous. 
Among  all  animals,  man  alone  is  endowed14  with  speech15 
and  thought16.  Report  has  announced  this  to  you,  quicker* 
than  the  letter  of  any  of  us.  How  few17  there  are  among  us, 
who  are  not  desirous  of  riches.  My  desire18  for**  both  of 
you  is  very  great.  In  this  house  is  that,  which  was  fatal19  to 
both  of  them.  No  one  of  us  can  be  moulded20  at  once21. 
Among  all  connections22,  there  is  no  one  more  dear,  than 
that,  which  each  of  us  has  with  his  country.  I  recommend 
him  to  you,  as23  one  of  my  family24  and  nearest25  acquaint¬ 
ances26.  The  sheep  is  the  best  clothed27  of  all  animals. 
Which  of  us  two  is  a  lover  (amans)  of  peace  ?~  Among  all 
triumphs,  this  was  the  most  grateful28  and  pleasing  to  the 
Roman  people.  This  will  certainly  be  pleasant  to  both  of 
you.  Since  there  are  so  many  (tot)  of  us,  we  can  accom¬ 
plish29  the  work  quicker.  I  speak  of  thy  letters,  an  innume¬ 
rable  number30  of  which  I  received  at  one  time.  My  labors 
are  too  many31.  The  captives  were  more32  than  the  slain33. 
Those  animals  which  produce34  but  few  young,  have  but  few 
udders35.  I  lately36  began  to  read  the  Greek  poets,  o,f  whom 
there  are  so  many,  and  the  greater  number  of  whom  are 
praised.  You  both  (both  of  you)  are  Societies.  We  are 
both  (both  of  us  are)  Socratics.  In  the  country37  of^he  Her¬ 
nici,  are  very  many  of  those  places,  which  were  fortified38  by 
Cyclopian  walls39.  Most  of  you40  know41  my  parents.  The 
most  acute42  of  all  our  senses  is  the  sense  of  sight43. 

1  teter.  2  quisquam.  3  superus.  4  quisque.  5  occurrere.  6  unusquis¬ 
que.  7  luctator.  8  reportare.  9  natu  magnus.  10fundere.  11  natu  parvus. 
12  alter.  13  cadere.  14  particeps  esso  alicujus  (to  be  endowed  with  or  to 
partake  of  something).  15  oratio?^  16  cogitatio.  *  celeriter.  17  quotus- 
quisque  (verb  singular).  18  desiderium.  **  (see  §  134.)  19  fatalis.  20  fin¬ 
gere.  21  subito.  22  societas.  23^it.  24  domesticus.  23  maxime.  26  neces¬ 
sarius.  27  vestitus.  28  gratus.  29  exsequi.  30  innumerabilis  (an  innu¬ 
merable  number).  31  nimius.  32plures.  33  caesus.  31  gignere.  35mam- 


§§147,  148.]  GENITIVE  AFTER  ADJECTIVES  AND  FRONOUNS.  121 

ma.  36  nuper.  37  terra.  3S  munitus.  39  murus.  40  (according  to  §  146.  6.) 

41  novisse.  42  acer.  43  videre. 

GENITIVE  AFTER  SOME  NEUTER  ADJECTIVES  AND 

FRONOUNS,  TO  EXPRESS  MEASURE  AND  DEGREE. 

147.  Many  neuter  adjectives  of  quantity  (which  denote- 
greatness,  measure  and  degree),  and  many  pronouns  in  the 
nominative  and  accusative,  have,  like  substantives,  the  noun 
or  adjective  belonging  to  them,  (for  the  adjective  is  then  used 
as  a  substantive,)  in  the  genitive.  This  is  employed  to  de¬ 
note  the  measure  or  degree,  which  belongs  to  anything  ;  e.  g. 
much  gold,  i.  e.  much  of  gold,  multum  auri;  more  boohs, 
plus  librorum. 

The  following,  especially,  take  a  genitive  :  Quantum, 
how  much  ;  tantum,  so  much  ;  aliquantum,  considera¬ 
ble,  a  great  deal ;  multum,  much  ;  plus,  more  ;  ampli¬ 
us,  more;  plurimum,  very  much;  parum,  too  little; 
m  i  n  u  s,  less  ;  minimum,  very  little,  least  of  all ;  nihil, 
nothing,  no  ;  aliquid,  something ;  quidqu  am,  anything ; 
quidquid,  whatever ,  all  that ;  quid,  what,  how  much  ;  hoc 
and  i  d,  this,  so  much  ;  quod,  which,  ichat ;  n  i  m  i  u  m,  tov 
much;  satis,  enough;  reliquum,  the  remainder;  di¬ 
midium,  the  half ;  aliquid,  something  else — and  others 
similar. 

Some  examples  :  A  considerable  piece  of  ground,  aliquantum  agr  i  ; 
more  good  than  evil ',  plus  bo  n  i  quam  mail;  some  misfortune ,  all- 
quid  (quid)  adversi;  so  much  pains  and  time ,  tantum  (id)  operae 
et  temporis;  less  strength ,  minus  virium;  too  muck  wickedness, 
nimium  sceleris;  too  little  happiness ,  parum  felicitatis;  no 
reward,  nihil  praemii;  whatever  plan,  quodcunque  consilii; 
at  that  age,  id  aetatis,  where  id  in  this  sense  stands  as  the  accu¬ 
sative,  according  to  the  Greek  usage. 

'  Remarks.  ^ 

143.  (1)  The  neuters  multum,  reliquum,  nimium,  aliud,  hoc,  id,  is¬ 
tud,  illud  and  quod,  are  alstfused  as  adjectives,  and  then  do  not  gov-^ 
ern  a  genitive,  but  only  qualify  their  substantives,  which  are  put  in 
any  case  the  sentence  requirelj^e.  g.  Much  gold,  multum  auri  and 
multum  aurum;  the  remaining  time,  reliquum  temporis  and  re¬ 
liquum  tempus;  much  labor,  multum  laboris  and  multus  la¬ 
bor;  much  pains,  multum  -o^r*e  r  a  e  aVf  multa  opera.  It  is  here 

II 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


122 


[§  149. 


to  be  noticed,  that  much  money  is  not  expressed  by  multum  pecuniae, 
but  by  magna  pecunia. 

The  neuter  singular  of  an  adjective  of  quantity,  or  of  a  pronoun, 
must  stand  only  in  the  nominative  or  accusative,  not  in  any  other 
case,  in  which  it  would  not  be  recognized  as  neuter.  We  may  say, 
therefore,  tan  t  u  in  pecuniae,  but  not  t  a  n  t  i,  tanto  pecuniae;  but 
the  word  of  quantity  in  this  case  agrees  with  the  substantive,  tantae 
pecuniae.  For  plus  and  nihil ,  which  from  their  substantive  nature 
cannot  be  put  in  the  same  case  with  the  substantive,  nullus  or  major 
is  used ;  e.g.  majore  or  nulla  pecunia  emi. 

(2)  The  words  quantum  and  tantum  with  the  genitive,  signify  only 
hoio  much  and  so  much  ;  but  as  adjectives,  in  all  genders,  they  signify 
how  areat  and  so  areat.  Hence  caution  is  needed  not  to  use  these 
adjectives  in  the  sense  of  how  much  and  so  much  ;  e.  g.  How  many  ex¬ 
amples,  quantum  exemplorum,  not  quanta  exempla;  so 
many  examples ,  tantum  exemplorum,  not  tanta  exempla. 
So,  as  an  adjective,  plurimum  signifies  the  most ;  minus,  less  ; 
and  minimum,  least. 

149.  (3)  Only  adjectives  of  the  second  declension,  e.  g.  verum,  fal¬ 
sum,  bonum,  malum,  novum ,  and  the  like,  can  be  put  in  the  genitive 
with  such  neuters  ;  e.  g.  Plus  b  o  n  i,  quam  m  a  I  i,  si  quid  n  o  v  i,  si 
quid  adversi,  and  the  like.  But  as  even  these,  when  they  are  only 
predicates  of  those  neuters,  must  be  in  the  same  case  with  them,  e.  g. 
he  left  nothing  unaccomplished,  nihil  imperfectum  (not  imper¬ 
fecti)  reliquit ;  nothing  is  difficult  to  an  energetic  man,  nihil  arduum 
(not  ardui)  est  impigro  ;  so  also  adjectives  of  the  third  declension 
do  not  stand  in  the  genitive  with  those  neuters,  but  are  used  simply 
to  qualify  them  ;  e.  g.  something  similar ,  aliquid  simile  (not  s  i  m- 
i  1  i  s)  ;  nothing  sad,  nihil  tr  iste.  And  even  the  adjective  of  the 
second  declension  adopts  this  form,  when  it  is  joined  with  an  adjec¬ 
tive  of  the  third  declension  ;  e.  g.  something  heuvenfy  and  divine , 
quiddam  coeleste  et  divinum. 

In  the  same  manner  the  ancients  also  frequently  use,  (especially 
with  nihil,  quid,  and  quiddam,')  adjectives  of  the  second  declension,  as 
qualifying  words,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  idea  contained  in 
them  more  prominent ;  e.  g.  These  men  hnoio  nothing  elevated,  noth¬ 
ing  noble,  and  nothing  divine,  nihil  altum,  nihil  magnificum, 
nihil  divinum  (■ nothing  which  is  elevated). 

Examples  on  §§  147 — 149. 

Flaminius  saw,  in  the  battle  at  lake  Thrasimenus,  only  so 
many1  enemies  as2  stood  opposite  to3  him.  The4  less5  fear 
there  is,  the6  less  danger  there  is  wont  to  be.  Young7  men 
generally8  demand9  more  travelling-money10,  than  they  need11. 
When  something  fortunate12  occurs]3  in  war,  the  command- 
*ers  attribute14  it  to  themselves.  In  milk  there  is  some  oil15 
There  are  many  men,  who  have  more  money*,  than  good 
report16.  At  what17  age  was  Socrates  then  ?  What  was  the 
cause,  why18  you  denied19  this  to  him?  As  much20  of  the 
distance21  remained22  to  Alexander,  as23  he  had  passed24. 


§  150.]  GENITIVE  AFTER  ADJECTIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES.  123 

Aristides  determined25  how  much  money  every  state  should 
give.  JEmiiius  Paulus  brought26  so  much  money  into  the 
treasury27,  that  the  people  have  since28  paid29  no  tribute. 
Collatia  and  all30  the  country  which  was  around  Collatia, 
was  taken31  from  the  Sabines.  There  is32  not  seldom  some¬ 
thing33  sweet  in  sorrow.  It  was  uncertain,  whether34  the 
Spaniards  or35  the  Romans,  had  more  bravery.  What  inju¬ 
ry,  I  pray36,  has  happened  to  you.  That  has  too  much37  good, 
which  has  nothing  bad.  I  have  less  strength,  than  either38 
of  you  two.  Nothing  very39  remarkable40  occurred  in  Spain 
at  that  time.  Otacilius  laid  waste41  considerable42  land 
around43  Utica.  The  one44  has  more  strength,  than  the 
other45.  Justice  desires46  no47  reward48.  This  porch49  has 
as  much  shade50  as23  light.  I  devote51  to  this  study  very 
little  time.  Even  without  thy  death,  there  are  here  tears  and 
sorrow52  enough.  Truly53  thou  hast  had  far  more  pleasure54 
than  one55  of  us. 

1  id  (so  many).  2  quod.  3  ex  adverso.  4  quo.  5  minus.  6eo.  7  adoles¬ 
cens  (a  young  man).  8  plerumque.  9  poscere.  10  viaticum.  11  opus  esse. 
12secundus.  13  evenire.  14  tribuere.  15  oleum.  *  nummi, -orum.  16  fama. 
17  quid  (at  what).  18  cur.  19  denegare  (subjune.).  20  tantundem  (as 
much).  21  via.  2?superesse.  23  quantum.  24  emetiri.  25  constituere. 
26  inferie.  27  aerarium.  28  ex  eo  tempore.  29  solvere.  30  quidquid  (all — 
which).  31  adimere.  32  inesse.  33  quiddam.  31  utrum.  35  an.  36  tandem  (I 
pray).  37  nimium.  33  utervis.  39  admodum.  40  memorabilis.  41  depopu¬ 
lari.  42  aliquantum.  43  circa.  44  alius.  45  alius.  46  expetere.  47  nihil. 
43  pretium.  49  porticus.  50  umbra.  51  dare.  82  luctus.  53  nae.  54 delecta¬ 
tio.  58  (comp.  §  122).  , 


GENITIVE  AFTER  ADJECTIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES,  DE¬ 
NOTING  AN  OPERATION  OR  STATE  OF  THE  MIND. 

150.  All  adjectives  and  participles  which  denote  an  opera¬ 
tion  or  state  of  the  intellect  or  feelings,  have  the  object  of 

this  operation  or  state  in  the  genitive.  Participles  then  take 
_  ♦ 

the  nature  of  adjectives,  and  express  no  relation  of  time,  for 
as  participles,  they  govern  the  same  case  as  their  verbs  do. 
The  following,  therefore,  govern  the  genitive  : 

(1)  Those  which  refer  to  the  intellect;  peritus ,  imperitus, 
sagax ,  gnarus,  ignarus,  certus,  prudens,  imprudens,  conscius, 
sciens,  inscius,  nescius ,  ruetis,  providus,  improvidus,  consul¬ 
tus,  memor,  immemor,  tenax;  in  all  of  which  the  idea  of 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


124 


[§  151. 


knowledge  or  ignorance,  memory  or  forgetfulness,  and,  as  in 
tenax ,  mental  retention,  is  contained. 

These  adjectives  are  not  always  translated  by  adjectives  ;  verbs 
are  often  used  ;  e.  g.  I  understand  this  urt ,  hujus  artis  peritus 
(gnarus,  sciens)  sum  ;  I  know  of  this  occurrence,  hujus  rei  certus 
sum;  /  do  not  know  the  customs  of  the  nation,  morum  gentis  impe¬ 
ritus  (ignarus)  sum;  1  foresee  the  future,  futuri  providus  sum;  1 
think  of  thy  brother,  memor  sum  tui  fratris;  I  hold  fast  to  these 
verses,  tenax  sum  horum  versuum.  The  adjective  ccrtus  is  also 
constructed  with  dc  ;  and  peritus,  prudens  and  rudis  with  ad  and  in. 

Conscius  is  sometimes  construed  with  the  dative  of  a  thing,  and 
always  with  the  dative  of  a  person,  in  the  sense  of  conscious  within 
one's  self  ( sibi),  or  privy  with  some  one  to  something,  (alicui  ali  cujus 
rei,  or  in  aliqua  re)  ;  e.  g.  Conscius  fr  a  tr  i  tanti  s  c  e  1  e  r  i  s,  privy  or 
accessory  with  his  brother  to  so  great  a  crime  ;  tot  f  1  a  g  i  t  i  o  r  u  m  ex¬ 
ercitui  suo  conscius,  'privy  with  his  army  to  so  many  disgraceful 
deeds. 

151.  (2)  Those  which  refer  to  the  feelings  are,  cupidus, 
avidus,  studiosus,  fastidiosus ,  negligens,  appetens,  amans, 
diligens,  fugiens,  sitiens,  patiens,  impatiens,  abstinens,  tenax, 
observans,  reverens,  metuens,  contemnens ;  in  all  of  which  the 
idea  of  desire  or  aversion,  care  or  neglect,  patience  or  impa¬ 
tience,  esteeming  or  the  contrary,  and  similar  qualities  of  the 
mind,  are  contained. 

These  adjectives  also  are  sometimes  translated  by  verbs  ;  e.  g.  / 
long  for,  I  strive  for  glory,  cupidus  (avidus,  appetens)  sum  gloriae; 
1  loce  peace,  amans  sum  pacis;  I  avoid  strife ,  fugiens  sum  litium; 
/  have  an  aversion  to,  a  disgust  for  this  art,  fastidiosus  sum  hujus 
artis;  I  can  endure,  bear  the  cold,  frigoris  sum  patiens  ;  /  cannot 
endure  the  cold ,  fr  i  g  o  r  i  s  sum  impatiens  ;  I  abstain  from  this  drink, 
abstinens  sum  hujus  potionis;  I  reverence  God ,  D  e  i  sum  reve¬ 
rens  ;  you  neglect  your  friends,  tu  negligens  es  amicorum;  he  is 
time  to  his  purpose ,  he  holds  fast  to  his  purpose,  tenax  est  propositi; 
I  love  letters,  studiosus  sum  litterarum.  The  purest  classic  writ¬ 
ers  do  not  construct  patiens  and  impatiens  with  the  genitive,  but  with 
in;  the  genitive,  however,  is  not  to  be  rejected. 


Examples  on  §§  150,  151. 

The  ancient  Romans  always  strove1  for  glory,  and  were 
desirous2  of  praise.  Only  a  few  are  sufficiently3  acquainted4 
with  antiquity  and  the  ancient  authors.  The  Roman  youth* 
of  former5  times  could  endure6  every  toil7  and  labor.  Pisis¬ 
tratus  was  very  fond8  of  the  arts  and  literature9.  The  ass 
can  least  of  all  endure10  the  cold.  Pompey  the  Great  was 


GENITIVE  AFTER  ADJECTIVES. 


125 


§  152.] 

exceedingly  desirous11  of  power,  he  was  constant12  in  friend¬ 
ship,  and  almost  without  any13  fault.  He,  who  is  not  ac¬ 
quainted14  with  the  customs  and  the  passions15  of  men,  is 
often  deceived16.  Only  a  very  few  men  are  desirous  of  riches. 
At  that  time,  the  nobles17  among  the  Romans  were  generally 
ignorant18  of  everything  which  pertained  to  warfare19.  Oil 
rubbed20  upon21  the  body,  makes22  it  firmer23  and  more  capa¬ 
ble  of  enduring24  injury.  The  crocodile  seems  to  be  very 
fond  of  dog’s  flesh25.  The  cow26  can  bear27  all  external  cold, 
better  than  the  horse.  Thorius  Balbus  had  not  merely  a  de¬ 
sire28  for  pleasure,  but  was  also  a  connoisseur  in29  every30 
kind  of  it.  By  nature,  we  retain31  most  firmly  what32  we 
learned  in  the  years33  of  childhood.  Whoever  wishes34  to 
undertake35  war,  seeks36  men  wild  are  acquainted  (gnarus) 
with  weapons  and  military  service37.  Aristotle  knew38  very 
accurately  the  nature  of  things.  What  nation  does  not  love 
a  thankful  mind39,  and  one  grateful40  for  favors.  Come  to  us, 
who41  love  you  most  ardently.  Thou  hast  made  me  acquain¬ 
ted42  with  thy  design43.  Atilius  was  considered  to  be  learned 
in44  the  civil  law. 

1  appetens  esse  (to  strive).  2  a  vidus.  3  satis.  4  gnarus  (acquainted 
with).  *  juventus.  5  pr  ior.  6  patientem  esse.  7  molestia.  8  amantissi- 
mum  esse  (very  fond).  9  litterae.  10  impatientissimum  esse  (can  least 
of  all  endure).  11  cupidus.  12  tenax.  13  ullus.  14  ignarus  esse  (not  ac¬ 
quainted  with).  15  animi  perturbatio.  16  decipere.  17  nobilis.  18  ignarus. 
19  res  militaris.  20  inunctus.  21  (dative).  22  reddere.  23firmus.  24patiens 
(capable  of  enduring-).  25  caro  canina.  26  vacca.  27  patientiorem  esse 
(can  bear  better).  28  cupidus  esse  (to  have  a  desire).  29  intelligens. 
30  quivis.  31  tenacem  esse  (to  retain  firmly).  32  ea,  quae.  33  rudes  anni 
(years  of  childhood).  34  velle.  33  moliri.  36  requirere.  37  militia.  38  sa¬ 
gacem  esse  (to  know  accurately),  "animus.  40  memor.  41  amantissi- 
mus  (who  loves  most  ardently).  42  certus.  43  consilium.  44  prudens  in. 


GENITIVE  AFTER  OTHER  ADJECTIVES. 

152.  In  the  same  manner,  the  genitive  is  governed : 

(1)  By  adjectives  which  denote  participation,  and  the  con¬ 
trary,  plenty  and  want ;  viz.  particeps ,  socius ,  consors ,  expers , 
plenus ,  refertus ,  inops ,  inanis ;  e.  g.  We  take  part  in  your 
deliberations ,  socii  sumus  consiliorum;  this  man  is  des¬ 
titute  of  all  learning ,  est  omnis  eruditionis  expers ; 
the  harbor  is  wholly  filed  with  ships ,  portus  est  plenissimus 
navium.  Among  these,  those  denoting  plenty  or  want 

11* 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


126 


[§  152. 


govern  also  the  ablative;  but  plenus ,  in  Cicero,  almost  always 
the  genitive. 

(2)  By  adjectives  which  contain  the  idea  of  power ,  or  the 
contrary;  viz .  pot  ns,  compos ,  impotens ,  e.  g.  this  man  is  ca¬ 
pable  of  controlling ,  can  control  his  desires,  hic  horno  potens 
est  suarum  cupiditatum.  Classic  writers  construct 
only  compos  with  the  genitive,  not  potens  and  impotens,  yet 
the  genitive  is  not  to  be  rejected  with  these. 

(3)  By  adjectives  of  likeness  or  unlikeness ;  e.  g.  Thou 
art  like  my  brother ,  tu  mei  fratris  est  similis;  like  the 
truth,  or  probable,  veri  similis.  These  also  govern  the 
dative.  See  §  166.  8.  Cicero  oftener  connects  the  genitive 
than  the  dative,  with  these,  whether  mental  or  corporeal  re¬ 
semblance  is  denoted.  Generally  the  genitive  is  used,  when 
the  similarity  or  dissimilarity  appears  to  belong  to  the  nature 
of  the  thing,  while  the  dative  denotes  likeness  or  unlikeness 
in  the  external  appearance.  But  we  can  only  say,  m  ei  si¬ 
milis,  my  like;  veri  similis;  very  rarely  with  the  dative, 
v  e  r  o. 

Examples. 

The  mind  is  interested  in1  three  periods,  the  present,  past2 
and  future.  Man  is  an  animal  endowed  with*  reason3  and 
wisdom.  Among  all  animals,  man  alone4  partakes  of  speech5 
and  thought6.  The  ancient  Germans  lived  almost  always 
without7  peace.  Cassius  participated  in  all  the  deliberations8 
of  Brutus.  The  house  of  Antony  was  usually9  full  of  drunk¬ 
ards10.  I  have  had  a  night  full  of  fear11  and  misery12.  The 
Roman  provinces  were  filled13  with  traders14.  Publius  Cras¬ 
sus  was  unlike  the  other  Crassi.  Phidias  enclosed15  an  im¬ 
age16  like  himself,  in  the  shield17  of  Minerva.  All  who18 
possess  virtue,  are  happy.  Every  plan19  of  this  man  is  wholly 
destitute20  of  prudence.  Wild  beasts21  are  without22  reason 
and  speech. 

1  particeps  esse  (to  be  interested  in).  2  praeteritus.  *  plenus.  3  ratio. 
4  solus.  5  oratio.  6  cogitatio.  7  expers.  8  consilium  socius  esse  (to  par¬ 
ticipate  in  deliberation).  9  plerumque.  10  ebrius.  11  timor.  12  miseria. 
13  refertus.  14  negotiator.  15  includere.  16  forma.  17  clypeus.  18  compos 
(who  possesses).  19  consilium.  20  inanissimus.  21  fera  (wild  beast). 
32  expers. 


§  153] 


GENITIVE  OF  WORTH  AND  PRICE. 


127 


GENITIVE  OF  WORTH  AND  PRICE. 

153.  The  Latins  express  worth  or  price  by  adjectives  in 
the  genitive,  where  we  often  use  adverbs.  Let  the  following 
words  be  noticed  ;  highly ,  greatly ,  much ,  magni;  more  high¬ 
ly,  more,  pluris  (not  majoris)  ;  very  highly,  very  much, 
maximi,  or  plurimi;  little,  not  highly,  not  much,  p  a  r- 
v  i ;  less,  minoris;  very  little,  least  of  all,  minimi;  how 
highly,  how  much,  how ,  quanti;  so  highly,  so  much,  so, 
tanti;  nothing  at  all,  in  no  respect,  nihili;  as  much  as, 
as  highly  as,  tantidem,  non  minoris;  and  in  the  same 
manner  other  similar  ones.  Cicero  does  not  express  all  the 
indefinite  specifications  of  price  by  the  genitive.  He  says 
only,  quanti,  tanti,  tantidem,  pluris,  minoris ,  and  maximi. 
The  others  he  puts  in  the  ablative,  and  therefore  says,  mag- 
no,  permagno,  plurimo,  parvo,  minimo,  nihilo,  dimidio,  etc. 
Comp.  §  194. 

The  verbs  which  belong  here,  are,  to  value,  to  esteem ,  aestimare,  fa- 
cere,  pendere,  putare,  habere  ;  to  be  valued ,  to  be  esteemed,  to  be  worth, 
aestimari,  fieri,  pendi,  putari,  haberi,  esse  ;  to  buy ,  emere  ;  to  sell , 
vendere ;  to  be  sold,  to  be  put  to  sale,  vendi,  venire,  venale  esse  ;  to 
cost,  stare,  constare. 

Some  examples  :  I  esteem  Plato  much,  but  Socrates  more ,  Platonem 
magni  aestimo,  sed  Socratem  pluris;  I  value  Cornelius  Nepos 
far  less  than  Livy,  mihi  multo  minoris  est ;  the  orations  of  Demos¬ 
thenes  are  considered  of  the  greatest  value ,  m  aximi  (plurimi)  aesti¬ 
mantur  (fiunt,  penduntur,  putantur,  habentur,  sunt)  ;  for  how  much 
did  you  purchase  this?  quanti  hoc  emisti?  anger  has  already  cost 
many  men  much,  magno  stetit,  not  magni;  at  that  time  a  talent 
teas  worth  so  much,  t  a nti  erat ;  Coelius  hired  the  house  for  a  small 
price ,  non  magno  or  parvo  conduxit;  this  is  of  great  value  to 
me,  in  agni  est ;  of  greater  value,  pluris  est. 

Examples. 

To  act  considerately  is  more  valuable,  than  to  think  wisely. 
The  Romans  sold  cooks1  at  a  higher  price,  than  even2 horses; 
and  scarcely  any  one  was  valued  higher  than  a  cook.  How 
highly  must  virtue  be  valued  !  Themistocles  did  not  value 
justice  so  highly,  as3  his  contemporary4  Aristides,  who  always 
thought  more  of  just  plans5,  than  of  useful  ones.  If  we  do 
not  value  honor  highly,  it  is  our  duty  not  to  serve6  the  peo- 


128 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  154. 


pie.  Thy  letter  will  always  be  of  great  value  to  me.  As 
there  is  no  part  of  our  body,  which  is  not  worth  less,  than  we 
ourselves,  so  the  whole7  world  is  worth  more,  than  any8  part 
of  the  universe9.  In  no  part  of  this  island  was  grain10  so  dear, 
as11  at  Syracuse.  Every  one  will  be  as  highly  esteemed12 
by  his  friends,  as  he  esteems  himself.  I  sold  the  tithes13 
higher  than  the  others  did.  You  purchased  this  country-seat14 
for  the  same  price,  at  which  the  former15  possessor  had  pur¬ 
chased  it. 

Coquus.  2ipse.  3quantus.  4  aequalis.  5consilium.  6servire.  7  uni¬ 
versus.  8  aliquis.  9  universum.  10  frumentum.  11  quantus.  12  facere. 
13  decuma.  14  villa.  15  prior. 

GENITIVE  WITH  SOME  VERBS  DENOTING  AN  OPERA¬ 
TION  OR  STATE  OF  THE  INTELLECT  OR  FEELINGS. 

154.  As,  according  to  §§  150  and  151,  the  adjectives, 
which  denote  an  operation  or  state  of  the  intellect  or  feelings, 
take  the  genitive,  so  some  verbs  which  relate  to  the  intel¬ 
lectual  powers,  or  the  state  of  the  feelings,  take  the  genitive. 
Here  belong: 

(1)  Among  those  which  relate  to  the  intellectual  powers, 
To  remember,  meminisse,  recordari,  reminisci ;  to  admonish 
some  one  of  something,  to  bring  something  to  his  remembrance, 
monere,  admonere,  commonere,  and  the  impersonal  phrase, 
mihi  in  mentem  venit,  commonefacere ;  to  forget,  oblivisci. 
With  these  verbs,  the  person  or  thing  which  one  remembers, 
which  occurs  to  us,  of  which  one  reminds  another,  and  which 
one  forgets,  is  put  in  the  genitive.  But  recordor  never  takes 
a  genitive  denoting  a  person. 

Meminisse,  reminisci  and  oblivisci  are  often,  and  recorda¬ 
ri  almost  always  joined  with  the  accusative,  but  meminisse  in 
the  sense  of  to  mention  and  recordari  with  persons  are  joined 
with  de  and  the  ablative.  Monere  and  commonere  are  more  of¬ 
ten  construed  with  r/ethan  with  the  genitive,  and  both,  as  well 
as  admonere  and  commonefacere,  take  also  the  accusative  of 
the  neuter  pronouns,  hoc,  id,  illud,  and  likewise  earn  rem.  Fi¬ 
nally,  with  in  mentem  venit,  the  nominative  is  also  used ; 
then  the  verb  becomes  personal. 


§  155.] 


GENITIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


129 


Some  examples  :  You  remember  me,  meministi  mei  or  me;  ice 
recollect  the  past,  recordamur  praeteritorum,  or  praeterita, 
or  de  praeteritis;  I  unwillingly  recollect  that  man,  invitus  recordor 
de  hoc  ho  m  i  n  e  ;  we  forget  injuries,  obliviscimur  injuriarum 
or  injurias;  thou  hast  rem  inded  me  of  my  father  s  birth-day ,  tu  me 
monuisti  diei  natalis  patris  mei;  do  you  remind  Terentia  of  the 
will,  Terentiam  moneatis  de  testamento.  Parents  often  think 
of  their  absent  children,  parentibus  saepe  in  mentem  venit  liber¬ 
orum  absentium,  or  veniunt  liberi  absentes. 

155.  (2)  Among  those  which  relate  to  the  state  of  the 
feelings,  the  following  belong  here  :  To  bewail,  to  have  pity , 
to  commiserate,  miserescere,  misereri,  miserere;  to  be  asham¬ 
ed,  to  feel  shame ,  pudere ;  to  repent,  poenitere  ;  to  grieve,  to 
be  grieved,  pigere ;  to  loathe,  to  be  disgusted  with,  to  be 
weary  of,  taedere.  With  all  these,  the  object,  be  it  a  person 
or  thing,  to  which  the  verb  relates,  is  put  in  the  genitive ; 
i.  e.  those  persons  or  things  which  any  one  commiserates  or 
pities,  of  ivhich  he  is  ashamed,  respecting  which  he  is  asham¬ 
ed,  of  which  he  repents,  with  which  he  is  disgusted,  are  all 
expressed  in  the  genitive.  But  wheai  this  object  is  not  a 
substantive  or  pronoun,  but  a  verb,  then  the  infinitive  is  gen¬ 
erally  used  instead  of  the  genitive,  sometimes  also  a  de¬ 
pendent  clause  with  quod  or  an  interrogative.  The  com¬ 
pounds,  e.  g.  suppudere,  suppaenitere,  have  the  same  con¬ 
struction  as  the  simple  verbs.  Miserari  and  commiserari,  like 
transitives,  always  govern  the  accusative. 

But  since,  except  the  two  verbs  miserescere  and  misereri,  the  others, 
viz  miserere ,  pudere ,  poenitere ,  pigere,  and  taedere ,  are  impersonal 
verbs,  and  according  to  the  usage  of  the  Latin,  the  person  connected 
with  them,  who  feels  shame,  repents  and  grieves,  etc.,  is  put  in  the 
accusative,  therefore,  these  verbs  often  govern  an  accusative  and 
genitive  both.  This  accusative  we  tianslate  into  English  as  the  nomi¬ 
native. 

Some  examples  :  I  pity  the  unfortunate,  miseresco  (misereor,  me 
miseret)  i  n  fel  i  c  i  u  m  ;  I  am  ashamed  of  my  disposition ,  me  pudet 
animi,  mei;  you  repent  of  your  negligence,  te  poenltet  negli- 
gentiae  tuae;  we  were  grieved  on  account  of  our  folly ,  nos  pi¬ 
guit  stultitiae  nostrae;  you  are  weary  oj  this  labor,  vos  taedet 
hujus  laboris;  /  repent  of  having  done  this,  me  hoc  fecisse 
poenltet ;  Quintus  regrets,  that  he  injured  your  feelings,  Quintum 
poenitet,  quod  animum  tuum  offendit;  you  will  not  repent  of  the 
progress  you  make,  quantum  proficias  non  poenitebit. 


130 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  156. 


Examples  on  §§  154  and  155. 

A  wicked  man  sometimes1  remembers2  his  deeds  with  bit¬ 
ter3  grief.  Every  man,  at  some  time4,  repents5  of  time  mis¬ 
spent6.  Upright  men  rarely7  repent  of  their  actions  and 
plans8.  There  are  men,  who  are  neither  ashamed  of  their 
disgrace9,  nor  repent  of  it.  An  industrious  young  man* 
will  never  be  weary10  of  any  labor,  even  the  greatest.  Thou 
dost  often  remember11  thy  virtues.  Bocchus,  king  of  Mau¬ 
ritania,  had  pity12  on  the  condition13  of  Jugurtha,  his  son- 
in-law14.  The  Parthians  repented15,  as  it  were16,  of  their 
victory  over  the  Romans.  When  living17,  we  are  often 
ashamed  of  something,  of  which,  when  dead18,  we  shall  not 
be  ashamed19.  I  thought**  of  this  city,  of  those  chapels20 
and  temples,  of  the  infant21  children,  of  the  matrons  and 
maidens.  I  am  accustomed  often  to  remember  the  time, 
when  we  were  together.  We  often  think  of  our  country 
and  our  dangers.  If  any  one  ignorantly22  committed  a  fault23 
at  Athens,  he  was  privately24  admonished25  of  his  duty,  by 
the  judges.  In  our  own  calamity26,  we  remember27  the  ca¬ 
lamities  of  others.  I  shall  never  forget  that  night ;  for  it  re¬ 
minds28  me  of  the  greatest  dangers  of  my  life.  Neither  we, 
nor  others  regret  our  activity29  and  interest30  for31  the  state. 
Many  have  repented  of  their  follies32  too  late.  He,  who  is 
not  ashamed  of  his  faults  and  offences,  deserves  punishment. 
I  shall  never  think33  of  repenting,  that  I34  have  not  degen¬ 
erated35  from  myself. 

1  interdum.  2  recordari.  3  acerbus.  4  aliquando  (at  some  time). 
5  poenitere.  e  male  collocatus.  7  raro.  8  consilium.  9  infamia.  *  adoles¬ 
cens.  10  taedere.  11  in  mentem  venire.  12  miserere  (to  have  pity  on). 
13  fortuna.  14  gener.  15  poenitere.  16  quasi.  57  vivus.  18  mortuus.  19  pu¬ 
dere.  **  in  mentem  venire  (to  think  of).  20  delubrum.  21  infans,  ^ig¬ 
narus.  23  peccare  (to  commit  a  fault).  24  priVJTtim.  25  admonere.  26  ca¬ 
sus.  27  reminisci.  28  monere.  29  industria.  30  studium.  31  pro.  32  inep¬ 
tiae.  33  mihi  venit  in  mentem.  34  ipse.  35  desciscere. 


GENITIVE  AFTER  VERBS  OF  ACCUSING,  ACQUITTING 

AND  CONDEMNING. 

156.  Verbs  pertaining  to  judicial  proceedings,  which  sig¬ 
nify  to  accuse ,  to  criminate ,  to  convict ,  to  calumniate ,  to  try , 
to  acquit  and  condemn ,  usually  take  the  action,  offence  or 


§  156.] 


GENITIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


131 


crime  of  which  any  one  is  accused,  on  account  of  which  he 
is  tried,  of  which  he  is  acquitted,  or  for  which  he  is  con¬ 
demned,  in  the  genitive.  The  punishment  also,  to  which 
any  one  is  condemned,  is  often  put  in  the  genitive,  some¬ 
times  also  in  the  ablative ;  e.  g.  To  condemn  to  death,  is  ex¬ 
pressed  by,  capitis  or  capite  damnare  (not  mortis 
or  morte. 

There  are  also  other  constructions  instead  of  the  above  ;  e.  g.  dc 
with  accubare,  arguere ,  damnare ,  condemnare,  absolvere,  and  invaria¬ 
bly  in  Cicero  with  postulare.  With  reference  to  an  assassination, 
the  Latins  say,  Accusare  inter  sicarios,  to  accuse  on  account  of 
an  assassination  ;  in  reference  to  poisoning ,  de  veneficiis;  and 
in  reference  to  an  act  of  violence ,  de  vi.  Dc  is  also  used,  but  only 
when  the  crime  is  expressed- periphrastically  by  a  relative  sentence, 
which  contains  the  principal  circumstance  of  the  crime  ;  e.  g.  Accus¬ 
ed  on  account  of  gold,  ichich  he  was  said  to  have  taken ,  de  auro, 
quod  sumpsisse  dicebatur;  but  auri  sumpti  would  also 
be  right.  After  damnare  and  condemnare,  punishment  by  death  or  fine 
is  usually  put  in  the  ablative,  more  rarely  in  the  genitive,  other 
punishments  if  they  do  not  consist  in  the  loss  of  the  object  named, 
are  expressed  by  ad  or  in  and  the  accusative;  e.  g.  ad  poenam,  ad 
opus,  a  d  bestias,  i  n  metallum  damnare,  to  condemn  to  punishment , 
to  labor ,  etc .  As  the  Lati n  says,  inter  sicarios,  so  also,  quaes¬ 
tio  inter  sicarios,  inquiry  respecting  assassination.  But  the  in¬ 
definite  on  account  of  an  accusation,  on  account  of  crime ,  is  expressed 
by  the  ablative,  not  by  the  genitive — c  r  i  m  i  n  e,  criminibus. 

Some  examples  :  He  accused  him  of  treason ,  eum  proditionis 
accusavit;  they  charge  these  with  taking  money ,  hos  pecuniae 
captae  arcessunt;  they  convict  him  of  no  crime ,  eum  nullius 
sceleris  convincunt ;  the  judge  acquitted  him  of  theft,  furti  ab¬ 
solvit;  the  judge  sentenced  him  for  theft,  furti  damnavit;  Manlius 
was  condemned  to  death,  M.  c  a  p  i  t  i  s  (capite)  damnatus  est ;  Scae¬ 
vola  icas  condemned  for  other  crimes,  aliis  criminibus  condem¬ 
natus  est.  The  words  crime  and  charge  are  omitted  in  Latin,  before 
a  definitely  named  crime. 


Examples. 

Nicodemus  was  condemned  on  account  of  theft.  Ly- 
sanias,  who  had  been  condemned  for  embezzlement1,  lost2 
his  goods  and  his  senatorial  rank3.  In  the  times  of  the  em¬ 
perors,  many  innocent  persons  were  condemned  to  death. 
Socrates  was  accused  of  the  crime  of  impiety4,  and  sentenc¬ 
ed  to  death  by  unjust  judges.  The  seditious  citizens  were 
fined  in  a  third  part  of  their  land.  He  was  acquitted5  of 
the  charge  of  dishonesty6.  Orestes  was  accused  of  matri¬ 
cide7.  Cicero  defended  Publius  Sulla,  whom  Torquatus  had 


132 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  157. 


accused  of  participating8  in*  the  conspiracy9  of  Catiline. 
Julius  Caesar  arraigned10  C.  Dolabella  on  account  of  his  ex- 
tortion11.  In  the  times  of  Sulla,  many,  who  had  been  con¬ 
demned  for  disgraceful12  wickedness13,  returned  to  Rome. 
Many  were  then  accused  of  assassination  and  poisoning. 
The  confidants14  of  Cicero  were  condemned  for  committing15 
violence16. 

peculatus.  2  amittere.  3  nomen  senatorium  (senatorial  rank).  4  im¬ 
pietas.  5  absolvere.  6improbTtas.  7  matricidium.  8societas.  *  (geni¬ 
tive).  9  conjuratio.  10  arcessere.  11  repetundae.  12  nefarius.  13  scelus. 
14  familiaris.  15  (omitted).  16  vis. 


GENITIVE  WITH  THE  VERBS  FJYTERESSE  AND 

REFERRE. 

157.  The  verbs  interesse  and  referre  are  impersonal  verbs, 
and  hence,  when  used  as  such,  are  only  in  the  third  per¬ 
son  singular,  and  signify  to  concern ,  to  be  important ,  interest¬ 
ing, ,  serviceable ,  useful ,  to  relate  to,  and  the  like.  These 
belong  under  the  genitive  in  two  respects.  For, 

(1)  The  person,  for  whom  anything  is  interesting  and 
important,  or  whom  anything  concerns,  is  in  the  genitive. 
Since  therefore  this  genitive  is  a  possessive  genitive,  the  gen¬ 
itives  mei,  tui,  sui,  nostri,  vestri,  sui  from  ego,  tu,  sui,  nos, 
vos,  sui,  are  not  used,  but  the  possessives  mens,  etc.  The 
Latins  here  always  say,  mea ,  tua,  sua,  nostra,  vestra,  sua. 
It  is  questionable,  in  what  case  these  are.  If  ipse  (himself), 
or  unus,  solus  (alone),  are  joined  to  these  possessives,  they 
must  be  put  in  the  genitive..  In  like  manner,  when  substan¬ 
tives  follow  in  apposition,  they  are  put  in  the  genitive,  or  a 
relative  clause  is  employed,  But  if  a  vocative  is  added,  as 
an  address  to  tua  and  vestra,  it  still  remains  in  that  case. 
But  in  the  phrase,  both  of  us,  etc.,  nostra  utriusque  is 
not  used,  but  utriusque  nostrum.  So  also,  omnium 
nostrum  or  nostrum  omnium,  etc.,  not  nostra  omnium. 
Compare  §  105. 

Some  examples  :  My  brother  is  interested  in  this,  mei  fratris  in¬ 
terest  ;  my  brothers  are  interested  in  this ,  meorum  fratrum  in¬ 
terest  ;  it  will  interest  me,  you  and  all ,  mea,  tua  et  omniu  m  into- 


GENITIVE  AFTER  VERRS. 


133 


§§  158,  159.] 

rerit ;  I  myself  was  interested ,  in  e  a  i  p  s  I  u  s  intererat ;  I  alone  tons 
interested ,  mea  unius  intererat ;  it  ought  to  interest  you ,  my  friend  , 
t  u  a,  mei  amici,  debet  interesse  ;  that  is  of  very  little  importance 
to  me,  who  am  the  eldest ,  id  in  e  a  minime  refert,  q  u  i  sum  natu  max¬ 
imus;  no  one  was  more  interested ,  than  you ,  beloved  friend ,  nullius 
magis,  quam  tua,  dilecte  amice,  intererat. 

The  verb  refert ,  in  the  classic  writers,  is  joined  only  with, 
the  possessi ves  mea,  tua ,  etc. 

158.  (2)  How  much  a  person  is  interested  in  anything,  how 
important  anything  is  for  a  person,  is  also  often  put  in  the 
genitive.  The  neuter  genitive  of  such  words  is  used  ;  e.  g. 
Much ,  magni  (not  multi);  very  much,  permagni,  pi  u- 
r  i  m  i ;  more ,  pluris;  most  of  all,  plurimi;  little,  parvi; 
less,  minoris;  least  of  all,  minimi;  very  little,  per¬ 
parvi,  minimi;  how  much,  quanti;  so  much,  tanti; 
just  as  much,  tantidem,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  genitives  of 
worth. 

But,  instead  of  the  genitive  of  adjectives,  their  adverbs  or 
their  neuter  is  frequently  employed.  The  adverb  or  neuter 
is  used  in  the  case  of  all  other  words,  whose  genitive  is  used 
but  seldom,  or  not  at  all.  Therefore,  the  Latiqs  say,  M  u  1- 
tum,  magnopere,  vehementer,  much ;  permul¬ 
tum,  plurimum,  very  much ;  p  1  u  s,  m  a  g  i  s,  more  ; 
plurimum,  maxime,  most  of  all;  par  u  m,  little ;  m  i- 
n  u  s,  less ;  minime,  least  of  all ;  quantum,  how  much  ; 
aliquantum,  somewhat ;  tantum,  ^  much ;  nihil, 
nothing  ;  quid,  what,  how  much. 

Some  examples  :  I  am  much  interested  in  this,  mea  mag¬ 
ni  (multu  rn)  interest ;  the  judge  is  more  interested  in  this , 
judicis  p  1  u  r  i  s  (p  1  u  s)  interest.  As  much  as  thy  father 
is  interested  in  this,  so  much  am  I,  quanti  (quantum)  t  u  i 
patris  interest,  tanti  (tantum)  mea;  it  is  of  no  impor¬ 
tance,  nihil  interest. 

i 

159.  (3)  That  in  which  any  one  is  interested,  which  is 
important  to  any  one,  which  concerns  any  one,  is  expressed 
by  the  infinitive,  by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  by  ut 
with  the  subjunctive,  or,  in  a  negative  sentence,  by  nc,  but 

12 


134 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  159. 


not  with  si,  cum,  or  quod,  and  in  interrogative  sentences,  by 
interrogatives ;  e.  g.  It  concerns  me  to  know  this,  interest  mea 
hoc  scire;  it  concerns  me  that  you  know  the  whole  matter 
accurately,  interest  mea,  te  totam  rem  accurate  s  ci  r  e,  or  ut 
totam  rem  accurate  scias;  it  does  not  concern  you,  whether 
you  know  this,  nihil  tua  interest,  hoccine  scias.  That  in 
view  of  which  any  one  is  interested  in  a  matter,  is  expressed 
by  ad  with  the  Acc.  e.  g-  It  is  of  great  importance  to  my  ho¬ 
nor,  that  1  should  return  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  city,  magni 
ad  honorem  nostrum  interest. 

.  But  when  in  English,  the  preposition,  on  account  of,  for, 
or  about  is  used  with  a  substantive,  e.  g.  On  account  of  my 
health,  on  account  of  the  health  of  my  father,  in  this  case, 
neither  a  preposition  nor  ablative  is  used,  but  the  idea  must 
be  expressed  by  its  own  appropriate  sentence,  which  may  be 
either  by  the  accusative  and  the  infinitive,  ut  with  the  sub¬ 
junctive,  or  by  an  interrogative  word,  thus:  I  am  concerned 
for  the  health  of  my  father ,  for  my  health,  may  be,  p  at  r  e  in 
meum  esse  sanum,  me  esse  sanum;  or  ut  pa¬ 
ter  sanus  sit,  pater  sanusne  sit,  ut  sanus  sim 
or  sanusne  sim.  In  other  connections,  the  propositions 
are  passive  ;  e.  g.  What  do  you  care  for  my  freedom  ?  quid 
tua  refert,  me  liberari,  or  ut  1  i  b  e  r  e  r,  or  liberer- 
n  e  7  That  form  of  construction,  which  is  most  appropriate, 
is  always  to  be  selected. 

Examples. 

The  reader1  of  this  book  must  be  interested  to  know  some¬ 
thing  concerning  the  life  of  the  writer2.  That  which  con¬ 
cerns  me  less,  perhaps  delights3  you  more.  No  one  is  so 
much  concerned  fpr  the  preservation4  of  life,  as5  those  who 
perform6  noble7  deeds.  All  of  us  must  be  much  interested 
for  the  refutation8  and  removal9  of  superstition.  It  greatly 
concerns  the  state  to  distinguish10  itself  by  dignity.  I  have 
omitted11  what  did  not  concern  you.  .It  does  not  concern 
us,  whether12  you  wrote  this,  or  not13.  _  What  does  the  con¬ 
quest14  of  Antony  concern  us?  Thy  immediate15  arrival  is 


GENITIVE  AFTER  ADVERBS. 


135 


§§  160,  161.] 

of  very  great  importance16  for  thy  domestic  affairs17.  It  is 
very  important18  for  us  to  be  together19.  It  is  important  for 
us  both,  that  I  should  visit20  X'oi/.  It  was  more  important 
for  the  Athenians  to  have  strong21  roofs22  upon  their  houses23, 
than  the  most  beautiful  ivory24  image25  of  Minerva.  We  all 
have  a  very  great  concern  for  thy  life.  You  will  perceive26, 
that  this  is  more  important  for  me,  than  for  you.  I  know 
how  important  it  is  for  our  state,  that  all  the  troops  assem¬ 
ble27  in  one  place.  Many  of  the  Athenians  were  very  much 
concerned  on  account  of  the  expulsion28  of  Aristides.  Good 
children  will  always  be  much  concerned  for  the  increase  of 
their  patrimony29.  All  the  members  of  the  body  agree30,  be¬ 
cause  the  preservation  of  each  is  important  for  the  whole 
body.  Of  what  importance31  is  it  to  my  interest,  what  the 
Persians  may  be  doing  ? 

1  lector.  2  scriptor.  3  delectare.  4  servare.  5  quantus.  6  perficere. 
7  egregius.  8  refellere.  9  removere.  10  eminere.  11  omittere.  12  utrum 
(with  the  subj.).  13  nec  ne  (or  not).  14  vincere.  15  quam  primum.  16in- 
teresse.  17  res  familiaris.  18referre.  19  una  esse  (to  be  together). 
20 convenire.  21  firmus.  22 tectum.  23 domicilium.  24exebore.  25 sig¬ 
num.  26  intelligere.  27 convenire.  28 expellere.  29 patrimonium,  ^con¬ 
sentire.  31  referre. 


GENITIVE  AFTER  SOME  OTHER  VERBS. 

160.  Egere  and  indigere,  to  have  need ,  to  want,  also  take 
the  genitive ;  e.  g.  I  have  need  of  consolation,  egeo  conso¬ 
lationis  (solatii).  They  oftener  take  the  ablative.  See 
§197. 

Examples. 

The  severity1  of  disease  causes  us  to2  need  medicine. 
Those  who  have  least  need  of  another3,  are  usually4  the  most 
liberal5  and  beneficent6.  All  these  exercises  and  movements 
do  not  so  much7  need  art  as  effort8. 

'gravitas.  2  ut  (see  §  541 ,  d.).  3alter.  4  plerumque.  5liberalis. 
8  beneficus.  7  tam  (so  much).  8  labor. 


GENITIVE  AFTER  CERTAIN  ADVERBS. 

161.  Some  adverbs  of  quantity  and  place  govern  the  geni 
tive. 


136 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  161. 


(1)  Adverbs  of  quantity ,  i.  e.  such  adverbs,  as  denote 
plenty  or  want ,  take  the  genitive.  Here  belong,  enough , 
satis;  m  abundance,  abundant,  abunde,  a  ff  a  t  i  m  ;  too 
little,  little,  parum;  e.  g.  Money  enough,  satis  pecu¬ 
niae;  too  little  attention,  parum  animi  attentionis. 

(2)  Adverbs  of  place,  especially  when  they  are  used  in  a 
figurative  sense.  Here  belong,  how  far,  to  what  degree , 
quo;  thither,  so  far,  to  such  a  degree,  eo;  as  far  as  this, 
so  far,  hue;  e.  g.  To  what  degree  of  madness,  quo  fu  r  o- 
r  i  s,  quo  amentiae;  so  far  in  audacity,  to  such  a  de¬ 
gree  of  audacity,  eo  a  u  d  a  c  i  a  e  ;  so  far  in  adversity,  to 
such  a  state  of  adversity ,  huc  malorum.  Although  this 
usage  belongs  after  the  classic  period,  yet  it  is  not  to  be  re¬ 
jected. 

When  these  and  other  adverbs  are  not  used  figuratively,  they  are 
etill  often  followed  by  the  genitives  terrarum,  gentium ,  locorum,  for 
the  sake  of  emphasis,  as  in  our  phrase,  where  in  all  the  world?  e.  g. 
Where ,  I  pray,  is  he  ?  where  in  all  the  world  is  he  ?  ubi  est  terra- 
rum  (gentium,  locorum)?  Where  in  all  the  world  can  he  have 
gone  ?  quo  terrarum  abiit  ?  There  is  peace  nowhere  upon  the 
earth ,  nusquam  terrarum  est  pax. 

Examples. 

He  who  is  contented,  has  enough  wealth.  Many  men  use1 
too  little  care  and  labor,  and  yet2  demand3  an  abundant  re¬ 
ward4.  The  Roman  empire  at  length  rose5  to  such6  a  de¬ 
gree  of  greatness,  that19  it  was  destroyed7  by  its  own8  strength. 
Caesar  left9  a  sufficient  garrison10  in  his  camp.  Truly11,  no 
where  on  earth  had  old  age12  a  more  honored13  spot.,  than  at 
Lacedemon.  In  the  battle  near  Cannae,  Lentulus  said  to 
AEmilius  Paulus,  Elee!  even  without  thy  death,  here  are 
tears  and  grief 14  enough.  A  certain15  king  of  Thrace  rose16 
to  such  a  pitch  of  haughtiness17  and  madness18,  that19  he  just¬ 
ly20  merited21  the  anger  of  Trajan.  Ye  yourselves  seem  not 
to  know,  how  far  you  have  gone22  in  frenzy23.  Wherever24 
upon  the  earth  there  is  a  man,  there  the  eye  of  God  sees  him. 
Marius  despatched  persons,  in  order  that  they  might  ascer¬ 
tain25,  where  in  all  the  world  Jugurtha  was.  Cyrus  left  in 
his  camp  an  abundance  of  wine.  Epaminondas  went26  so 
far  in  his  love  for  truth,  that19  he  never  falsified27. 


§§  162,  163.]  THE  DATIVE.  137 

1  adhibere.  2 tamen.  3 postulare.  4 praemium.  5 crescere.  9  eo  (to 
such  a  degree).  7  conficere.  8  ipse.  9  relinquere.  10  praesidium.  11  sane. 
12  senectus.  13  honoratus.  14  luctus.  15  quidam.  16  procedere.  17  super¬ 
bia.  18furor.  19  ut.  20jure.  21  mereri.  22progredi.  23amentia.  ^ubi¬ 
cumque.  25  explorare.  26  progredi.  27  mentiri. 

For  the  genitive  with  some  names  of  place,  see  §§  67 — 69. 

THE  DATIVE. 

162.  The  dative  stands  chiefly  in  all  those  sentences 
which  denote  that  something  is  designed  for  some  person  or 
thing  ;  hence  it  shows  to  whom,  to  what,  for  whom,  for  whose 
advantage  or  disadvantage  something  happens ;  also,  to 
whom  (to  what)  something  is  directed,  to  whom  something 
comes.  Thus  in  the  following  phrases  :  My  father  has  not 
written  to  me  (mihi)  for  a  time;  my  brothers  came  to  help 
(auxilio)  me  (mihi)  ;  I  have  written  this  book  for  begin¬ 
ners  (tironibus) ;  I  allow  you  (tibi )  no  reward ;  he  has  bought 
the  garden  for  me  (mihi)  ;  war  is  destructive  to  most  men, 
(plerisque  hominibus).  And  so  in  many  similar  phrases. 
The  adjectives,  which  govern  this  case,  denote,  generally,  the 
relation  of  advantage  or  disadvantage  to  a  person  or  thing. 
Many  verbs  also  which  take  the  dative,  express  one  or  the 
other  of  these  relations.  And  probably  most  verbs,  which 
have  this  case,  in  their  original  signification,  expressed  such 
a  relation  ;  but  this  for  us  has  been  wholly  lost  by  a  differ¬ 
ence  of  translation. 


DATIVE  AFTER  ADJECTIVES. 

163.  There  are  many  adjectives  which  govern  the  dative, 
and  they  denote,  generally,  for  whom ,  to  whom,  for  what,  to 
what.  Adjectives  belonging  here  are  the  following. 

(1)  Those  which  denote  usefulness,  injury,  destruction, 
viz.  utilis,  inutilis,  noxius,  salutaris ,  salubris  {saluber),  per¬ 
niciosus,  exitiosus,  fatalis,  gravis,  periculosus,  etc. ;  e.  g. 
This  water  is  healthful  for  the  human  body  (corpori  hu¬ 
man  o);  this  plan  is  dangerous  for  the  state,  reipublicae. 

12* 


138 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§§  164,  165. 


(2)  Those  which  denote  necessity  and  importance,  viz. 
necessarius,  gravis,  magnus ;  e.  g.  This  language  is  neces¬ 
sary  for  merchants,  mercatoribus. 

(3)  Those  which  denote  pleasure,  pain  and  trouble,  viz. 
jucundus ,  gratus,  acceptus,  dulcis,  suavis,  ingratus,  injucun¬ 
dus,  molestus,  gravis,  acerbus,  amarus,  etc. ;  e.  g.  Nothing  is 
more  pleasant  to  men,  hominibus;  grapes  are,  at  first, 
very  bitter  to  the  taste,  gustui. 

(4)  Those  which  denote  ease  and  difficulty,  viz.  facilis, 
levis,  difficilis,  gravis,  durus,  arduus,  etc. ;  e.  g.  This  labor 
is  not  difficult  for  us,  n  o  b  i  s. 

164.  (5)  Those  which  denote  skill,  fitness  and  unfitness, 
viz.  aptus,  habilis,  idoneus,  accommodatus,  bonus,  alienus. 
The  first  four,  instead  of  the  dative,  often  have  the  preposi¬ 
tion  ad,  but  only  with  things,  not  with  persons,  and  alienus 
generally  has  the  ablative  with  and  without  a,  and  some¬ 
times,  though  rarely,  the  genitive.  Hence  it  is  said,  The 
place  is  suitable  (a  p  t  u  s)  for  ambush,  insidiis  or  ad  in¬ 
sidias;  these  passions  are  conformable  to  (accommo¬ 
dati)  human  nature,  (naturae  liu  m  a  n  a  e,  or  ad  na¬ 
turam  humanam);  this  is  unsuitable  (alienum)ybr 
that  cause  (i  1 1  i  causae,  ab  ill  a  causa,  ilia  causa, 
and  illius  causae.) 

165.  (6)  Those  which  denote  favor,  friendship,  esteem  or 
hatred,  viz.  amicus,  propitius,  opportunus,  intimus ,  familiaris , 
carus,  infestus,  inimicus,  hostis,  infensus,  contrarius,  iniquus, 
alienus,  adversarius,  etc.  ;  e.  g.  No  one  is  more  frimdly  to  me, 
than  Atticus,  mihi  nemo  est  amicior  Attico ;  the  night  is 
favorable  for  sleep,  so  m  n  o  opportuna  ;  Clodius  was  always 
hostile  to  the  virtues,  virtutibus  hostis.  Many  of  these 
adjectives  admit  also  other  constructions ;  e.  g.  useful  for  a 
purpose,  utilis  a  d  rem  ;  kindly  disposed  to  any  one ,  benevo¬ 
lus  erga  aliquem,  etc. 

It  is  here  to  be  noticed,  that  the  words  amicus,  inimicus,  familiaris, 
intimus ,  iniquus ,  adversarius  and  hostis  are  considered  by  the  Latins 
in  a  twofold  relation,  either  as  substantives  or  adjectives.  As  adjec- 


§  1 66.] 


DATIVE  AFTER  ADJECTIVES. 


139 


tives,  they  govern  the  dative,  but  as  substantives,  the  genitive.  They 
can  therefore  be  translated  differently,  i.  e.  either  adjectively  or  sub¬ 
stantively.  In  the  last  case,  vve  say ,  friend,  enemy ,  intimate.  Hence, 
Thou  art  my  father's  friend,  can  be  expressed  either,  tu  es  patris 
mei  a  m  i  c  u  s,  or  patri  meo  amicus;  Hieronymus  was  an  ene¬ 
my  to  the  Romans,  Romanoru  in,  or  Ro  m  a  n  i  s  hostis  (inimicus). 

If  the  friendship  and  hatred  spoken  of  refer  to  the  personal  pro¬ 
nouns,  1,  thou,  his ,  we,  ye,  their ,  then  the  dative  mihi ,  tihi,  sibi,  nobis, 
vobis  and  sibi  must  be  used,  if  amicus,  inimicus ,  etc.,  are  considered 
as  adjectives;  but  meus ,  tuus,  suus ,  noster ,  vester  and  suus,  if  they 
are  considered  as  substantives.  Thus,  est  me  us  amicus,  or  est 
mihi  amicus;  he  is  our  familiar  friend,  ille  est  noster  familiaris, 
or  nobis  familiaris.  The  comparatives  and  superlatives  which  are 
joined  to  the  English  substantives  contained  in  the  above  words,  are 
expressed  in  Latin  by  amicior,  amicissimus ;  inimicior ,  inimicissimus  ; 
familiarior,  familiarissimus.  Intimus  and  hostis  are  not  compared. 
But  the  comparatives  are  used  only  as  adjectives,  and  hence  govern 
only  the  dative;  while  the  superlatives  are  often,  as  substantives, 
joined  with  the  genitive  or  with  the  possessive  pronouns  ;  e.  g.  He  is 
a  very  warm  f  riend,  of  mine ,  m  i  h  i  amicior  ;  he  is  my  warmest  f  riend, 
mihi  or  me  us  amicissimus.  So  with  iniquus  —  contra  ini¬ 
quos  meos;  nonnulli  nostri  iniqui,  omnibus  iniquissimis 
meis.  Indeed  adversarius,  even  as  a  substantive  and  qualified  by 
acerrimus,  is  also  joined  with  the  dative,  e.  g.  acerrimus  virtuti  ad¬ 
versarius,  unless  the  dative  is  to  be  referred  more  to  the  adjective 
acerrimus,  than  to  the  substantive  adversarius. 

16G.  (7)  Those  which  signify  an  inclination  and  readiness 
for  something,  viz.  proclivis,  promptus,  propensus ,  paratus. 
Yet  the  first  three,  when  things  are  spoken  of,  are  more  fre¬ 
quently  followed  by  the  preposition  ad,  when  persons,  by  in, 
and  paratus,  signifying  prompt,  ready,  by  ad,  and  when  it 
contains  the  additional  idea  of  willing,  by  the  dative ;  e.  g. 
Men  are  subject  to  various  passions,  ad  varias  pertur¬ 
bationes  (variis  perturbationibus)  proclivis. 

(8)  Those  which  denote  equality  or  inequality ,  likeness 
or  unlike  ness,  conformity  and  agreement,  viz.  par,  aequalis, 
impar,  dispar,  inaequalis,  similis,  dissimilis,  consentaneus, 
diversus,  absonus,  etc.  ;  e.  g.  Let  the  penalty  be  equal  (p  a  r) 
to  the  crime  (sceleri);  there  is  nothing  like  (s  i  in  i  1  e)  it 
(ei) ;  Cicero’’ s  death  was  not  in  accordance  icith  (consen¬ 
tanea)  his  glory  (gloria  e). 

The  adjective  aequalis,  signifying  of  the  same  age,  cotem¬ 
porary,  is  used  also  as  a  substantive.  Hence  it  can  take  a 
dative  or  a  genitive ;  e.  g.  Aristides  was  cotemporary  (ae- 


140 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  167. 


qualis)  with  Themistocles  (Themistocli  or  Themis¬ 
toclis);  you  are  my  cotemporary ,  m  i  h  i  aequalis,  or  m  e  u  s 
aequalis;  you  are  of  the  same  age  with  us,  vos  nobis 
aequales,  or  nostri  aequales. 

Similis  and  dissimilis  are  found  very  often  with  the  genitive  also, 
especially  in  Cicero,  who  does  not,  in  the  use  of  these,  distinguish 
between  mental  and  bodily  resemblance.  See  §  ]52.  3.  The  adjec¬ 
tive  consentaneus  is  also  followed  by  cum. 

167.  (9)  Those  which  denote  nearness,  contiguity ,  what 
is  common,  relationship ,  viz.  propinquus,  finitimus,  viclrtus, 
confinis,  communis,  proprius,  affinis,  necessarius ,  cognatus , 
etc. ;  e.  g.  Phrygia  borders  upon  the  Troad,  Troadi  est 
confinis;  death  is  commoti  to  every  age,  omni  aetati; 
you  are  related  to  both,  utrique  necessarius  (cognatus). 
Proprius  is  very  often  followed  by  the  genitive,  and  always 
in  Cicero. 

Examples  on  §§  162 — 167. 

No  one  among  the  Roman  kings  was  more  like  Romulus, 
than  Tullus  Hostilius,  and  like  Numa  Pompilius,  than  An¬ 
cus  Marcius.  Too  long1  watching2  is  not  safe3  for  the  eyes. 
The  day  of  the  battle  of  Cannae  was  very  important  for  the 
Romans  and  Hannibal.  The  mind4  of  men  often  does  not 
agree5  with  their  speech.  Idleness,  which  is  opposed6  to  all 
effort7,  is  pleasing  to  the  mass8  of  the  people.  The  grand¬ 
son  of  Lucius  Scipio  was  like  his  father  in  his  countenance9, 
but  like  all  abandoned10  men  in  his  life11.  The  people  were 
enemies12  to  those,  who  had  banished13  Alcibiades.  Many 
plants  are  injurious  to  the  inexperienced14.  Do  not15  trust16 
him  who  is  more  friendly17  to  a  foreign  land  than  to  his  na¬ 
tive  country.  These  scholars*  are  our  friends.  We  are 
rich,  not  only  for  ourselves,  but  also  for  our  children,  parents, 
relations,  and  especially18  for  the  state.  There  was  that  in 
thy  house,  which  was  fatal  to  both  of  them.  There  is  nothing 
which  can  be  foreign  to  the  art19  of  oratory.  Too  strong 
emotions  of  the  mind  are  the  greatest  enemies  to  inward20 
peace21.  Affection22  for  children  makes23  the  parents  ardent 
friends  of  the  state.  Demosthenes  was  of  the  same  age24  as 
Philip,  king  of  Macedon.  This  language  was  not  difficult25 
for  me  to  learn.  Nature  has  given  to  man  a  form26,  which  is 
suitable27  and  fit28  for  the  human  mind.  The  horse,  the  ox 


§  168.] 


DATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


141 


and  the  reindeer29  are  the  most  useful  animals  for  the  Euro¬ 
peans30.  That  year  was  equally31  fatal  to  me  and  the  coun¬ 
try.  The  writers  which  you  recommend  to  me,  are  not  suf¬ 
ficiently  suited32  to  me.  For  the  weary33,  any  ground34  is  a 
couch35.  The  investigation  of  truth  is  eminently36  peculiar 
to  man. 

1  longior  (too  long).  2  vigiliae.  3  salutaris.  4  animus.  5  consentaneus. 
6  inimicum  esse  (to  be  opposed  to).  7  intentio.  8  vulgus  (mass  of  peo¬ 
ple).  9  facies.  10  perditus.  11  vita.  12  inimicus.  13  expellere.  14  imperitus. 
15  ne.  16  credere.  17  amicus.  *  doctus  homo.  18  maxime.  19  ars  oratoria 
(art^of  oratory).  20animi.  21  tranquillitas.  22 caritas.  23 facere,  ^aequa¬ 
lis.  25  difficilis.  26  figura.  27  habilis.  28  aptus.  29rheno.  30  Europaeus. 
31  aeque.  32  idoneus.  33  fatigatus.  34  humus.  35  cubile.  36  imprimis. 


DATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 

•  168.  Here,  in  the  first  place,  the  dative  is  used  with  verbs 
which  signify  to  obey  some  one,  alicui  parere,  obedire,  ob¬ 
sequi,  audientem  esse  (but  only  with  dicto);  to  benefit,  to 
injure  some  one,  alicui  prodesse,  officere ;  to  promise,  a  1  i- 
cui  promittere,  polliceri,  spondere;  to  torite  to  some  one , 
alicui  scribere;  to  give  to  some  one,  alicui  dare;  to 
send  to  some  one,  alicui  mittere;  to  trust,  to  believe  some  one , 
and  so  many  others.  Instead  of  the  dative,  the  Latin  some¬ 
times  uses  a  preposition  with  its  appropriate  case;  e.  g.  To 
write,  to  send  to  any  one,  may  be,  alicui  or  ad  aliquem 
scribere,  mittere. 

It  has  been  shown  above,  §  162,  that  the  person  or  thing 
for  whom  or  which  anything  happened  or  was  done,  is  put 
in  the  dative.  This  dative  in  English  is  very  frequently  gov¬ 
erned  by  the  preposition  for ;  e.  g.  He  conquered  the  enemy 
for  himself ,  not  for  his  country,  sibi,  non  patriae;  we 
do  not  learn  for  school ,  but  for  the  ivhole  of  life ,  non  sc  h  o- 
1  a  e,  sed  t  o  t  i  vitae;  for  whom  do  you  lay  up  your  riches, 
c  u  i  paras  tuas  divitias  ? 

Hence  the  following  verbs  take  the  dative  of  the  person  or 
thing,  for  which,  or  for  the  sake  of  which  anything  is  done  : 
cupere  aliciii,  to  wish  well  to  one,  to  be  friendly  to,  to  favor ; 


142 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  169. 

formidare,  timere,  metuere,  horrere  alicui,  to  fear  for, to  be  in 
fear  for  some  one,  on  account  of  some  one ;  petere  alicui,  to 
ask  for  one,  to  go  for  one ;  cavere,  consulere,  prospicere, 
providere  alicui,  to  take  care  for  some  one;  quaerere  alicui, 
to  seek  for  one,  etc. 


Examples. 

In  this  state1,  rewards  are  appointed2  for  good  actions3. 
Caesar  left  the  fourteenth  legion,  as  a  defence4  for  the  bag¬ 
gage5.  It  is  our  duty  to  learn,  not  only  for  ourselves,  but 
also  for  other  men.  As  Helen  was  the  cause  of  war  and 
destruction6  to  the  Trojans,  so  was  Antony,  to  the  Roman 
empire.  Books  on  eloquence  have  no  more7  been  written 
for  him,  who  is  destitute8  of  genius9,  than  books  on  agricul¬ 
ture10,  for  barren11  lands.  Faustulus  provided12  for  the  ed¬ 
ucation  of  Romulus  and  Remus.  Tiberius  sought13  the 
praetorship  for  his  son.  The  aged  often  take  care14  for  a 
second15  century;  for  they  sometimes16  plant17  trees,  which 
are  useful18  for  a  second  century  ;  thus  they  do  not  plant  for 
themselves,  but  for  posterity19.  There  are  many,  who  do 
not  favor20  you.  God  provided21,  from  the  beginning,  for  the 
good22  of  the  whole  world.  The  senatorial  order23  had  most 
carefully24  provided25  for  the  veterans.  To  consult26  the  in¬ 
terests  of  the  people  more  than  his  own  will27,  is  a  proof  of 
an  upright  senator.  We  apprehend28  no29  danger  to  our¬ 
selves  from  a  friend.  The  life  of  parents  is,  as  it  were30,  a 
pattern31  for  children.  The  honorable32  reputation33  of  pa¬ 
rents  is  the  best  portion34  for  children.  Innocence  is  a 
source35  of  happiness36  for  the  unfortunate.  Money  is  a  pun¬ 
ishment  for  the  avaricious37.  The  arts  and  sciences38  are 
riches  for  the  poor,  an  ornament39  for  the  rich,  and  a  de¬ 
light40  for  the  aged41. 

divitas.  2  constitutus.  3  recte  facta  (good  actions).  4  praesidium. 
5  impedimenta, -orum.  6  exitium.  7  non  magis  (no  more).  8deesse. 
9  ingenium.  10  cultura  agri.  11  sterilis.  12  providere.  13  petere.  14  pros¬ 
picere  (to  take  care  for).  13  alter.  16  interdum,  17  serere.  18  prodesse. 
19 posteritas.  20cupere.  21  providere.  22 salus.  23 ordo  senatorius,  ^di¬ 
ligentissime.  25  cavere.  2G consulere.  27  voluntas.  28  metugre.  29non. 
30  instar.  31  regula.  32  honestus.  33  fama.  34  dos.  33  (omitted  in  Lat.). 
36  felicitas.  37  avarus.  3S  litterae.  39  ornamentum.  40  delectatio.  41  senex. 

169.  With  the  foregoing  verbs,  we  generally  supply  in 
translation  the  prepositions  to  or  for,  but  there  are  many 


§§  170,  171.] 


DATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


143 


others  construed  with  the  dative,  which  are  translated,  as  if 
they  governed  an  accusative,  e.  g.  alicui  favere,  to  favor  some 
one  ;  alicui  imperare,  to  command  some  one.  It  is,  therefore, 
necessary  for  beginners  to  consult  some  good  lexicon,  in  or¬ 
der  to  learn  what  cases  particular  verbs  govern.  But  as  the 
lexicons  will  not  explain  this  with  sufficient  fulness,  the  most 
important  words  which  govern  the  dative,  will  here  be  men¬ 
tioned. 

170.  (1)  Parcere  alicui,  to  spare  one ;  nocere,  to  injure 
one;  bene  dicere,  to  praise  one;  male  dicere,  to  abuse,  to 
curse  one ;  studere,  to  pursue,  to  study  something,  to  apply 
one’s  self  to;  persuadere,  to  persuade,  to  convince  one  ;  mede¬ 
ri,  to  heal  one  ;  irasci  and  succensere,  to  he  angry  with  one  ; 
ignoscere,  to  pardon  one;  nubere,  to  marry  one  (a  man); 
invidere,  to  envy  one;  arridere,  to  smile  at,  to  laugh  at;  pla¬ 
cere,  to  please  one.  Some  examples :  He  spares  me  alone, 
m  i  h  i  soli  parcit ;  my  brother  studies  or  applies  himself  to 
this  art,  h  u  i  c  a  r  t  i  studet ;  I  heal  the  patient,  medeor  a  e- 
groto;  whom  have  you  persuaded?  cui  persuadisti?  I  am 
angry  at  you ,  succenseo  (irascor)  tibi;  Elpinice  had  mar¬ 
ried  her  brother  Cimon ,  fratri  suo  Cimoni  nupserat ;  I 
envy  you,  tibi  invideo.  That  for,  or  on  account  of  which 
any  one  is  envied,  is  put  by  the  Latins,  either  in  the  accusa¬ 
tive,  e.  g.  I  envy  you  wealth,  ox  you  on  account  of  your  wealth, 
t  i  b  i  invideo  divitias;  or  more  frequently  the  person 
who  is  envied,  is  joined  with  the  other  substantive  (i.  e.  Agrees 
with  or  is  governed  by  it),  which  is  put  in  the  dative;  e.  g. 
in  video  tuis  divitiis;  further,  I  envy  my  brother  on  ac¬ 
count  of  his  renown,  invideo  fratris  laudi,  or  fratri 
laudem.  That  of  which  any  one  is  persuaded  or  convinced, 
is  expressed  by  the  accusative,  but  only  of  a  neuter  pronoun, 
otherwise,  by  de  with  the  ablative,  or  the  accusative  and  infin¬ 
itive.  That  to  which  any  one  is  persuaded,  by  ut.  See  §377. 

171.  Since,  as  already  remarked,  the  English  verbs,  by  which  the 
above  Latin  ones  are  translated,  are  generally  transitive  and  govern 
an  accusative,  they  have,  also,  (when  an  accusative  of  a  person  can 


144 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


t§  171. 

be  joined  with  them,  e.  g.  to  envy  one ,  to  spare,  to  convince),  a  full 
passive  in  all  the  persons;  e.  g.  /  am  envied,  thou  art  envied,  he  is  en¬ 
vied,  etc.  But  the  corresponding  Latin  verbs,  since  they  do  not  gov¬ 
ern  an  accusative,  which  in  the  passive  might  become  the  subject-no¬ 
minative,  have  in  the  passive  only  a  third  person  singular,  and  this  is 
to  be  regarded  only  as  neuter,  without  a  subject;  e.  g.  invidetur ,  in¬ 
videbatur,  invisum  est,  etc.  Hence,  in  order  to  express  the  persons  /, 
thou,  he  (she),  ice,  ye,  they,  these  must  be  put  in  the  dative.  Hence, 
1  am  envied,  is  m  ill  i  invidetur,  etc.  Iam  persuaded ,  m  i  h  i  persua¬ 
detur,  and  sometimes  m  i  h  i  persuadeo.  And  so  in  the  other  tenses 
and  inodes;  e.  g.  in  the  imperfect,  I  have  been  (we  have  been)  envied, 
m  i  hi  (nobis)  invisum  est.  So  w'here  the  accusative  and  the  infin¬ 
itive  occurs  ;  e.  g.  That  I  have  been  envied ,  m  i  h  i  invisum  esse. 
If  an  auxiliary  verb,  can,  might,  is  accustomed,  etc.,  is  connected  with 
the  infinitive  and  contains  the  subject  in  itself,  e.  g.  I  can,  then  this 
auxiliary  verb  can  be  used  only  in  the  third  person  singular,  and  the 
subject  must  be  in  the  dative,  governed  by  the  infinitive  ;  e.  g.  /  can 
be  envied,  mihi  potest  invideri;  we  are  accustomed  to  be,  envied, 
nobis  invideri  solet.  The  same  construction  is  used  with  all  the 
other  verbs  above  mentioned,  in  the  passive.  It  is  to  be  noticed  last¬ 
ly,  however,  that  the  verb  nubere  has  a  passive  participle,  nupta,  in 
the  singular  and  plural,  with  which  the  person  (female)  who  is  given 
in  marriage,  is  put  in  the  nominative,  but  he  to  xchom  she  is  given, 
can  be  put  either  in  the  dative,  or  in  the  ablative  with  the  preposition 
cum  ;  e.  g.  Elpinice  had  been  given  in  marriage  to  her  brother,  or  had 
been  married  to  her  brother ,  Elpinice  fratri  suo  (cum  fratre 
suo)  nupta  erat. 


Examples. 

Physicians  heal  very  severe1  diseases  with  powerful2  reme¬ 
dies3.  The  poor  envy  the  rich.  Cotys,  king  of  Thrace, 
spared  no  one.  Good  parents  do  not  envy  their  children  on 
account  of  the  fortune,  which  sometimes4  falls  to  their  lot5  ; 
they- rather6  rejoice,  if  fortune  smiles7  so  much8  upon  the  ef¬ 
forts9  of  their  children.  Niobe  had,  in  Lydia,  married  Am¬ 
phion,  the  founder10  of  Thebes.  When  Thebes  was  destroy¬ 
ed11,  the  house  of  the  poet  Pindar  was  spared.  Most  men 
have  been  persuaded12  that13  the  soul  is  immortal.  When 
Xerxes  had  taken14  Athens,  not  even15  the  temples  of  the 
gods  were  spared.  It  is  our  duty  to  pursue16  a  useful  em¬ 
ployment17.  The  poor  are  not  easily18  convinced,  that19 God 
cares20  for  them  as  much  as21  for  the  rich.  The  virgin22 
married  him,  to  whom  her  sister  had  been  married.  I  am 
not.  accustomed  to  be  angry  at  my  friends  rashly23.  From 
childhood,  devote24  yourself  to  the  most  valuable25  arts  and 
learning26.  Men  envy  most27  their  equals28,  or  their  inferi¬ 
ors,— -but  their  superiors  also  are  envied.  The  glory  and  the 


DATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


145 


§§  172, 173.] 

praise  of  others  are  especially  wont  to  be  envied.  If  you  wish 
to  heal  any29  disease,  first  ascertain30  the  nature  of  the  body. 
Thales  did  not  convince  his  countryman31  Anaximander  of 
this32.  I  shall  not  be  convinced  of  this.  You  have  not  been 
able,  as  I  hear,  to  be  persuaded.  In  India,  many  wives  are 
accustomed  to  be  married  to  one  man33.  The  higher  are  en¬ 
vied  less,  than  those  who  are  lower.  Marcellus  replied  to 
the  Syracusans,  I  will34  spare  the  citizens  and  the  houses  of 
the  city.  Good  men  do  not  envy  others  on  account  of  their 
advantage35. 

gravior.  2  validus.  3  remedium.  4  interdum.  5  contingere  (to  fall  to 
one’s  lot).  6potius.  7favere.  8tantopere.  9labor.  ]0conditor.  11  diruere. 
12  persuaderi.  13  (acc.  with  inf  ).  14  capere.  15  ne  ...  quidem  ( templa 
is  to  be  placed  between).  16  studere.  17  res.  18  non  facile.  19  (acc.  with 
inf.).  20  prospicere.  21  non  minus  (as  much  as).  22  virgo.  23  temere. 
24  studere.  25  bonus.  26  disciplina.  27  maxime.  28  par.  29  aliquis.  30  cog¬ 
noscere.  31  popularis  32  hoc.  33  singuli.  34  velle.  35  commodum. 

172.  (2)  The  verb  esse  (to  be),  in  three  relations,  governs 
the  dative. 

(a)  The  Latins  commonly  use  it,  for  habere,  to  have,  with 
the  dative  of  a person  or  thing,  which  has  something,  the  thing 
possessed  being  put  as  the  subject  in  the  nominative ;  e.  g.  Ci¬ 
cero  had  a  brother  Quintus,  i.  e.  there  was  to  Cicero  a  brother 
Quintus ; — 1  have  two  brothers,  i.  e.  to  me  there  are  two  bro¬ 
thers.  Hence  in  Latin,  Ciceroni  erat  Quintus  frater  ;  mihi 
duo  sunt  fratres,  where  habere  also  can  be  used.  Respecting 
esse  with  the  genitive,  see  §  143. 

173.  (b)  Esse  often  takes  the  dative,  when  it  denotes  to  or 
for  what  something  is,  serves,  contributes,  or  conduces.  We 
express  this  relation  in  English,  by  the  preposition  to  or  for, 
when,  in  translating  esse,  we  use  the  verbs,  to  be,  to  serve,  to 
conduce,  to  contribute ;  e.  g.  This  conduces,  contributes  to 
our  honor,  hoc  n  o  b  i  s  est  honori.  This  example  shows, 
that  with  this  dative,  there  is  often  joined  the  dative  of  the 
person  for  whom  something  is,  serves,  conduces  and  contri¬ 
butes.  Instead  of  the  dative  of  the  person,  in  English  we  use 
the  adjective  agreeing  with  the  second  dative;  sometimes  the 
second  dative  is  translated  as  if  it  were  a  genitive  ;  e.  g.  This 

conduces  to  my  praise,  but  the  Latins  never  say,  hoc  est 

13 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


146 


[§  174. 


meae  laudi,  but  mihi  laudi;  this  contributes  to  the 
praise  of  my  father ,  hoc  m  e  o  patri  est  laudi. 

If  a  substantive  thus  constructed  contains  a  quality,  it  can 
be  translated  into  English  by  an  adjective  or  in  some  other 
manner  ;  e.  g.  This  is  honorable,  this  gives,  causes,  brings 
honor.  So,  this  is  delightful,  delights,  gives  delight,  hoc  est 
delectationi;  this  is  a  matter  of  interest,  hoc  est  cordi, 
hoc  est  curae.  If,  moreover,  in  English,  an  adjective  in  the 
comparative  or  superlative  is  used,  then,  as  the  adjective  is 
translated  by  a  substantive,  a  comparative,  e.  g.  major,  or  a 
superlative,  e.  g.  maximus  or  summus,  must  be  joined  with  the 
substantive  ;  or  if  very  qualifies  the  adjective  in  English,  mag¬ 
nus  mugit  be  joined  with  the  substantive  in  Latin,  and  the  words 
as  and  how  are  expressed  by  quantus,  and  so  by  tantus  ;  e.  g. 
This  is  honorable ,  est  honori;  this  is  more  honorable,  m  a- 
jori  honori;  this  is  most  honorable,  maximo  (sum¬ 
mo)  honori;  it  is  very  honorable,  magno  honori; 
so  honorable,  tanto  honori;  how ,  as  honorable,  quanto 
honori. 

Finally,  also  habere,  ducere,  dare,  tribuere,  vertere ,  signify¬ 
ing  to  reckon,  to  consider  as,  to  impute,  are  sometimes  joined 
with  such  datives;  e.  g.  This  is  considered  my  praise,  hoc 
m  i  h  i  ducitur  laudi. 

174.  (c)  When  esse,  fieri  and  infinitives,  admit  an  ad¬ 
jective  or  participle  as  a  predicate,  this  adjective  or  partici¬ 
ple  is  usually  put  in  the  dative,  if  the  pronoun  or  noun  of 
which  they  are  the  predicate,  is  in  the  dative;  e.  g.  It  is  in 
my  power  to  be  happy,  m  i  h  i  licet  esse  beato;  I  succeed 
in  becoming  happy,  m  i  h  i  contigit  fieri  beato;  A  plebeian 
could  not  then  become  a  consul,  plebeio  turn  non  licebat 
fieri  consuli.  The  case  is  similar,  when  in  the  phrase, 
mihi  est  nomen,  (there  is  a  name  to  me,  I  have  a  name,  I  am 
called),  and  the  like,  the  definite  name  is  put  in  the  dative  ; 
e.  g.  I  am  called  Philip,  m  i  h  i  nomen  est  Philippo. 
Besides  the  dative,  which  is  the  most  usual  case,  the  nomina- 


DATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


147 


§  174.] 

tive  also,  especially  with  foreign  names,  is  employed ;  the 
genitive  very  rarely.  The  dative  denoting  the  definite  name 
is  used  also  in  the  phrases,  alicui  no  men  dare  and 
indere,  to  give  a  name  to  one ;  e.  g.  The  name  Charles  was 
given  to  the  hoy,  puero  nomen  Carolo  datum  (indi¬ 
tum)  est.  p 

Examples  on  §§  172 — 174. 

Those  who  have  riches,  are  not  always  happy.  Although 
the  son  of  Tiberius  had  not  yet1  the  lawful'2  years,  he  was, 
nevertheless,  appointed3  pretor.  To  honor  virtue  brings4 
disgrace5  to  no  one  ;  but  to  cling6  to  vice,  brings  the  greatest 
disgrace.  The  laws  of  Lycurgus  were  very  salutary7  for  the 
Lacedemonians.  The  letters  of  others  are  more  consolatory8 
in  troubles9,  than  our  own10  reflection11.  Parents  consider12 
it  the  greatest  comfort,  if  fortune  favors13  their  children.  It 
was  not  considered14  reputable15  for  Fabius  Pictor  at  Rome, 
that16  he  painted ;  whence17  it  is  evident18,  that19  it  was  not 
yet  honorable  to  apply20  one’s  self  to  the  art  of  painting.  As 
flowers,  in  spring,  have  a  lively21  and  fresh22  color,  so  also 
have  we,  as23  children  and  youth,  fresh  strength.  Man  has 
a  likeness  to  the  Deity.  Severity24  is  wont  to  be  odious25  to 
many  men.  In  this  office26,  thou  canst  be  very  useful  to  thy 
country.  Every  one  has  his  custom27.  The  indolent28  al¬ 
ways  have  holy-days.  The  fidelity  and  compassion29  (shown) 
Marius  were  honorable30  and  commendable  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Minturnae31.  Julius  Caesar  did  not  perceive,  how  dan¬ 
gerous32  this  undertaking33  would  be  to  him.  King  Antio¬ 
chus  had  two  elephants,  celebrated34  for  their  names35 ;  the 
one  was  called  Patroclus,  the  other  Ajax.  We  all  have 
memory  and  a  desire  for  knowledge36.  A  rich37  house  often 
brings  disgrace38  to  its  lord.  Those  men  are  permitted39  to 
be  timid40  and  indolent41,  but  we  to  be  brave  men.  The 
surname  Superbus  was  given42  to  Tarquin,  at  Rome.  The 
Romans  called  the  boy  Egerius,  from43  his  poverty44.  We 
are  not  allowed45  to  be  unthankful46.  A  Roman  patrician 
could47  not  be  a  tribune  of  the  people48.  Thy  health49 
causes50  us  great  anxiety51.  What  you  impute52  toothers  as 
a  fault,  do  not  consider53  as  your  praise.  All  this  cannot  be 
considered  honorable  to  you. 

1  nondum  (not  yet).  2legitimus.  3fieri.  4esse.  5turpitado.  Adhae¬ 
rere.  7  salus.  8  solatium.  9  malum.  10  proprius  (our  own).  u  cogitatio. 


148 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§§  175,  176. 

12  ducere.  13  favere.  14  dare.  15  laus.  16  quod.  17  ex  quo.  18  apparere. 
19(acc.  with  inf.)  20  studere.  21  vivus.  22  integer.  23  (is  omitted  in 
Lat.).  24  severitas.  25  odium.  26  honor.  27mos(comp  §  58).  28  piger. 
29  misericordia.  30 honor.  31  Minturnensis  (inhab.  of  Mintur.).  32  peri- 
oulum.  33 coeptum.  34 celeber.  35 cognomen.  36 scientia.  37 amplus, 
"dedecus.  33  licere.  40timidus.  41  ignavus.  42dare.  43ab.  44  inopia. 
45  mihi  licet  (I  can).  46  ingratus.  47licet.  48plebs.  49valetudo.  50esse. 
51  sollicitudo.  52  vertere.  53  ducere. 

175.  (3)  The  dative  stands  with  other  verbs  also,  to  denote 
the  end  or  purpose  for  which  anything  serves  ;  e.  g.  To  give 
for  or  as  a  gift,  dono  (muneri)  dare;  to  come  to  help, 
auxilio  (subsidio)  venire  ;  to  leave  as  a  pledge,  p  i  g- 
nori  relinquere. 

176.  (4)  Most  verbs,  which  are  compounded  with  prepo¬ 
sitions,  have  the  substantive  or  pronoun  belonging  to  them, 
in  the  dative ;  e.  g.  adesse,  deesse,  intercsse,  supplicare,  and 
many  others.  Still,  there  is  need  of  particular  care  here,  be¬ 
cause  many  such  verbs  are  differently  constructed.  Also, 
many  do  not  admit  a  dative ;  e.  g.  Incidere  in  aliquid,  to 
fall  into  or  upon  something ;  and  inter  aliquos,  among  cer¬ 
tain  ones ;  or  they  admit,  besides  the  dative,  still  another 
construction,  which  is  often  more  used.  Hence,  in  reference 
to  these,  a  lexicon  must  be  consulted,  which  show3  the  con¬ 
struction  of  such  words, — and  of  several  constructions,  that 
must  be  selected,  which  is  used  by  the  best  writers.  It  is  also 
to  be  noticed,  as  stated  above,  §  171,  that  such  verbs  in  the 
passive  have  only  a  third  person  in  the  neuter  gender,  and 
that  an  English  subject-nominative  becomes  the  dative;  e.  g. 
He  entreated  the  people,  supplicavit  populo;  the  people  are 
entreated,  populo  supplicatur;  the  people  have  been  en¬ 
treated,  populo  supplicatum  est.  Other  examples  : 
I  struggle  with  the  stream,  obluctor  flumini;  you  assist 
your  brother,  fratri  tuo  ades;  he  has  been  present  in  all 
dangers,  omnibus  periculis  adfuit ;  Caesar  made  war 
upon  Pompey,  Caesar  Pompeio  bellum  intulit  ;  war  was 
waged  against  the  city  Rome,  urbi  Romae  bellum  illa¬ 
tum  est;  war  is  made  upon  us,  nobis  bellum  infertur; 
and  so  with  other  compound  verbs. 


§  177.] 


DATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


149 


Examples  on  §§  175,  176. 

(In  these,  the  verbs  govern  the  dative.) 

To  cling1  to  our  faults  is  a  great  disgrace2.  Justice  is  not 
always  united3  with  goodness4;  as  false5  piety  does  not  al¬ 
ways  agree6  with  true7  piety.  Our  faults  often  deceive8  us, 
under  the  name  of  virtues.  Thy  credulity  in  this  has  been 
deceived.  Quintus  Cicero  was  governor9  of  Asia  Minor, 
three  years.  Xerxes  made  war10  upon  the  Greeks  with  a 
very  large11  army12.  In  all  these  battles13  of  Julius  Caesar, 
Dolabella  was  present14.  Many  Romans  were  placed15  over 
the  sea-coast16,  who  made17  the  sea  more  safe18.  If  friends 
and  relations  supplicate  you,  you  will  not  hesitate19  to  acqui¬ 
esce20  in  their  entreaties21.  Caesar  appointed22  Brutus  over 
Gaul.  Demosthenes  followed23  great  orators.  The  eques¬ 
trian  order24  carried25  the  corpse26  of  Augustus  from  Bovillae 
into  the  city.  Quintus  has  not  been  present27  at  this  feast28. 
Milo  killed29  Clodius.  Cicero  was  wickedly30  killed.  Re¬ 
late  to  us  those  adventures31,  in  which  you  yourself  were  con¬ 
cerned32.  Augustus  gave33  Agrippina  in  marriage  to  Germa¬ 
nicus,  the  grand-son  of  his  sister.  The  same  admitted34  only 
free-born35  men  to  his  table36.  Phantea  put37  her  arms38 
around  her  mother’s  neck39,  and  impressed40  kisses41  upon 
her  lips.  Caligula  distributed42  among  the  boys  and  girls 
purple  fillets43.  Themistocles  was  asked44,  whether45  he 
would  marry46  his  daughter  to  a  virtuous  poor  man,  or47  to  a 
less  approved48  rich  man. 

Adhaerere.  2  dedecus.  3  conjunctus.  4  bonitas.  5  fictus.  6  congruere. 
7  verus.  8  obrepere.  9  praeesse  (to  be  governor).  10  inferre  bellum  (to 
make  war),  "maximus.  12exercitus.  13  proelium.  14  adesse.  15  prae¬ 
esse.  16 ora  maritima.  17  praestare  (perf.).  ,8tutus.  19dubitare.  20an- 
nuere.  21  prex.  22  praeficere.  23  succedere.  24  ordo  equester.  25  inferre. 
26funus.  27interesse.  28convivium.  29  mortem  inferre.  30  per  scelus. 
31  res.  32  interesse.  33  collocare  (to  give  in  marriage).  34  adhibere. 
35  ingenuus.  36coena.  37  implicare  (to  put  around).  38 brachium. 
39 cervix.  40infiggre.  41  osculum.  42 distribuere.  43 fascia  purpurea 
(purple  fillets).  44consulere.  45utrum.  46collocare.  47 an.  48probatus. 

177.  (5)  As  has  been  before  remarked,  there  are  not  on¬ 
ly  many  compound,  but  also  several  simple  verbs,  which  in 
the  same  or  in  a  different  signification,  are  followed  by  dif¬ 
ferent  cases.  It  would  be  tedious  to  exhibit  all  here,  the 
most  striking  only  will  be  presented. 

13* 


150  GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES.  [§  177. 

(a)  The  following  verbs,  with  a  different  construction, 
have  the  same  signification. 

abhorrere  alicui  and  ab  aliquo,  not  to  agree  with  something , 
not  to  Jit  to  something ,  to  he  ill  affected  towards  one.  All 
the  best  writers  use  a,  rarely  the  dative; 
accommodare  alicui  and  ad  aliquid,  to  accommodate,  to  adapt 
to  something.  Comp.  §  545  ; 
addere  alicui  and  ad  aliquid,  to  add  to  something ; 
adjicere  alicui  and  ad  aliquid,  to  throw  to  something ,  to  add  to ; 
adulari  alicui  and  aliquem,  to  flatter  some  one.  Cicero  uses 
only  the  accusative.  Comp.  §  545; 
afferre  alicui  and  ad  aliquem,  to  bring  to  or  upon  some  one. 
Comp.  §  545 ; 

antecedere  alicui  and  aliquem,  to  go  before  some  one,  to  excel ; 
anteire  alicui  and  aliquem,  to  exceed  some  one,  to  excel ; 
antevenire  alicui  and  aliquem,  to  get  the  start  of  one,  to  an¬ 
ticipate  some  one ; 

assuefacere,  assuescere  alicui,  aliqua  re,  ad  or  in  aliquid,  to 
accustom  one’s  self  to  something.  So  assuefieri  and  assue¬ 
tus.  Comp.  §  545.  The  abl.  is  most  usual, 
circumdare  alicui  aliquid  and  aliquid  aliqua  re,  to  surround 
something  with  something ; 
comitari  alicui  and  aliquem,  to  accompany  someone ; 
comparare  alicui  and  cum  aliqua  re,  to  compare  with  some¬ 
thing  ; 

confidere  alicui  and  aliqua  re,  to  trust  in  something  ; 
congruere  alicui  and  cum  aliquo,  to  agree  with  something,  to 
flt  to  something ; 

conjungere  alicui  and  cum  aliqua  re,  to  join  with  something  ; 
desperare  alicui,  aliquid,  de  aliqua  re,  to  despair  of  some¬ 
thing  ; 

detrahere  alicui,  ab  and  de  aliqua  re,  to  take  from,  to  with¬ 
draw  from  something.  Comp.  §  545 ; 
donare  alicui  aliquid  and  aliquem  aliqua  re,  to  present  some¬ 
thing  to  some  one  ;  to  reward  some  one  with  something  ; 


§  177.] 


DATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


151 


excellere  aliquibus,  inter  or  praeter  aliquos,  to  excel  certain 
ones ,  to  be  distinguished  above  certain  ones.  The  dative  is 
preferable ; 

exuere  alicui  aliquid  and  aliquem  aliqua  re,  to  strip ,  to  take 
something  from  some  one  ; 

illudere  alicui  and  aliquid,  to  ridicule  something ;  with  per¬ 
sons,  in  aliquem  ; 

incidere  alicui  and  in  aliqua  re,  to  cut  in  or  into  something , 
to  make  an  incision .  Comp.  §  545  ; 
induere  alicui  aliquid  and  aliquem  aliqua  re,  to  put  something 
(clothes)  upon  some  one  ; 

inesse  alicui  and  in  aliquo,  to  be  in  something ,  some  one;  the 
last  in  better  Latin  writers ; 

inferre  alicui  and  in  aliquid,  to  carry  to  or  into  something ; 
inhaerere  alicui  and  in  aliqua  re,  to  adhere  to,  to  be  fixed  in, 
something ; 

interdicere  alicui  aliquid  and  alicui  aliqua  re,  to  forbid  some¬ 
thing  to  some  one ; 

jungere  alicui  and  cum  aliquo,  to  join  with  something ; 
minari,  minitari  alicui  aliquid  and  alicui  aliqua  re,  to  threaten 
some  one  with  something  ;  the  last  seldom  in  Cicero; 
mittere  alicui  and  ad  aliquem  aliquid,  to  send  something  to 
some  one  ; 

obtrectare  alicui  and  aliquem,  to  slander  some  one;  but  the 
accusative  is  found  only  after  the  classic  period  ; 
occumbere  morti  and  morte,  to  die ;  Cicero  prefers  the  abla¬ 
tive  ;  dative  only  in  the  poets ; 
pluere  aliquid  and  aliqua  re,  to  rain  something ;  the  ablative 
is  most  in  use  ; 

praecedere,  praecellere  and  praestare  alicui  and  aliquem,  to 
surpass  some  one ; 

scribere  alicui  and  ad  aliquem,  to  write  to  some  one;  so  also, 
rescribere,  to  write  back,  or  to  answer  ; 
supersedere  alicui  and  aliqua  re,  to  omit  something,  to  abstain , 
to  be  exempt  from  something.  Comp.  §  545. 


152 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§178 


Examples. 

Servius  Tullius  surrounded1  the  city  Rome, with  a  rampart2, 
a  ditch3  and  a  wall4.  While5  strength  does  not  fail6  thee, 
do  not  despair7  of  thy  life.  It  was  the  lot8  of  the  poet  Archias, 
quickly  to  surpass9  all  by  the  renown  of  his  genius10.  Let 
us  not  deride11  the  miserable12.  The  Roman  laws  forbade13 
fire  and  water  to  him,  who  had  been  condemned  for14  trea¬ 
son15.  Our  ancestors16  excelled17  other  nations  in  prudence. 
Men  who  have  been  accustomed18  to  constant19  and  daily20 
labor,  can  never  rest21.  Augustus  prohibited  Cornelius  Gal¬ 
lus  from  his  house  and  his  provinces.  That  year,  it  rained 
blood  and  stones  at  Tarentum.  As  much  as  time22  shall  de¬ 
tract23  from  thy  achievements24,  so  much  will  thy  justice  add 
to  thy  praise.  According  to  the  Roman  custom,  their  goods25 
were  wont  to  be  prohibited  to  fathers,  who  managed26  their 
estate27  badly.  This  youth  is  not  averse28  to  the  study  of 
law.  If  I  had  desired  this,  I  would  have  adapted29  my  letter 
to  your  wish30.  The  murderers31  did  not  strip32  Siccius 
Dentatus  of  his  arms.  You  far33  excel9  others  in  jokes34. 
Catiline  endeavored35  to  burn  the  temples  of  the  gods.  I 
recently37  wrote  you  a  long  letter — you  have  not  yet38  an¬ 
swered39  me.  The  Tarentines  presented  Archias  with  the 
right  of  citizenship40.  Antony  threatened41  the  city  Rome 
with  fire  and  sword. 

Circumdare.  2  agger.  3  fossa.  4  murus.  5  dum.  6  deficere  aliquem. 
7  desperare  8 contigere.  9  excellere.  10  ingenium.  11  illudere,  ^mi¬ 
ser.  13  interdicere.  14  de.  15  majestas.  16  majores.  17  anteire.  18  assues¬ 
cere.  19 assiduus.  20 quotidianus.  21  quiescere.  22 diuturnitas,  ^de¬ 
trahere.  24  opus.  25  bonum.  26  gerere.  27  res.  28  abhorrere.  20  accom¬ 
modare.  30voluntas.  31  interfector.  32  exuere.  33longe.  34jocus.  ^co¬ 
nari.  36  ignes  inferre.  37  nuper.  38  nondum  (not  yet).  39  rescribere. 
40  civitas  (right  of  citizenship).  41  minari. 

178.  (b)  The  following  verbs,  with  a  different  significa¬ 
tion,  are  differently  constructed. 

adaequare  alicui  aliqua  re,  to  make  equal  with  some  one  in 
some  thing ; 

- aliquid,  aliqua  re,  or  cum  aliqua  re,  to  make  something 

equal  with  something ; 

animadvertere  aliquem  (aliquid),  to  observe  some  one,  some¬ 
thing  ; 


DATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


153 


§  178.] 

animadvertere  in  aliquo,  in  aliqua  re,  to  perceive  in  some  one, 
in  something ; 

- in  aliquem,  to  punish  some  one ; 

cavere  alicui,  to  take  care  for  some  one,  to  make  some  one  safe; 
- aliquem  or  ab  aliquo,  to  beware  of  some  one,  to  be  cau¬ 
tious  ; 

consulere  alicui,  to  take  care  for  some  one,  to  consult  for 
some  one  ; 

- - aliquem,  to  consult  some  one,  to  ask  advice ; 

- in  aliquem,  to  proceed,  to  act  against  some  one ;  e.  g. 

cruelly ; 

cupere  alicui,  to  be  attached  to  some  one,  to  favor,  to  love; 

- aliquid,  to  wish  something,  to  covet ; 

deficere  aliquem,  to  fail  some  one  ; 

- ab  aliquo,  to  revolt  from,  or  desert  one,  to  become  faith¬ 
less  to  one ; 

formidare  alicui,  to  be  in  fear  for  one,  to  be  anxious  for  one; 
- aliquem  (aliquid),  to  be  terrified  by  some  one  (some¬ 
thing),  to  fear  something ; 
horrere,  as  formidare ; 

imperare  alicui,  to  rule  some  one,  to  rule  over,  to  command; 
— - alicui  aliquid,  to  command  something  to  some  one,  to  im¬ 

pose  something  on  some  one,  to  demand  something  of  some 
one ; 

imponere  alicui  (in  aliquem,  in  aliquo)  aliquid,  to  place,  to 
impose  something  on  some  one,  to  lay  something  on  one ; 

- alicui,  to  impose  upon  one,  to  deceive  one.  Hence,  I  am 

imposed  upon,  mihi  impomtur.  Comp,  above  §  171 ; 
incidere  alicui,  to  meet  some  one,  to  befall  some  one ; 

- in  aliquem  (aliquid),  to  come  upon,  to  fall  upon  (into, 

among)  some  one  (something);  in  and  inter  homines, 
among  men ; 

incumbere  alicui,  to  lean  upon  something ,  to  lie  upon  (bodily) ; 
- in  (ad)  aliquid,  to  lay  one’s  self  upon  anything  (men¬ 
tally,)  to  bestow  labor  upon  something ,  to  be  anxious  for 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


154 


L$  178. 


something ,  to  take  pains  for,  strive  for,  to  he  occupied 
with  something ; 

interesse  alicui,  or  in  aliqua  re,  to  he  with  or  at  something,  to 
he  present  at  something,  to  assist  at  ; 

- alicujus,  to  concern  some  one.  Comp,  above  §  157 ; 

- inter  aliquos,  there  is  a  difference  hetiocen,  to  differ  from, 

e.  g.  hoc  interest  inter  me  et  te,  there  is  this  difference 
between  me  and  thee,  I  and  thou  (we)  differ  in  this.  The 
word  this  is  expressed  by  hoc,  id,  illud ;  in  which,  in 
what,  by  quid,  and  much  (a  great  difference)  by  multum  ; 
manere  alicui,  to  remain,  to  continue  with  one : 

- aliquem,  to  expect  or  wait  for  some  one,  to  await; 

- in  aliqua  re,  to  remain  in  something,  to  holdfast  some¬ 
thing; 

metuere,  as  formidare ; 

moderari  alicui,  to  moderate,  to  restrain  something ; 

- aliquid,  to  rule,  to  govern  something  ; 

petere  alicui  aliquid,  to  fetch  something  j or  some  one,  to  seek, 
to  ask,  to  petition  for  something  for  some  one  ; 

- aliquid  (aliquem),  to  fetch  something  (some  one),  to  seek, 

to  strive  for  something,  to  go  for  something ,  to  approach 
some  one  (something),  to  ask  for  something.  Hence, 
to  hasten  to  Italy,  Italiam  petere  ;  to  wage  war  with 
some  one,  bello  petere  aliquem.  In  the  passive,  this  ac¬ 
cusative  becomes  nominative ; 

- ab  aliquo  aliquid,  to  ask  something  of  some  one,  to  ask 

some  one  for  something.  In  the  passive  this  accusative 
becomes  nominative ;  I  am  asked  for  money,  a  m  e 
p  e  c  u  n  i  a  petitur  ; 

praestare  alicui  and  aliquem,  to  excel  some  one. 

- aliquid  (aliquem),  to  stand  for  something  (some  one),  to 

he  good  for,  to  he  surety  for  ; 

praestare  se  fortem,  to  prove  himself  brave.  Comp.  §  184. 
prospicere  alicui,  to  take  care  for  one  ; 

- aliquem  (aliquid),  to  foresee  some  one  (something) ; 


178.]  DATIVE  AFTER  VERBS.  155 

providere  alicui,  to  make  provision  for ,  to  take  care  of  some 
one ; 

-  aliquid,  to  foresee  something ,  to  see  to ,  to  provide  ;  . 

quaerere  aliquem  (aliquid),  to  seek  some  one  (something),  to 
ask  for  one ; 

-  alicui  aliquid,  to  seek  something  for  someone  ; 

quaerere  ex  (ab,  de)  aliquo  aliquid  (de  aliqua  re),  to  ask  some 
one  for  something.  Hence;  I  am  asked ,  ex  (a)  me 
quaeritur  ;  I  have  been  asked ,  ex  (a)  me  quaesitum  est. 
Comp.  §  157 ; 

- de  aliqua  re,  to  make  inquiry  concerning  something ; 

recipere  alicui,  to  assure ,  to  promise  some  one  ; 

-  aliquid,  to  recover ; 

-  se  in  locum,  to  go  to  a  place ; 

referre  alicui  aliquid,  to  bring  back  something  to  some  one,  to 
narrate  something  to  some  one ; 

- ad  aliquem  aliquid,  or  de  aliqua  re,  to  state,  to  report 

something  to  some  one,  to  consult  some  one  concerning 
something  ; 

referre  alicujus,  to  concern  some  one.  Comp.  §  157. 
respondere  alicui  aliquid,  to  answer  one  something,  to  answer 
something  to  some  one  ; 

- ad  aliquid,  to  reply  to  something ; 

solvere  alicui  aliquid,  to  pay  something  to  some  one ; 

- aliquem,  to  free,  to  exempt  one ; 

temperare  alicui  and  aliquid,  to  moderate ,  to  restrain  some¬ 
thing  ; 

- aliquid,  to  manage,  to  rule,  to  govern  something ; 

- aliqua  re  and  ab  aliqua  re,  to  restrain  one’s  self  from 

something,  to  abstain  from  ; 

timere  as  formidare.  Also,  de  aliqua  re,  to  be  in  fear  (con¬ 
cerned)  on  account  of  something. 

Examples. 

Cicero  labored1  with  the  greatest  zeal  for  the  good  of  the 


156 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  178. 


state.  That  man,  in  whose  love  I  especially2  trusted3  has 
shamefully4  deceived5  me.  If  Hannibal,  after  the  battle  at 
Cannae,  had  approached6  Rome,  perhaps7  the  distracted8  Ro¬ 
mans  would  have  asked9  peace  ot  him.  Tiberius  sought  the 
praetorship  for  his  son,  although10  he  had11  not  yet12  the  age 
prescribed  by  law13.  When  the  Athenians  had  been  en¬ 
treated  to14  come  to  aid  the  city  Olynthus,  Demosthenes 
could  not  persuade15  them,  that16  they  were  making  war17 
upon  king  Philip.  Cotys,  the  king  of  the  Thracians18,  treat¬ 
ed19  his  citizens20  with  cruelty21,  and  spared  no  one.  There¬ 
fore,  when  a  friend  had  asked22  him,  whether23  this  were  not 
madness24,  he  replied,  Thou  hast  said  truly25,  but  it  is  a  mad¬ 
ness  which  is  especially26  beneficial27  to  my  citizens.  When 
Thales  was  asked28,  what  was  the  best  thing,  he  replied,  the 
world.  He,  who  will  not  restrain29  his  anger,  will  afterwards 
repent30  of  it.  I  will  be  good  for  that31  fault32,  which  you 
fear.  True  piety  strives33,  by  actions,  for  the  renown34  of  an 
honorable35  man.  God  has  provided36,  from  the  beginning, 
for  the  good  of  the  world.  The  present  and  future  life  differ* 
chiefly  in  this,  that37,  in  the  latter,  men  will  live  without 
anxiety38  and  toil39.  Let  only  him,  who  was  asked28,  answer 
the  proposed40  question41.  In  what  does  a  friend  differ  from 
a  flatterer42  ?  He,  who  zealously  devotes43  himself  to  let¬ 
ters44,  will  always  rejoice.  When  Themistocles  was  asked28, 
whose  voice  he  would  most  willingly45  hear,  he  replied,  his, 
by  whom  my  bravery  is  best  proclaimed^.  The  Decemvirs 
imposed47  a  very  heavy48  tax49  upon  the  public  lands50.  Be¬ 
ware51  of  this  base52  man.  Cranes53  go54,  in  autumn,  to 
warmer55  places56.  Cicero  asked  of  Caesar  the  tribuneship57 
for  Curtius.  Tyrants  hate58  all  those,  whom  they  fear.  The 
lovers  of  pleasure  shudder59  at  every  pain.  Scipio  never 
sought54  for  the  consulship,  Caesar  demanded60  of  the  states 
of  Gaul  money  and  horsemen.  Marcellus  spared61  vanquish¬ 
ed  enemies.  When  one  fought  without  the  order62  of  the 
commander,  the  Romans  punished63  him,  as  an  enemy.  Al¬ 
though64  you  are  wholly65  faithless66  to  us,  still  we  will  never 
be  faithless  to  you. 

1  incumbere.  2  maxime.  3  confidere.  4  egregie.  5  imponere.  6  petere. 
7  fortasse.  8  perturbatus.  9  petere.  10  etsi.  11  esse.  12  nondum.  13  legiti¬ 
mus  (prescribed  by  law).  14  ut.  15  persuadere.  16  ut.  17  bellum  inferre. 
18  Thrax.  19  consulere  26  civis.  21  acriter  (with  cruelty).  22  quaerere. 
23  annon  (whether  not).  24  furor.  2o  vera  (plur).  26  maximus.  27  salus 
(see  §  173).  28  quaerere.  29  moderari  30  poenitere.  31  iste.  32  culpa. 

33  incumbere.  34  gloria.  35  honestus.  36  providere.  *  interesse.  37  quod. 


ACCUSATIVE. 


157 


§§  179,  180.] 

33  cara.  39  labor.  40  positus.  41  quaestio.  42  assentator.  43  incumbere. 
44  litterae.  45  libenter.  46  praedicare.  47  imponere.  43  pergrandis  (very 
heavy).  49  vectigal.  50  ager  publicus.  51  cavere.  52  nefarius.  53  grus. 
54  petere.  55  calidus.  56 Jocus  (in  plur.  here  loca).  57  tribunatus  plebis. 
6S  edisse.  59  horrere.  69  imperare.  61  temperare.  62  injussu  (without  the 
order).  63  animadvertere.  64etiamsi.  05  plane.  60  deficere. 

THE  ACCUSATIVE. 

179.  This  denotes  the  nearest  object,  to  which  an  active 
subject  directs  its  action  ;  e.  g.  I  teach  the  hoy ,  thou  writest 
a  letter ,  toe  hunt  a  hare.  Here,  therefore,  are  two  substan¬ 
tives,  denoting  persons  or  things,  connected  with  each  other, 
one  of  them  active  and  the  other  passive.  Hence,  when 
the  passive  substantive  is  made  the  subject  of  the  sentence, 
then  the  verb  is  changed  into  the  passive ;  e.  g.  The  hoy  is 
taught  by  me ;  a  letter  is  written  hy  me  ;  a  hare  is  hunted  by 
us.  This  is  never  so  with  the  dative,  which  always  remains 
dative,  whether  the  sentence  is  expressed  actively  or  passively. 

As  infinitives  also  are  considered  as  substantives,  they  too 
can  be  used  as  objects  ;  e.  g.  I  blame  this  tattle ,  (garrire) ; 
to  laugh  (ridere)  at  trijles,  we  consider  foolish. 

In  respect  to  this  case,  there  is  a  general  agreement  be¬ 
tween  the  English  and  Latin  ;  although  the  Latin  accusative 
is  generally  called  objective  in  English.  Neither  substan¬ 
tives  nor  adjectives  can  govern  this  case.  It,  therefore,  de¬ 
pends  on  verbs  or  prepositions,  or  is  employed  according  to  the 
usage  of  the  language.  Let  us  begin  with  the  last. 


A.  Some  general  rules. 

In  Latin,  as  in  English,  sometimes  an  accusative  occurs, 
which  is  not  so  connected  with  any  word  in  the  sentence, 
that  it  can  be  said  to  depend  upon  that  word,  or  to  be  gov¬ 
erned  by  it.  This  happens  in  the  following  instances: 

180.  (1)  The  accusative,  as  in  English,  is  used  in  the 
questions  :  How  long  (of  measure),  how  long  (of  time),  how 
high ,  how  great ,  how  thick ,  how  broad ,  how  deep ,  how  far 

14 


158 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  181. 


(whether  it  refer  to  interior  space,  or  to  extension),  and  how 
old ?  e.  g.  One  foot  long,  unum  pedem  Jongus;  twenty- 
two  feet  high ,  viginti  duos  pedes  altus;  the  city  is 
two  miles  distant,  duo  millia  abest ;  I  was  there  only  one 
hour,  u  n  a  m  modo  horam;  the  boy  is  two  years  old,  d  u- 
o  s  annos  natus  ;  to  deviate  a  finger's  breadth,  digitum 
discedere ;  to  walk  a  hundred  paces,  centum  passus  am¬ 
bulare.  Respecting  the  question  of  time  how  long  1  see 
above,  §  76,  3. 

181.  (2)  In  some  phrases,  most  of  which  contain  a  neuter 
pronoun  or  adjective,  the  Latins  prefer  this  case,  when  the 
English  must  use  a  preposition  ;  e.  g.  /  am  of  that  age,  sum 
i  d  aetatis,  for  sum  ejus  aetatis,  or  ea  aetate ;  for  a  great 
part ,  (greater,  greatest  or  most),  magnam  (majorem,  max¬ 
imam)  partem;  as  for  the  rest  or  other  things,  cete¬ 
rum,  cetera;  in  other  respects,  alia;  in  many  respects, 
multa;  other  things  of  that  kind,  alia  id  genus;  why 
dost  thou  scream  ?  quid  clamas, — and  so  with  similar  words, 
especially  neuter  pronouns,  with  many  verbs,  which  are  dif¬ 
ferently  constructed,  when  nouns  are  joined  with  them  ;  e.  g. 
He  doubts  this,  hoc  (id)  dubitat ;  I  rejoice  at  both,  utrum- 
que  laetor;  I  am  angry  at  all,  stomachor  omnia;  in 
whatever  you  benefit  the  republic,  quidquid  rei  publicae 
subvenis ;  I  err  in  this  very  thing,  hoc(id)  ipsum  pec¬ 
co  ;  I  assent  to  this  (to  all),  id  (omnia)  assentior ;  they 
differ  in  something,  aliquid  differunt, — and  so  similar 
words  are  frequently  constructed  according  to  the  Greek  id¬ 
iom — denoting  in  relation  to,  in  respect  to. 

(3)  With  names  of  cities,  towns,  islands  and  with  some 
substantives,  the  accusative  without  any  governing  word  is 
used  in  the  question,  whither  ?  See  §  71. 

(4)  In  exclamations,  the  Latins  generally  use  the  accusa¬ 
tive,  with  and  without  an  interjection,  where,  in  English,  we 
use  the  nominative  ;  e.  g.  O  sivcet  liberty !  Odulcem  li¬ 
bertatem!  Alas !  we  miserable,  heu !  nos  miseros; 


ACCUSATIVE. 


159 


§181.] 

O  the  delusive  hope  of  men!  O  fallacem  hominum 
spem!  We  often  adopt  a  different  mode  of  expression 
also  ;  e.  g.  O  how  delusive  is  hope  !  O  how  sweet  is  liberty  ! 
Also  in  expressing  wonder;  e.  g.  O  the  foolish  old  man!  O 
stultum  senem! 

(5)  Also  in  the  question :  for  what  purpose  (quo)  this? 
e.  g.  for  what  purpose  is  this  fortune  conferred  on  me,  if  I 
cannot  enjoy  it  ?  quo  mihi  fortunam?  for  what  the  histo¬ 
ry  ?  quo  historiam? 

Examples  on  §§  180,  181. 

Those,  who  are  more  than  six  and  a  half  feet1  tall,  are 
called  giants2.  Why  dost  thou  grieve3  ?  For  what  purpose 
are  riches,  which  have  been  wickedly4  accumulated5.  Caesar 
dug6  two  ditches  around  Alesia,  which  were  fifteen7  feet 
wide8.  O  the  delicate9  and  sweet10  poem  !  Alexander,  when 
twenty-one  years  old11,  succeeded12  his  father  in  the  govern¬ 
ment13.  Why  shall  I  enumerate14  the  multitude15  of  arts? 
For  what  purpose  are  the  innumerable  books,  if  we  do  not 
read  them  ?  O  what  an  excellent  custom  and  discipline16, 
which  we  have  received17  from  our  ancestors18  !  We  are  al¬ 
ready  of  that  age19,  that  we  cannot  endure20  everything. 
The  women  and  small  children21,  for  the  most  part,  remain 
in  the  houses.  Cicero  was  accustomed,  in  his  youth22,  to 
write  speeches  or  other  things  of  the  kind23,  daily24.  Teren¬ 
tia,  Cicero’s  wife,  died25  a  hundred  and  three  years  old.  The 
temple  of  the  Ephesian26  Diana  was  four  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  long,  and  two  hundred  and  twenty  feet  wide.  O  the 
shameful27  turpitude28  of  the  man  !  O  the  intolerable29  shame¬ 
lessness30,  wickedness31  and  lust32!  Why  dost  thou  rejoice? 
He,  who  doubts  this,  cannot  be  called  rash33.  O!  why  am 
I  still  unhappy  !  O!  why  am  I  afflicted  !  IIow  old34  does 
he  seem  to  you  to  be  ?  Thou  hast  agreed35  with  me  thus 
far36  in  all  things.  In  what  do  men  differ37  from  other  liv¬ 
ing38  creatures  ?  I  rejoice39  especially40  at  this41,  that42  thou 
and  thy  friends43  are  in  health44. 

1  seni  et  semipes  (six  and  a  half  feet).  2gigas.  3dolere.  4  per  scelus. 
6  cogere.  6  ducere.  7  (see  §  101).  ?  latus.  9  tener.  10  mollis.  11  natus. 
12suc.cedere.  13imperium.  14 enumerare  (subj.  pres.).  15  multitudo. 
16  disciplina.  17  accipere.  18  majores.  19  aetas.  20  sustinere.  21  filius. 


160 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§§  182, 183. 


22  adolescens  (in  his  youth).  23  genus.  24  quotidie.  25  decedere.  26  Ephe¬ 
sius.  27  flagitiosus.  28  foeditas.  29  non  ferendus.  30  impudentia.  31  ne¬ 
quitia.  32 libido.  33  temerarius.  34aetas.  35assentiri.  30 hucusque  (thus 
far).  37differre.  38  animans.  30 laetor.  40  imprimis.  41  ille.  42quod.  43tu- 
us  (thy  friends).  44  valere  (to  be  in  health). 

B.  After  verbs. 

182.  The  accusative  is  used  most  frequently  after  verbs. 
All  transitive  verbs  have  an  object,  to  which  the  action  passes 
over  or  is  directed.  This  object,  to  which  the  action  of  the 
verb  is  directed,  is  put  in  the  accusative,  depending  on  the 
verb.  It  is,  therefore,  called  the  object-accusative;  e.  g.  1 
throw  the  stone ,  I  teach  the  boy,  I  paint  a  horse.  In  En¬ 
glish,  the  object  usually  stands  after  its  verb,  and  after  the 
subject.  But  the  English  sometimes  places  the  object  before 
the  subject,  and  the  Latin  very  often. 

Examples. 

Agamemnon  scarcely1  took2  a  city  in  ten  years.  In  win¬ 
ter,  snow  covers3  the  earth.  The  hope,  which  we  cherish4, 
is  often  groundless5.  Camels  can  endure6  thirst7  more  than 
ten  days.  All  men,  whom  we  pronounce8  happy,  are  not  so. 
The  life,  w'hich  I  call  pleasant,  cannot  exist  without  virtue. 
Virtue  does  not  value9  highly  the  pleasure  which  she  has  ap¬ 
proved10.  An  honorable11  life,  many  praise.  A  good  con¬ 
science12  I  value  higher,  than  all  riches.  Our  senses,  neither 
a  father,  nor  mother,  nor  teacher  have  corrupted13.  These, 
the  multitude  did  not  seduce14  from  the  truth15.  Temperance, 
Pythagoras  recommended  to  all. 

]vix.  2capere  3obtegere.  4  fovere.  5  vanus.  6  tolerare.  7 sitis.  8  prae¬ 
dicare.  9  pendere.  10  probare.  11  honestas.  12  conscientia.  13  depravare. 
14  abducere.  15  veritas. 

183.  Most  English  transitive  verbs  are  such  also  in  Latin. 
Comp,  however,  §§  169,  170.  It  would  be  tedious  to  enu¬ 
merate  these  here,  although  a  knowledge  of  them  is  highly 
important,  for  otherwise  a  mistake  might  easily  be  made  in 
respect  to  the  case,  by  a  free  translation.  Thus  it  is  said, 
e.  g.  Amare  aliquem,  to  love  some  one ;  but  this  can  also 
be  translated,  to  show  love  for  some  one.  So  diligere  ali- 


§  184.] 


accusative  after  verbs. 


161 


quern,  to  esteem  some  one,  to  have  esteem  for  some  one;  ti¬ 
mere  aliquem,  to  fear  some  one,  to  he  in  fear  of  some  one ; 
parare  al  i  qu  id,  to  prepare  something,  to  make  preparation 
for  something ;  and  so  with  others. 

184.  (1)  There  are  some  transitive  verbs,  which  govern 
two  accusatives,  one  of  the  object,  the  other  of  the  predicate, 
or  the  more  immediate  explanation.  Some  of  these  verbs  in 
English  are  construed  differently.  We  frequently  place  be¬ 
fore  the  predicate  the  preposition  for  or  the  word  as.  The 
following  examples  illustrate  the  rule;  I  pronounce  him  hap¬ 
py,  he  considers  us  happy,  you  show  yourself  firm,  he  chooses 
me  as  his  friend.  In  these  examples,  the  words,  happy ,  firm, 
as  his  friend,  are  the  predicates  of  the  accusatives  connected 
with  them,  and  hence  must  also  be  in  the  accusative.  These 
examples  are  therefore  expressed,  praedico  eum  beatum, 
nos  habet  beatos,  te  praestas  constantem,  eligit  me 
amic  u  m. 

The  verbs  which  most  usually  belong  here  are,  facere,  reddere,  ef¬ 
ficere  vocare,  appellare,  nominare,  dicere,  nuncupare  ;  habere,  du¬ 
cere,  putare,  existimare,  judicare,  declarare,  sentire  ;  creare,  eligere, 
renuntiare,  designare,  capere  ;  cognoscere,  agnoscere  ;  se  praestare, 
se  praebere,  se  ostendere  ;  fingere,  formare  ;  reperire,  invenire  ;  as¬ 
sumere,  adjungere,  addere  ;  dare  ;  accire,  arcessere,  and  others  simi¬ 
lar.  Here  belongs  the  phrase,  Aliquem  certiorem  facere,  to 
make  one  more  certain,  i.  e.  to  announce  to  one,  to  give  information  to 
one,  to  inform,  one. 

When  these  verbs  are  not  used  actively, but  passively,  the  explana¬ 
tory  word  is  the  predicate  of  the  subject,  and  stands  with  it  in  the 
nominative;  e  g.  Th/s  man  is  given  to  him  as  his  keeper  ;  hie  homo 
ei  datur  custos;  Brutus  mas  united  with  the  young  men  as  their 
companion,  Brutus  juvenibus  comes  adjunctus  est;  I  have  been  in¬ 
formed,  ego  certior  factus  sum.  Comp,  above,  §  129. 

Examples. 

(The  following  active  sentences  for  practice,  are  to  be  translated  pas¬ 
sively  also.) 

We  ourselves  often  make1  our  life  wretched9.  Fortune 
usually  makes  those,  whom  she  favors3,  blind4.  Pompey  the 
Great  made5  every  sea  safe6  from7  pirates8.  The  conquered9 
Lacedemonians  asked10  the  Delphic  oracle,  whom  they  should 

14* 


162 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  185. 


choose  for  a  commander.  The  goddess  of  fortune11,  who 
had  Beauty  for  her  daughter,  asked12  her  sister  Minerva, 
How13  can  I  make  my  daughter  happy?  She  replied,  If 
you  give  her  Virtue  for  a  constant14  companion15.  The 
Athenians  gave  to  their  commander  Mnestheus  his  father 
and  father-in-law16,  as  colleagues.  All  the  former17  confede¬ 
rates18  of  the  Lacedemonians  showed19  themselves  idle20 
spectators  of  the  defeat21  at  Leuctra.  God  has  made22  man 
the  most  beautiful  of  all  animals.  The  Romans  called  the 
emperor  Titus  the  love  and  delight23  of  the  human  race. 
Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus,  at  his  death,  appointed24  the  Ro¬ 
mans  heirs25  of  his  realm  and  all  his  wealth26.  Socrates 
usually27  represented28  himself  ignorant29  of  all  things,  and 
pronounced30  the  sophists  of  his  time,  the  most  learned  and 
wise  men.  O  that  sad31  and  unhappy  day,  in  which  all  the 
centuries  proclaimed32  Sulla  consul  !  O  the  wretched33 
Alexander  of  Pherae34,  who  thought35  a  foreign36  slave  more 
faithful  than  his  wife.  Tullia  first37  saluted  her  husband  as 
king. 

illicere.  2  miser.  3  favere.  4  caecus.  5  praestare.  6  tutus.  7  a.  8  praedo 
maritimus.  9  victus.  10  consulere. 11  Fortuna  (goddess  off.)  12  quaerere. 
13  quemadmodum.  14  perpetuus.  15  comes.  16  socer.  17  prior.  18  socius. 
19  praebere.  20  otiosus.  21  Leuctrica  calamitas  (defeat  at  L.).  22  fingere. 
23  deliciae.  24  instituere.  25 heres.  26opes.  27 plerumque.  28 fingere. 
29  inscius.  30  indicare.  31  miser.  32  renuntiare.  33  miser.  34  Pheraeus. 
35  putare  (in  subj.)  36  barbarus.  37  primus. 

185.  (2)  Other  transitive  verbs,  together  with  the  object- 
accusative  of  a  person,  govern  also  an  accusative  of  a  thing. 
We  frequently  use  two  accusatives  in  English,  but  oftener 
govern  one  of  these  Latin  accusatives  by  a  preposition  ;  e.  g. 
I  teach  you  this  art,  te  hanc  artem  doceo ;  I  ash  you  for 
money ,  rogo  t  e  nummos. 

Here  belong  the  verbs,  celare  aliquem  aliquid, 
conceal  something  from  some  one  ;  rogare,  interrogare, 
percunctari  (percontari),  to  ash  something  of  some  one ; 
precari,  to  implore,  to  entreat  something  of  some  one  ;  p  o- 
scere,  reposcere,  postulare,  flagitare,  to  demand 
something  of  some  one;  docere,  (edocere),  to  teach  some 
one  something ,  to  instruct  in  something ,  and  dedocere,  to 
cause  some  one  to  unlearn  something. 

The  verbs  precari,  poscere,  reposcere,  postulare  and  fagi- 


ACCUSATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


163 


§  186.] 

tare,  take  also,  instead  of  the  accusative  of  the  person,  the 
preposition  a  :  To  entreat,  to  demand  something  of  some  one , 
ab  aliquo  aliquid  precari,  poscere,  etc. 

These  verbs  very  seldom  occur  in  the  passive.  In  the  few  exam¬ 
ples  which  are  found,  the  personal  accusative  is  the  subject  of  the 
passive,  and  the  accusative  of  the  thing  remains;  e.  g.  I  have  been 
asked  m y  opinion ,  (ego)  sententiam  rogatus  sum;  money  is 
demanded  of  you,  posceris  pecunia  m.  Hence  also,  I  do  what  I 
have  been  asked,  quod  rogatus  sum.  But  with  the  above  named 
verbs,  poscere,  etc.,  the  thing  also  can  be  expressed  in  the  nominative, 
and  the  person  with  the  preposition  a. ;  thus,  Pecunia  a  te  pos¬ 
citur.  Where  docere  and  celare  are  used,  the  thing  is  also  con¬ 
structed  with  de  ;  but  the  person  is  put  in  the  nominative,  as  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  the  passive;  e.  g.  Sulla  de  his  rebus  docetur,  Sulla  is 
informed  of  these  things  ;  tu  maximis  de  rebus  a  fratre  celatus  es, 
the  most  important  circumstances  have  been  concealed  from  you  by 
your  brother.  Hence,  celandus  sum,  it  must  be  concealed  from  me. 

Examples. 

Many  wish  to  teach  that  to  others,  which  they  themselves 
have  never  rightly1  learned.  Pamphylius  of  Sicyon2  taught3 
Apelles  the  art  of  painting.  Whoever  asks4  God  for  riches 
alone5,  asks  him  for  a  perishable6  good.  Let  not  friends 
ask7  shameful  things  of  their  friends.  Dolabella,  when  in 
Achaia,  demanded8  money9  of  the  magistrate  of  Sicyon. 
O  the  honest10  man,  who  conceals  nothing  from  us !  Cicero 
having  been  informed11  of  all,  which  Catiline  had  designed12, 
disclosed13  his  conspiracy14,  and  the  Senate  judged15  Catiline 
an  enemy  of  the  state.  Jugurtha  asked  peace  of  Metellus 
by  ambassadors.  The  consul  informed3  the  Senate  of  the 
cruelty  and  injustice16  of  Yerres.  When  Cato  was  asked 
his  opinion17  concerning18  Catiline,  he  delivered19  an  excel¬ 
lent  speech.  I  will  not  conceal20  from  you  the  discourse21  of 
Ancipius.  Why  do  you  ask  me  for  this22  ? 

'satis.  2Sicyonius.  3docere.  4rogare.  5solus.  Gfragilis.  7  (in  the 
spbj.  with  ne).  8  poscere.  9  nummi.  10simplex.  "edoctus.  12moliri. 
13  aperire.  14  conjuratio.  15  judicare.  16  iniquitas.  17  sententia.  18  de. 
19  habere.  20  celare.  21  sermo.  22  iste. 

186.  (3)  The  following  verbs  are  considered  as  transitive, 
and  govern  the  accusative,  although  from  their  signification 
most  of  them  might  seem  to  require  a  different  case.  They 
are,  a  e  q  u  i  p  a  r  a  r  e,  to  make  equal,  to  equal ;  fugere, 
e  ff  u  g  e  r  e,  subterfugere,  to  avoid,  to  flee,  to  escape 


164 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§§  187, 188. 


some  one ,  something  (not  out  of  something) ;  juvare  and 
adjuvare,  to  help,  to  assist ;  sequi,  consequi,  per¬ 
sequi,  sectari,  to  follow,  to  pursue;  praevenire, 
to  anticipate,  to  surpass ;  i  m  i  t  a  r  i,  to  imitate ;  jubere, 
to  command ;  vetare,  ^  forbid ;  deficere,  to  fail ;  adi¬ 
re,  subire  and  obire,  to  undertake,  to  encounter,  to  en¬ 
gage  in ;  fallere,  fugere  and  p  r  a  e  t  e  r  i  r  e,  to  be  un¬ 
known,  to  be  concealed ;  e.  g  /  help  you  and  others,  t  e  et 
alios  juvo  (adjuvo)  ;  we  have  fled  from  our  enemies,  hos¬ 
tes  nostros  effugimus;  follow  that  wise  man,  se¬ 
quere  illum  sapientem  ;  I  anticipate  those,  illos  prae¬ 
venio  ;  equanimity  fails  me,  me  deficit  animus  aequus; 
these  circumstances  are  unknown  to  me,  hae  res  m  e  fallunt 
(fugiunt,  praetereunt). 

187.  An  infinitive  always  follows  jubere  and  vetare.  Hence  the 
accusative,  which  stands  with  these,  is  the  accusative  with  the  infi¬ 
nitive. 

188.  It  must  be  further  noticed,  how  the  verbs  fallere,  fugere  and 
praeterire  are  constructed,  when  they  signify  not  to  know.  Then, 
they  are  used  only  in  the  third  person  singular  and  plural;  e.  g.  I  do 
not  know  this ,  i.  e.  this  deceives ,  flees,  passes  by  me,  hoc  me  fallit 
(fu  g  i  t,  praeterit);  I  do  not  know  these  circumstances ,  h  a  e  res 
me  fallunt  (fugiunt,  praetereunt).  To  know  is  expressed 
by  adding  non  ;  e.g.  I  knoiv  this,  h  o  c  (h  a  e  c)  me  non  fall  it  (fal¬ 
lunt).  Also,  me  juvat,  can  be  translated,  it  rejoices  me,  I  rejoice ; 
nos  j  u  v  a  t,  we  rejoice,  etc.,  instead  of  which  we  cannot  say,  j  u  v  o, 
juvamus. 

Finally,  fugere,  effugere,  subterfugere ,  when  they  denote  the  place 
from  which  some  one  flees,  have  the  preposition  ex,  since  with  the 
accusative  they  signify  only  to  shun.  Hence  there  is  a  difference 
between,  effuffi  carcerem  and  ex  career e. 


Examples  on  §§  186 — 188. 

The  Romans  were  not  able  after  this  battle  to  pursue  the 
Helvetii.  Great  men  do  not  escape1  the  envy  of  slanderous2 
men.  Why  do  you  grieve3,  that4  you  are  not  assisted5  ? 
Willingly  encounter5  all  hardships7.  Men  but  seldom  assist8 
each  other  in  perilous9  times10.  The  shortness  of  life  forbids 
every  one  to  form11  distant12  hopes.  Many  things  were  un¬ 
known13  to  the  ancients14,  which  the  multitude15  now  know16. 
I  shall  rejoice17  much,  when  I  have  obtained13  this.  Alex¬ 
ander,  when  twenty-one  years  old19,  succeeded  his  father  in 


ACCUSATIVE  AFTER  VERBS. 


165 


§  189.] 


the  government.  In  the  battle  at  Philippi,  Augustus  under¬ 
took'20  the  duties21  of  a  commander.  No  one  could  equal22 
Alcibiades  in  strength23  of  body.  If  food24  fails25  the  bee¬ 
hive26,  the  bees  assault27  those  nearest.  Wisdom  shows  the 
way28  by  which  we  can  avoid29  all  errors.  Wise  men  are 
accustomed  to  strive30,  not  so  much31  for  the  rewards  of  good 
actions32,  as  for  good  actions  themselves.  The  palaestra 
helps  the  actor33  much.  Cleanthes  commanded  those  who 
heard  him,  to  consider34  pleasure  painted  on  a  tablet35.  Un¬ 
dertake36  every  labor,  and  endure37  every  pain,  that  you  may 
remain  upright.  The  Roman  people  were  commanded  to 
observe38  the  last  of  December  as  a  holy-day39.  I  will  follow 
you,  whither40  you  guide  me.  Hannibal  commanded  the 
Spaniards41  and  Africans42  to  go  first,  and  the  Gauls43  to  fol¬ 
low  them.  The  Roman  laws  forbade  all  foreigners44  to  as¬ 
cend45  the  walls.  All  foreigners  were  forbidden  by  the  Ro¬ 
man  laws  to  ascend  the  walls. 

1  effugere.  2 maledicus.  3  maerere.  4  quod.  5  juvare.  6 subire.  7labor. 
8  adjuvare.  9  gravis.  10tempora.  11  inchoare.  12longus.  13  fallere. 
14antlqui.  15  vulgus.  16  non  fallere.  17  juvare,  ^nancisci.  19  natus. 
20  obire.  21  munia.  22aequiparare.  23  vis.  24  alimentum.  25  deficere. 
26  alveus.  27  petere.  28  ratio.  29  effugere.  30  sequi  (to  strive  for).  31  tam 
(so  much).  32 recte  factum  (good  action).  33  histrio.  34  cogitare.  38  ta¬ 
bula.  36  subire.  37excipere.  38  habere.  39  dies  festus.  40 quo.  41  Hispa¬ 
nus.  42  Afer.  43  Gallus.  44  peregrinus.  45  ascendere. 

189.  Many  impersonal  verbs  in  Latin  take  their  object,  if 
it  is  a  person,  in  the  accusative;  e.  g.  poenitere,  tore- 
pent  ;  p  u  d  e  r  e,  to  be  ashamed ,  to  feel  shame ;  miserere, 
to  have  pity ,  to  pity  ;  p  i  ger  e,  to  grieve ,  to  feel  grieved; 
taedere,  to  loathe ,  to  he  disgusied  with ,  to  have  disgust ; 
decere,  to  become ,  to  be  proper ,  to  be  ft ;  dedecere,  to 
be  unbecoming ,  to  be  unfit ;  o  p  o  r  t  e  r  e,  it  must  be ,  it  ought ; 
and  the  compound  verbs  suppoenitere  and  suppudere ;  e.  g. 
It  is  proper  for  me,  it  becomes  me,  m  e  decet ;  it  grieves 
me,  m  e  piget ;  it  shames  me,  1  am  ashamed,  m  e  pudet. 

We  usually  translate  these  impersonal  verbs,  as  if  they  were  per¬ 
sonal,  considering  the  accusative  as  the  subject-nominative  ;  e.  g.  / 
repent ,  me  poenitet;  ice  repent,  nos  poenitet — and  so  through  all 
the  persons, — which  is  not  the  case  in  the  Latin. 

It  has  already  been  remarked  above,  §  155,  that  the  thing  which  is 
the  object  of  the  repentance,  shame,  pity ,  etc.  is  put  in  the  genitive. 

Oportere  also,  as  already  mentioned,  is  classed  among  the 


166 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  196. 


impersonate.  This  also  has  an  accusative  of  the  person,  who 
ought  or  must ;  e.  g.  I  ought,  m  e  oportet ;  we  ought ,  nos 
oportet;  the  sons  ought ,  filios  oportet.  But  this  accusa¬ 
tive  is  properly  the  subject  of  the  following  infinitive;  for 
oportet  signifies  literally,  it  is  necessary,  that ;  e.  g.  I  must 
be  diligent,  i.  e.  it  is  necessary  that  I  be  diligent,  m  e  oportet 
esse  industrium. 

Examples. 

I  will  never1  repent  of  my  past2  life,  since  I  am  not 
ashamed  of  it.  Let  us  avoid3  all  wickedness4,  of  which  we 
might  afterwards5  repent.  It  becomes6  all  rational7  men,  not 
to  pass8  their  lives  in  obscurity9.  A  law  must10  be  short  and 
intelligible11.  There  are  men,  who  feel  no12  disgust  at  their 
disgrace13.  An  orator  ought14  not  to  be  angry15.  I  was 
ashamed  of  such  principles16,  as17  you  were  never  ashamed 
of.  A  just  man  will  always  pity18  unfortunate  citizens.  The 
Romans  repented,  that  they  had  banished19  Cicero  from  the 
city.  Good  men  must20  act21,  rather22  than  speak. 

1  nunquam.  2  praeteritus.  3  effugere.  4  improbitas.  5  postea.  6  decet. 
7  sanus.  8  transigere.  9  silentio.  10  oportere.  11  dilucidus.  12  non.  13  in¬ 
famia.  14decere.  15  irasci.  16 praeceptum.  17  qui.  18miserere.  ^expel¬ 
lere.  20  oportere.  21  agere.  22  potius. 

Finally,  there  are  several  Latin  verbs,  which  in  one  and 
the  same  signification,  take  the  dative  or  the  accusative,  and 
again  others,  which  with  a  different  signification,  admit  dif¬ 
ferent  cases,  also  the  accusative.  For  these  see  §§  177,  178. 

THE  VOCATIVE. 

190.  The  vocative  is  used  in  an  address  to  a  person,  and 
always  stands  by  itself,  and  is  not  dependent  upon  any  word 
of  the  sentence,  in  which  it  is  placed.  It  is  important  to 
distinguish  between  this  and  exclamations,  the  latter  con¬ 
taining  no  address.  For  this  see  §  184,  4. 

Not  merely  persons,  with  whom  we  converse,  or  wish  to  converse, 
are  addressed  by  the  vocative,  but  orators  and  poets  sometimes  attri¬ 
bute  personality  to  things  without  life,  and  address  them  in  the  voca¬ 
tive  ;  e.  g.  Thou ,  0  shady  grove. 


§§  191—193.] 


ABLATIVE  OF  QUALITY. 


167 


Examples. 

I  beseech1  you,  my  Atticus,  undertake  the  whole  business2. 
Be  assured3,  my  sweetest4,  of  my  love.  There  is  nothing, 
believe  me,  dearest5,  more  beautiful6,  than  virtue.  If  you 
love  me,  most  noble7  friend,  take  care8  of  my  business. 
Place9  before  your  eyes,  Mark  Antony,  the  joy  of  the  Ro¬ 
man  people.  I  beseech10  thee,  Capitoline  Jupiter,  the  best 
and  the  greatest,  and  thee,  queen  Juno,  defend11  this  state. 

1  obsecrare.  2  negotium.  3  persuadere.  4  dulcis.  5  carus.  6  formosus. 
7  humanus.  8 curare.  9ponere.  10 supplicare.  11  tueri. 

THE  ABLATIVE. 

191.  The  ablative  depends  either  on  an  adjective,  or  a  verb, 
or  a  preposition;  or  is  independent  of  any  word  of  the  sen¬ 
tence.  In  this  last  connection,  it  is  only  a  more  immediate 
explanation  of  the  predicate  of  a  sentence,  which  denotes 
either  a  place,  a  time,  or  a  cause  and  occasion,  where,  when, 
or  by  which  something  takes  place,  has  taken  place,  or  will 
take  place. 


ABLATIVE  OF  QUALITY. 

192.  The  genitive  of  quality  has  already  been  spoken  of 
above,  §§  140,  141. 

As  that  is  used  to  denote  the  quality  or  character  of  a  per¬ 
son  or  thing,  so  also  is  the  ablative. 

All  which  belongs  to  this  use  of  the  ablative,  has  been 
mentioned  under  the  genitive ;  those  paragraphs  should, 
therefore,  be  examined  again. 

193.  The  ablative  of  quality  differs  from  the  genitive  in 
this,  that  it  is  for  the  most  part  used  to  express  qualities 
which  are  not  essential  to  an  object,  with  the  exception,  how¬ 
ever,  of  the  accidental  qualities  of  time  and  measure,  which 
are  denoted  by  the  genitive  ;  e.  g.  Homo  summa  poten¬ 
tia  summaque  fortuna;  juvenis  egregia  facie 
not  egregiae  faciei.  Comp.  §  141. 


168 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  193. 


Sometimes  it  is  used  to  qualify  another  substantive,  some¬ 
times  as  a  predicate,  for  the  most  part  connected  to  the  other 
substantive  by  esse ;  e.  g.  Cato  lost  a  son  of  the  highest  tal¬ 
ents  and  the  highest  virtue  ( the  most  talented  and  the  most 
virtuous ),  filium  summo  ingenio,  summa  virtute; 
all  who  are  of  a  sane  mind  [who  arc  rational),  qui  sana 
mente  sunt. 

But  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  the  phrases  to  he  of  good 
courage ,  and  the  like,  are  expressed  almost  wholly  by  the  ab¬ 
latives  bono,  tranquillo,  sollicito,  elato  animo  esse,  not  boni 
animi  esse,  because  they  denote  only  a  temporary  disposition, 
and  not  a  quality  belonging  to  the  essential  character.  Ex¬ 
ceptions  to  this  are  rare. 


Examples. 

Hector  was  a  hero  of  distinguished1  bravery.  The  empe¬ 
ror  Titus  was  so  amiable2  and  generous3,  that4  he  never  de¬ 
nied5  any  one  anything6.  I  am  very7  solicitous8  about9  your 
health10.  The  name  of  Hannibal  was  in  great  reputation11 
and  renown  with  all  nations.  I  have  not  only12  the  greatest 
hope,  but  also13  even14  greater  courage15.  Many  parents  do 
not  know,  how  indulgent16  they  ought17  to  be  towards18  their 
children.  The  Macedonians,  in  the  earlier19  ages,  were  as 
renowned20  as21  the  Romans,  in  the  latter22.  Pompey  the 
Great  and  Julius  Caesar  had  not  the  same  mind23.  The 
poet  Archias  was  most  ardently  beloved24  by  all,  who  knew25 
him.  The  city  Athens,  is  so  old26,  that27  the  Athenians  con¬ 
sider28  themselves  indigenous29.  Almost  all  cherish30  pecu¬ 
liar31  kindness32  towards33  you.  I  do  not  know  how  anxious34 
you  are  concerning35  the  peace  of  your  country.  Great  is  the 
authority36  of  a  pretor,  especially37  of  one  so  blameless38,  so 
dignified39  and  so  mild40  as  thou  art.  I  perceive41  that42 
our  Piso  is  more  pleasing43  to  me  than  any  one44.  Without 
this  reflection45,  no  one  can  be  of  a  peaceful46  mind.  I  know 
how  faithful  you  are  wont47  to  be  towards48  your  friends. 

‘insignis.  2comitas.  3  liberalitas.  4ut.  5negare.  6  (comp.  §  122.) 
7 incredibilis.  8sollicitudo.  9de.  10valetiido.  11  fama.  12 cum  (not only). 
13 turn  (but  also).  uetiam.  15 animus.  16 indulgentia.  17debere.  18in. 
19  prior.  20  fama.  21qui.  22  posterior.  23  mens.  24  amor.  25  novisse 
(nosse).  26  vetustas.  27  ut.  2S  arbitrari.  29  indigena.  30 esse.  31  singu¬ 
laris.  32 benevolentia.  33 in.  34 cura.  35 de.  36 auctoritas.  37 praesertim. 


ABLATIVE  OF  TRICE. 


ICO 


§  194.] 

38  integritas.  39  gravitas.  40  dementia.  41  perspicere.  42  (acc.  with  inf.). 
43  officium.  44  (comp.  §  122).  45  meditatio.  46  tranquillus.  47  (subj.).  48 in. 

ABLATIVE  OF  PRICE. 

194.  The  definite  as  well  as  the  indefinite  price,  for  which 
anything  for  sale  is  to  be  bought,  to  be  sold,  for  which  some¬ 
thing  is  to  be  hired,  to  be  rented,  to  be  let  out,  how  much 
anything  cost  and  is  worth,  how  high  any  one  estimates  or 
values  anything,  at  what  price  one  teaches  another,  builds 
something,  bathes,  dwells  somewhere,  lives  or  does  anything 
else,  is  in  Latin  for  the  most  part  put  in  the  ablative.  Hence, 
among  others  it  stands  with  the  words  dear ,  worth,  carus; 
for  sale ,  venalis;  to  value,  to  estimate,  aestimare,  in¬ 
dicare;  to  buy,  emere;  to  sell,  vendere;  to  be  sold, 
vendi,  venire;  to  come  to,  to  cost,  stare,  constare; 
to  be  worth,  esse;  to  hire,  conducere,  redimere;  to 
let  out,  to  hire  out,  locare;  to  offer,  to  bid  for  anything, 
liceri  aliquid;  and  many  others,  to  which  a  price  can 
be  joined;  e.  g.  This  book  is  icorth  three  oboli,  tribus 
obolis  carus;  this  goblet  is  for  sale  for  ten  denarii ,  d  e- 
cem  denariis  venale  ;  I  value  this  book  at  two  forins , 
aestimo  (indico)  duobus  florenis;  this  victory  cost 
much  blood,  multo  sanguine  stetit ;  this  coin  is  worth 
a  denarius,  est  u  n  o  denario;  Gorgias  instructed  for  a 
hundred  minae,  centenis  minis  docuit. 

To  the  above  class  of  verbs  which  take  the  ablative,  belong  mutare 
and  its  compounds  commutare  and  permutare.  These  are  usually 
construed  according  to  the  analogy  of  verbs  of  selling  ;  /  exchange 
something ,  i.  e.  I  give  it  for  something  tohich  I  receive  in  turn  ;  e.  g. 
fidem  suam  et  religionem  pecu  n  i  a  in  u  t  a  r  e,  to  barter  one's  good 
faith  and  religion  for  money;  so  studium  belli  gerendi  agricul¬ 
tura;  montes  ac  sylvas  urbibus;  Chaoniam  glandem  pingui  mu¬ 
tare  arista.  But  both  the  poets  and  prose  writers  often  change  this 
construction,  and  put  that  which  is  received,  in  the  Acc.,  and  that 
which  is  given  for  it,  in  the  Abl.  with  and  without  cum  ;  e.  g.  exilium 
patria  sede  mutare,  to  exchange  one's  country  for  exile ;  aliquid 
cum  rebus,  quas  totus  possidet  orbis,  mutare,  to  exchange  something 
for  the  lichcsof  the  icorld. 


15 


170 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[3  195. 

195.  The  definite  price  is  always  put  in  the  ablative  ;  but  the  in¬ 
definite,  e.  g.  dear ,  cheap ,  much ,  mwcA  and  the  like,  either  in  the 
genitive  or  ablative  ;  Cicero  uses  only  the  genitives  quanti ,  tanti , 
tantidem, ,  pluris ,  minoris  and  maximi  ;  only  the  ablatives  magno ,  per¬ 
magno ,  plurimo ,  parvo ,  paululo ,  minimo ,  tantulo ,  nihilo ,  dimidio ,  ni¬ 
mio ,  immenso,  vili ,  duplo ;  also  quanto ,  tanto.  There  is  therefore 
need  of  care.  raac/t  as,  is  expressed  by  tanti,  quanti ;  tanto ,  quan¬ 
to. 

The  word  pretio  can  also  be  joined  with  those  ablatives  ;  e.  g.  A/ag- 
wo,  parvo,  minore  pretio.  But  majore  pretio  is  never  used,  nor  majorc 
alone,  but  pluris.  On  the  contrary  pretii  never  stands  among  the 
genitives  of  price.  Adverbs  also  are  used  to  denote  indefinite  price; 
e.g.bene,  melius ,  optime;  male ,  pejus ,  pessime ,  which,  however, 
have  a  different  signification,  according  as  they  are  connected  with 
the  word  meaning  to  buy  or  to  sell :  for  bene  emere,  signifies  fo  buy 
cheap ,  but  bene  vendere,  to  sell  dear ,  high;  male  emere,  to  buy 
dear  ;  male  vendere,  to  sell  cheap.  And  so  in  the  comparative  and 
superlative.  Moreover,  to  the  ablative  of  indefinite  price  belong  pre¬ 
tio,  pecunia ,  mercede  and  oaro,  which  also  may  be  qualified  by  adjec¬ 
tives  ;  e.  g.  Magno,  tanto  pretio,  magna,  grandi  pecunia,  etc. 

Examples  on  §§  194,  195. 

A  painting  of  Apelles  was  bought  for  the  temple  of  the 
Ephesian  Diana,  for  four  and  twenty  thousand  florins.  The 
painter  Asclepiodorus  sold  twelve  paintings  of  the  superior1 
gods,  for  three  hundred2  minae  each.  In  no  part  of  Sicily, 
in  the  time  of  Yerres,  was  corn  worth3  so  much,  as  at  Syra¬ 
cuse.  In  time  of  war,  everything  which  belongs4  to  daily5 
sustenance6,  is  sold  dear.  Gorgias  first  taught  at  Athens  for 
money7;  the  instruction8  of  every  scholar  cost9  a  hundred 
minae,  for  every  three10  years.  My  brother  lives11  in  this 
house,  for  a  hundred  and  twenty-two  florins.  The  house  of 
Clodius  was  for  sale12,  for  ten  thousand  florins.  Every  farm¬ 
er  will  sell  his  grain  as  high13  as  possible.  Eryphyle  sold  the 
life  of  her  husband  for  money.  I  do  not  know,  how  dear 
grain  is.  These  statues14  have  been  sold  high.15.  When 
there  is  an  abundance16  of  grain,  it  is  sold  cheap.  Thou 
hast  sold  grain  as  dear,  as  thou  hast  bought  it.  The  suit17 
of  Miltiades  was  valued  at  fifty  talents.  Apollonius,  a  rheto¬ 
rician,  taught  the  art  of  oratory  for  pay18.  Hannibal  ex¬ 
changed  the  hope  of  glory  for  defeat. 

1  superus.  2(see§101).  3esse.  4pertinere.  5 quotidianus.  6victus. 
7  aurum.  8  institutio.  9  constare.  10  (see  §101).  11  habitare.  12  venalis. 
13  quam  plurimus  (as  high  as  possible).  14  signum.  15  (adverb).  10  uber¬ 
tas.  17  lis.  18  merces. 


§§  196,  197.]  ABLATIVE  OF  PLENTY  AND  WANT. 


171 


ABLATIVE  AFTER  WORDS  WHICH  SIGNIFY  WORTHY 
OF ,  AND  TO  CONSIDER  OR  THINK  WORTHY. 

196.  In  like  manner,  as  before,  that  of  which  we  think 
any  one  worthy ,  or  of  which  any  one  is  worthy ,  is  put  in  the 
ablative;  e.  g.  Thou  art  worthy  of  praise ,  laude  dignus; 
I  am  thought  worthy  of  praise ,  dignor  laude.  The  Latin 
words  which  belong  here  are :  dignus,  worthy  of;  i  n- 
dignus,  unworthy  of,  and  dignari,  to  be  thought  worthy. 
Alienus  also  takes  the  ablative,  when  it  signifies  unworthy. 
The  phrase  to  deserve  or  merit ,  in  the  sense  of  to  be  worthy  of, 
can  also  be  expressed  by  dignum  esse,  and  not  to  deserve,  by 
indignum  esse . 

The  active  dignare  is  mostly  confined  to  the  old  poets  ;  the  passive 
dignari ,  as  passive,  is  used  in  classic  prose,  but  as  deponent ,  it  belongs 
to  the  later  writers,  and  is  there  used  but  seldom.  The  genitive  with 
dignus  and  indignus  is  poetic. 

Examples. 

My  brother  is  entirely  worthy1  of  thy  love.  Thou  art  un¬ 
worthy  of  this  kindness.  We  are  not  worthy  of  censure2, 
but  of  reward.  Many  do  not  deserve  their  parents.  I  have 
been  thought  worthy  of  the  highest3  honor.  Timoleon  was 
not  thought  worthy  of  the  sight4  of  his  mother,  when  he  had 
killed5  his  brother.  Only  those  are  worthy  of  our  friendship, 
whom  we  think6  worthy  of  our  love.  If  we  obtain7  renown, 
we  are  exposed8  to  the  envy  of  others,  who  deserve  it  less9. 
All  the  educated10  Romans  thought6  the  poet  Archias  worthy 
of  their  acquaintance11  and  hospitality12.  Men  who  distin¬ 
guish13  themselves  by  some  excellence14,  are  judged  worthy 
of  a  certain  respect15  and  honor. 

1  (superl.  of  dignus).  2  reprehensio.  3superus.  4adspectus.  5  inter¬ 
ficere.  6existimare.  7  nancisci.  8  obnoxius.  8minus.  I0erudltus. 
“cognitio.  12  hospitium,  '"antecedere  (distinguish  themselves).  14  dig¬ 
nitas.  “cultus. 


ABLATIVES  WITH  WORDS  OF  PLENTY  AND  WANT. 

197.  Those  words  which  signify  fulness,  plenty,  abun¬ 
dance,  want ,  poverty,  deprivation,  take  the  ablative.  Many, 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


172 


[§  197. 


especially  the  adjectives,  also  take  the  genitive.  Comp.  §§152 
and  160. 

The  words  belonging  here  are  : 

(J )  The  adjectives  plenus,  full ;  confertus  and  re¬ 
fertu  s, filled  full ;  abundans,  abundant,  plentiful,  rich, 
overflowing ;  onustus,  loaded ;  inanis,  empty,  without. 
Of  these,  confertus,  refertus,  abundans  and  onustus,  for  the 
most  part,  take  the  ablative  ;  plenus  and  incinis  the  genitive. 

(2)  The  verbs  abundare,  redundare,  affluere, 
circumfluere,  diffluere,  scatere,  /o  have  something 
in  abundance,  to  abound  in  something ,  to  be  rich  in  something ; 
carere,  to  want  something,  to  be  in  want  of;  egere  and 
indigere,  to  need ;  complere,  explere,  implere, 
o  p  p  1  e  r  e,  supplere,  to  fill  full,  to  fill  up  ;  farcire 
and  refercire,  to  stuff,  to  cram ;  cumulare,  to  heap 
up  ;  augere,  to  increase ;  locupletare,  to  enrich  ; 
satiare  and  saturare,  to  satiate ;  obruere,  to  cover 
over,  to  overwhelm.  Of  these,  egere  and  indigere ,  in  Cicero, 
also  very  often  govern  the  genitive.  See  §  160. 

Some  examples  :  The  life  of  man  is  filled  with  a  variety 
of  pleasures,  conferta  est  voluptatum  varietate;  Sicily 
has  corn  in  abundance  (is  rich  in  corn),  abundat  frumen- 
t  o  ;  they  are  unhappy,  who  are  in  want  of  friends  (who  have 
no  friends,  whose  friends  fail  them ,  who  are  without  friends), 
qui  amicis  carent ;  I  need  consolation  (I  have  need  of  con¬ 
solation),  egeo  (indigeo)  solatio;  1  filled  the  casks  with 
lead,  complevi  plumbo. 


Examples. 

Xerxes  was  rich1  in  all  the  rewards9  and  gifts3  of  fortune. 
Socrates  did  not  need4  gold,  nor  silver,  nor  other  things. 
The  most  happy  life  is  rich5  in  all  blessings6.  I  cannot  for¬ 
get  what  honor  I  am  destitute7  of,  what  renown,  what  chil¬ 
dren,  what  gifts  of  fortune8,  what  a  brother.  Without  the 
care9  of  men,  there  is  no  exportation10  of  those  things,  which 
some  lands  have  in  abundance,  and  no  importation11  of  those, 


§  198.]  ABL.  WITH  WORDS  OF  DEPRIVING,  ETC.  173 

which  others  need12.  Marius  came  into  a  country,  which 
had  corn  and  cattle13  in  abundance.  When  Hannibal  was 
on  the  island  Crete,  he  filled14  old  brazen15  statues  with  gold 
and  silver.  The  city  Bactra  had  need  of  a  larger  garrison16, 
but  because  Alexander  had  not  abundant  troops,  he  sent 
thither  only  a  few.  During17  this  day  no  letter  has  come 
from  you,  which  was  without18  some  useful  and  pleasant19 
thing.  Limbs  are  amputated20,  when  they  begin21  to  be 
without22  blood  and  life. 

Refertus.  2  praemium.  3  donum.  4  indigere.  5  abundans.  6  bonum. 
7  carere.  8  fortunae  (gifts  of  fortune).  9  administratio.  10  exportatio. 
11  invectio.  12egere.  13  pecus.  14  complere.  I5aeneus.  16 praesidium. 
17  per.  18  inanis.  19  suavis.  20  amputare.  21  coepisse.  22  carere. 

ABLATIVE  AFTER  WORDS  WHICH  SIGNIFY  TO  BE 
FREE  FROM ,  TO  BE  EXEMPT ,  TO  BE  RID  OF ,  AND  TO 
BE  DEPRIVED  OF. 

198.  With  such  words,  the  Latins  put  that  of  which  any 
one  is  free ,  exempt  and  deprived ,  in  the  ablative,  yet  some 
also  admit  the  preposition  a. 

The  words  which  belong  here  are  : 

(1)  The  adjectives,  liber,  free,  vacuus,  free,  void  of, 
without,  nudus,  bare,  stripped  of,  and  immunis,  exempt 
from,  both  with  and  without  the  preposition  a;  e.  g. 
F?  'ee  from  cares,  without  cares,  liber  (vacuus)  curis  and 
a  curis;  exempt  from  military  duty,  immunis  militia. 
Orbus,  bereft  of,  is  for  the  most  part  used  with  the  ablative 
without  a  preposition  ;  e.  g.  Bereft  of  all  things,  omnibus 
rebus. 

(2)  The  verbs,  liberare,  to  free,  v  a  c  a  r  e,  to  be  free , 
to  be  void  of,  to  be  without ;  laxare  and  relaxare,  to 
free,  to  release  ;  e  x  p  e  d  i  r  e,  to  disentangle,  to  extricate,  to 
free  from.  These  have  either  the  ablative  alone,  or  they  take 
the  ablative  with  the  preposition  a  ;  the  verb  expedire  also  the 
preposition  ex;  e.  g.  I  free  my  country  from  danger,  (a)  pe¬ 
riculo  libero  ;  I  am  free  from  all  fear,  vaco  (a  b)  o  m  n  i 
m  e  t  u  ;  I  extricate  myself  from  troublesome  business,  me  (a, 

ex)  molestis  negotiis  expedio. 

15* 


174 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  193. 


(3)  The  verbs,  levare,  relevare,  to  relieve;  sol¬ 
vere,  exsolvere,  to  loose,  to  free  ;  exonerare,  to  dis¬ 
burden,  to  free.  These  only  govern  the  ablative  of  that  from 
which  one  frees,  or  is  freed ;  e.  g.  He  relieves  me  from  anx¬ 
iety  and  fear,  me  cur  a  et  timore  levat  (relevat). 

(4)  The  verbs,  privare,  spoliare,  nudare  and 
orbare,  deprive,  to  bereave ;  fraudare,  defraudare, 
to  cheat,  to  defraud.  These  take  the  ablative  of  that  of  which 
one  deprives,  or  of  which  one  is  deprived  ;  e.  g.  Sulla  de¬ 
prived  the  state  of  its  best  citizens  (took  from  the  state  its 
best  citizens),  civitatem  optimis  civibus  privavit. 

Remark.  With  all  these  verbs,  the  person  or  thing  which  one  frees, 
exempts,  deprives,  or  from  whom  one  takes  something,  is  in  the 
accusative.  But  when  these  are  used  passively,  the  person  or  thing 
which  is  freed,  etc.,  is  put  in  the  nominative,  and  that  of  which  the 
person  or  thing  is  freed,  deprived,  etc.,  is  put  in  the  ablative  ;  e.  g. 
I  am  deprived  of  my  best  friend,  (ego)  optimo  amico  privor  ; 
thou  hast  been  deprived  of  thy  daughter  and  thy  son,  (t  u)  fi  1  i  a  et  filio 
privatus  es  ;  ice  are  deprived  of  alt  things ,  (nos)  omnibus  privamur. 

Examples . 

Happy  men  are  free1  from  every  distraction'2  of  mind. 
Cicero  freed  the  fortress3  of  the  city  from  all  burning4  and 
flames.  The  conqueror  deprived5  the  state  of  many  brave6 
citizens.  A  resolute7  mind  is  free8  from  all  anxiety9  and 
care.  It  is  a  shameful10  crime  to  deprive11  another  man  of 
goods,  honorably12  obtained13.  The  parents,  who  were  de¬ 
prived14  of  their  children,  were  under  the  protection15  of  the 
goddess  Orbona.  If  thou  doest  this,  thou  wilt  extricate16  me 
from  all  trouble17.  Bessus  was  carried  to  Alexander,  deprived 
of  all  the  covering18  of  his  body.  Whoever  confounds19 
truth20  with  falsehood21,  deprives22  others  of  approbation,  and 
strips  them  of  all  faith23.  Caecilius  was  defrauded  by  Varius 
of  a  large  amount*  of  money.  Thy  very  long  letter  relieved24 
not  only  me,  but  all  my  friends  of  our  solicitude25.  What 
will  the  man  do,  who  fears  nothing  except26  a  witness,  when 
he  has  found27,  in  a  solitary28  place,  a  man  from  whom  he 
can  take29  much  money  ?  If  the  soul  is  not  immortal,  we 
are  deprived30  of  the  hope  of  a  happy  life.  When  the  soul  is 
freed31  from  the  incumbrance32  of  the  body,  it  will  ascend33 
to  heaven.  Many,  by  their  excessive34  liberality,  have  rob¬ 
bed35  themselves  of  their  estate36. 


§  199.]  ABL.  WITH  WORDS  OF  TRUSTING,  ETC.  175 

1  liber.  2  perturbatio.  3  arx.  4  incendium.  6  orbare.  6  fortis.  7  fortis. 
8  vacuus.  9  angor.  10  flagitiosus.  11  privare.  12  honeste.  13  paratus. 
14orbare.  15  tutela.  16expedire.  17  molestia.  18  velamentum.  19  con¬ 
fundere.  20  vera.  21  falsa.  22  privare.  23  fides.  *  magnus.  24  levare, 
^aegritudo.  26nisi.  27  nancisci  (future  perfect).  28  desertus.  29 spoliare. 
30  privare.  31  relaxare.  32  vinculum.  33  migrare.  34niiruus.  35  spoliare. 
36  patrimonium. 


ABLATIVE  AFTER  WORDS  SIGNIFYING  TO  TRUST,  TO 

REST  OR  LEAK  UP  OK. 

199.  The  following  words  belong  here  : 

(1)  Fretus,  trusting  to,  relying  on,  and  f  u  1 1  u  s,  resting 
or  leaning  on ;  e.  g.  My  brother  has  undertaken  this  work, 
trusting  to  his  genius,  ingenio  fretus. 

(2)  Fidere  and  confidere,  to  trust  in,  to  confide  in. 
Besides  the  ablative,  they  are  also  joined  with  the  dative ; 
e.  g.  1  trust  in  thy  firmness,  confido  tua  constantia 
(tuae  constantiae).  See  §  177.  5.  But  the  verb  dif¬ 
fidere,  to  distrust,  to  despair  of,  and  the  participial  adjec¬ 
tive  praefidens,  one  who  is  too  confident,  trusts  too  much 
to  himself,  seem  to  govern  only  the  dative ;  e.  g.  I  distrust 
myself,  m  i  h  i  i  p  s  i  diffido  ;  they  err,  who  trust  too  much  to 
themselves ,  sibi  praefidentes. 

(3)  Niti,  to  rest  upon,  to  rely  upon.  This  takes  the  abla¬ 
tive  with  and  without  in.  But  when  it  signifies  to  strive  for 
something,  the  Latins  say,  niti  ad  or  in  aliquid;  e.  g.  I 
rely  upon  your  equity,  (in)  vestra  aequitate;  the  soul 
strives  for  immortality ,  ad  (in)  immortalitatem. 

Examples. 

Many  men,  in  their  evil  cause1,  trust2  too  much3  to  fortune 
and  wealth.  The  Roman  consul  attacked4  the  army5  of  the 
enemy6,  before  they,  supported7  by  their  whole  strength8, 
could  be  together9.  The  tribunes,  Tiberius  and  Caius  Grac¬ 
chus,  projected10  many  innovations11,  trusting12  to  the  favor 
of  the  people13.  We  will  rely14  on  hope  alone15.  Thou  wilt 
be  the  only  one16,  on  whom  the  safety  of  the  state  rests.  No 
one  can  trust17  in  the  firmness18  of  his  body,  nor  in  the  con- 


176 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§§  200,  201. 

stancy19  of  fortune.  Whoever  distrusts  the  permanence20  of 
his  possessions,  is  in  perpetual  fear.  Strive21,  in  the  confi¬ 
dence22  of  virtue,  for  the  hope  of  a  happy  life.  The  centu¬ 
rion  Baculus,  who  despaired23  of  his  own  and  the  safety  of 
all,  seized  his  arms  and  rushed24  among  the  enemy. 

1  causa.  2  confidere.  3  nimis  (too  much).  4  adoriri.  5aCies.  6  hostis. 
7  fultus.  8  vires.  9  constare.  10  moliri.  11  nova  res.  12  fretus.  13  plebs. 
14 niti.  15solus.  ,6  unus  (only  one).  17 confidere.  18  firmitas,  ^stabili¬ 
tas.  20 perpetuitas.  21  niti.  22fiducia.  23 diffisus  (who  despaired).  24se 
immittere. 


ABLATIVE  AFTER  WORDS  OF  REJOICING ,  GRIEVING 

AND  BOASTING. 

200.  With  words  of  rejoicing ,  grieving  and  boasting ,  the 
Latins,  for  the  most  part,  use  the  ablative  alone.  The  words 
which  belong  here  are  : 

(1)  Laetus,  joyful ;  laetari  and  gaudere,  to  re¬ 
joice.  These  take  either  the  ablative  alone,  or  the  ablative 
with  de ;  e.  g.  I  rejoice  at  your  arrival ,  gaudeo  (laetor) 
tuo  adventu  or  de  tuo  adventu.  The  neuters, 
hoc ,  id ,  quid  or  quod,  are  put  in  the  accusative.  Comp.  §  181. 
Here  belongs  also  contentus,  which  takes  the  ablative  alone. 
The  Latins  never  consider  gaudere  and  laetari  as  transitive 
verbs,  and  therefore  they  do  not  admit  the  accusative  of  a 
person,  as  me,  te,  etc.  If,  therefore,  we  wish  to  express  by 
these  two  verbs,  it  rejoices  me,  you,  us,  etc.,  we  can  only  say, 
gaudeo,  gaudes,  gaudemus ,  etc.,  laetor,  laetaris,  laetamur. 

201.  (2)  Dolere  and  maerere  ( moere  re ),  to  grieve, 
to  mourn ,  to  lament ,  to  complain.  These  take  the  object  of 
the  grief  and  complaint  in  the  ablative,  with  or  without  de,  or 
in  the  accusative  ;  e.  g.  You  grieve  at  my  misfortune,  doles 
meo  casu,  or  de  meo  casu,  or  meum  casum. 
Sometimes  also  in  English,  the  object  is  put  in  the  nominative, 
but  the  person  in  the  accusative;  e.  g.  My  misfortune  grieves 
you.  But  since  these  two  verbs  are  never  transitive  in  respect 
to  persons,  such  sentences  must  be  wholly  changed,  and 
instead  of  it  grieves  me,  we  must  say,  I  grieve,  d  o  1 6  o, 
maereo. 


§  202.]  ABL.  WITH  WORDS  OF  REJOICING,  ETC.  177 

Yet  doler  e  signifying  to  cause  'pain,  to  pain,  where  any 
parts  of  the  body  are  spoken  of,  takes  the  dative;  e.  g.  ocu¬ 
lus  (oculi)  mihi  dolet  (dolent);  but  not  so  where  feelings  of 
the  mind  are  spoken  of,  as  above,  not  meus  casus  t  i  b  i  dolet. 

Tiie  verb  angere,  to  Jill  with  anguish,  to  affiict,  and 
angi,  to  he  afflicted,  etc.,  do  not  belong  here,  since  they  are 
constructed  as  transitive  verbs  ;  e.  g.  grief  ajjlicts  me,  d  ol  or 
me  angit;  I  am  ajjlictcd  with  grief,  dolore  angor. 

The  verbs  lugere,  lamentari,  plorare  and  de¬ 
plorare,  to  grieve,  to  mourn,  to  weep,  take  their  object  only 
in  the  accusative  ;  e.  g.  Who  does  not  mourn  the  death  of  his 
friends?  luget  (lamentatur)  mortem  suorum? 

The  verb  queri,  to  complain,  expresses  its  object  either 
by  the  accusative  or  by  cle  and  the  ablative  ;  e.  g.  Milo  com¬ 
plained  of  the  wrong  done  to  me,  injuriam  meam  (de 
injuria  mea). 

202.  (3)  Gloriari  and  se  j  act  are,  to  glory,  to  boast, 
take  their  object  or  that  of  ivhich  one  boasts,  or  in  which  he 
glories,  in  the  ablative  with  or  without  cle  ;  and  when  with 
jactare  the  word  se  is  omitted,  the  object  is  put  only  in  the 
accusative  ;  e.  g.  Many  glory  in  their  exploits,  boast  of  their 
exploits,  { de)  rebus  suis  gesti  s  gloriantur  (se jactant), 
or  res  suas  gestas  jactant.  Moreover,  gloriari  in 
aliqua  r  e,  to  seek  glory  in  something.  Superbus 
takes  the  object  of  which  one  is  proud  in  the  ablative ;  e.  g. 
proud,  of  strength,  superbus  viribus. 

Examples. 

We  often  grieve  at  another’s1  praise.  If  we  are  free2  from 
pain,  we  rejoice  on  account  of  the  freedom3  itself,  and  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  exemption4  from  every  trouble5.  You  boast  of 
your  wealth  in  a  most  excessive  manner6.  Some7  glory  in 
the  names  of  their  remote  ancestors.  I  rejoice  in  the  happy 
termination8  of  the  lawsuit9.  You  rejoice10  in  your  distin¬ 
guished11  works12.  Then  the  ruin13  of  the  state  grieved14 
every  one.  All  thy  friends  mourn15  over  thy  affliction  and 


178 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  203. 


misfortune16.  Do  not  censure17  those  things  in18  others,  of 
which  you  yourselves  boast.  Every  animal  rejoices  in  plea¬ 
sure,  as19  the  highest  good.  I  mourn20  for  the  calamity21  of 
the  state.  No  one  will  boast  of  an  unhappy22  life.  The 
death  of  Cicero  grieved  no  one  of23  all,  more  than  me.  Na¬ 
ture  is  contented  with  little  attention24.  Darius,  joyful  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  vision,  which  had  been  presented25  to  him  in26 
sleep,  marched27  to  the  Euphrates.  The  wife  of  the  same 
mourned28  for  the  death  of  her  husband29.  Him,  whom  the 
adversity30  of  one31  grieves14,  the  prosperity  of  another31  also 
grieves  ;  as  for  example32,  Theophrastus,  who  lamented33  the 
death  of  Callisthenes,  his  friend34,  was  pained35  by  the  pros¬ 
perity  of  Alexander.  If  the  nerves36  pain14  any  one37,  rest38 
is  the  best  thing.  All  vigorous39  exercise  is  dangerous  to 
those,  whose  joints40  pain41  them. 

Alienus.  2  privare.  3  liberatio.  4  vacuitas.  5  molestia.  6  intolerantis¬ 
sime  (in  a  most  ex.  manner).  7  quidam.  8  exitus.  9  causa.  10  laetari. 
11  praeclarus.  12  opus.  13  casus.  14  dolere.  15  maerere.  10  casus  adver¬ 
sus.  17  reprehendere.  18  in.  19  ut.  20  lugere.  21  fortuna.  22  miser.  23  ex. 
24  cultus.  25  offerri.  26  per.  27  proficisci.  28  lamentari.  29  maritus.  30  res 
adversae.  31  aliquis.  32  ut  (as  for  ex.).  33  deplorare.  34  sodalis.  35  angi. 
36  nervus.  37  (Comp.  §  122).  38  quies.  39  magnus.  40 articulus.  4,dolere. 

ABLATIVE  AFTER  SOME  DEPONENTS. 

203.  These  deponents,  which  govern  the  ablative,  are : 
u  t  i,  to  use ,  to  have ,  to  take  advantage  of,  to  associate  with 
one ;  f  r  u  i,  to  enjoy  something ;  fungi,  to  manage,  to  per • 
form,  to  execute,  to  do  something ;  potiri,  to  obtain  somc- 
thing,  to  get  possession  of,  to  seize,  to  usurp,  and  vesci,  to 
enjoy,  to  eat.  something.  Also  the  compounds  of  these  go¬ 
vern  the  ablative :  abuti,  to  abuse;  perfrui,  to  enjoy  ful¬ 
ly;  d  e  f  u  n  g  i,  to  complete,  to  discharge,  to  execute,  to  pass 
through ;  and  perfungi,  to  discharge,  to  go  through  with, 
tofnish ;  e.  g.  I  use  my  libc7'ty,  mea  libertate;  I  have 
a  good  father,  utor  bono  patre;  I  associate  with  this 
man,  utor  hoc  v  i  r  o ;  I  enjoy  this  pleasure,  fruor  h  a  c 
voluptate;  the  Helots  performed  the  office  of  slaves , 
munere  servorum  ;  we  eat  coarse  bread,  pane  cibario; 
Dionysius  usurped  the  government  of  Syracuse ,  i  mpe- 


§  203.]  ABLATIVE  AFTER  SOME  DEPONENTS.  179 

rio  Syracusarum.  These  verbs  seldom  take  an  accusa¬ 
tive  in  classical  writers. — If  uti  is  translated  to  have  inter¬ 
course,  and  an  adjective  qualifies  the  word  intercourse,  such 
adjective  is  expressed  by  an  adverb. 

The  verb  potiri ,  when  its  signification  relates  to  supremacy ,  the 
highest  power,  usually  takes  the  genitive  ;  and  when  empire,  govern¬ 
ment,  supremacy  are  translated  by  res,  only  rerum  in  the  genitive  is 
used  ;  e.  g.  Alexander  obtained  the  kingdom  of  the  Persians ,  A.  regni 
Persarum  potitus  est ;  these  states  have  obtained  supreme  power,  hae 
civitates  rerum  potitae  sunt. 

Examples. 

Theophrastus  used  every1  moment2  of  life  wisely.  I  will 
perform3  the  same  office4,  which  you  performed  during  my 
affliction5.  Caesar  Octavianus  at  length  obtained  supreme 
power6  at  Rome.  Socrates  could  have  escaped7  from  his 
prison  ;  but  he  was  unwilling8  to  make  use  of  this  means9, 
as10  one  unjust.  We  shall  surely  soon  obtain11  our  lost12  dig¬ 
nity.  The  conveniences13  which  we  have14,  the  light  which 
we  enjoy,  the  air15  which  we  breathe16,  the  honors  which  we 
receive17,  the  opportunities18  we  obtain19,  are  mostly  the 
gifts20  of  God.  Charles  the  Great  conquered21  all  Germany ; 
but  his  son  Louis22  lost  again23  all  which  he  had  conquered. 
It  is  a  mark  of  a  courageous  soul24,  always  to  have25  pres¬ 
ence26  of  mind.  He  enjoys  riches  most,  who  least  needs27 
his  own.  That  is  a  property28  of  every  one,  which  every  one 
enjoys  and  uses.  If  we  are  in  health29,  we  are  free30  from 
pain,  and  discharge31  the  duties32  of  the  body.  The  gods 
partake33  neither  of  food34  nor  drink35.  We  have  now  passed 
through36  these  dangers.  ^Emilius  Paulus  obtained  all  the 
treasures37  of  the  Macedonians.  The  first  men  ate38  acorns39, 
strawberries40  and  other  wild41  fruits42.  In  the  time  of  Ly¬ 
sander,  the  Spartans  had  the  supremacy43  over  the  Athe¬ 
nians. 

1  omnis.  2  momentum.  3  fungi.  4  officium.  5  luctus.  6  res.  7  effuse- 
re.  8  nolle.  9  ratio.  10  tamquam.  11  potiri.  12  amissus.  13  commoditas. 
14  uti.  15  spiritus.  16  vesci.  17  fungi.  18  occasio.  19  potiri.  20  munus. 
21  potiri.  22LudovIcus.  23  rursus.  24  Coinp.  §  142.  25  uti.  20  praesens 
animus  (presence  of  mind).  27  indigere.  28  proprium.  29  valere  (to  be 
in  health).  30  carere.  31  fungi.  32  munus.  33  vesci.  34  esca.  35  potio. 
36  defungi.  37  gaza.  38  vesci.  39  glans.  40  fragum.  41  rudis.  42  fruges. 
43  potiri  rerum  (to  have  the  supremacy  over). 


.180 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


L§§  204,  205. 


ABLATIVE  WITH  COMPOUND  VERBS. 

204.  Many  verbs,  which  are  compounded  with  preposi¬ 
tions,  that  govern  the  ablative,  take  the  ablative  with  and 
without  a  preposition.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  are  found 
only  with  the  ablative,  and  others  again,  usually,  only  with 
the  preposition.  Everything,  therefore,  is  here  to  be  deter¬ 
mined  by  the  usage  of  the  language,  and  it  is  very  important, 
in  reference  to  such  words,  to  consult  the  lexicon. 

Some  examples:  abalienare  ab  aliquo;  se  abdicare  aliqua 
re,  to  lay  dozen  something  ;  abducere  ab  aliqua  re  ;  abesse  aliqua 
re  and  (more  frequently)  ab  aliqua  re  ;  abire  ab  aliqua  re ;  but  abi¬ 
re  magistratu;  aberrare  ab  aliqua  re;  abscedere  ab  aliqua 
re  and  aliqua  re  ;  absolvere  ab  aliqua  re  and  aliqua  re  ;  abstine- 
r  e  aliqua  re  and  ab  aliqua  re;  decedere  de  or  e  loco,  and  ab  or  de 
aliqua  re  (in  a  metaphorical  sense)  ;  declinare  de  and  ab  aliqua 
re  ;  deducere  de  and  ab  aliqua  re  ;  desilire  ex  or  de  aliqua  re  ; 
desidere  de  aliqua  re;  detrahere  de  aliqua  re;  deturbare 
aliqua  re,  de  aliqua  re,  and  ex  aliqua  re;  depellere  aliqua  re 
and  de  aliqua  re;  discedere  aliqua  re,  and  ab,  de,  ex  aliqua  re; 
evadere  ex  aliqua  re;  excedere  ex  aliqua  re  and  aliqua  re; 
exire  ex,  or  de  aliqua  re  ;  expellere  aliqua  re  and  ex  aliqua  re. 
And  thus  in  similar  verbs  different  relations  are  denoted  ;  indeed, 
among  these,  there  are  some,  which  in  a  certain  signification  govern 
an  accusative,  e  gr  e  d  i,  excedere,  exire,  to  exceed ,  to  go  be¬ 
yond. — There  is  here  no  need  of  any  separate  examples  for  practice. 

But  the  following  verbs,  which  are  constructed  with  an 
ablative,  should  be  observed. 

205.  (1)  Afficere.  This  signifies  properly  to  afect.  That 
with  which  any  one  is  affected,  is  put  in  the  ablative.  But 
in  English  this  verb  is  translated  in  various  other  ways  ;  e.  g. 
To fill  with  joy ,  laetitia  afficere.  In  most  cases,  we 
translate  these  by  a  single  verb,  which  takes  its  signification 
from  the  substantive  in  the  ablative;  e.  g.  Laetitia  affi¬ 
cere,  to  gladden ,  to  rejoice  ;  munere  (mu  neribu  s)  aff. 
to  reward ;  dolore  aff.,  to  afflict ;  1  e  t  o  (morte)  aff,  to 
kill ;  beneficio  (beneficiis)  aff,  to  benefit,  to  bestow 
benefits;  aud  thus  with  many  other  combinations. 

If  the  verb  is  active,  the  person  affected  by  the  action  is 
put  in  the  accusative ;  e.  g.  He  rewarded  me,  munere  (mu- 


ABLATIVE  AFTER  VIVERE,  ETC. 


181 


§  206.] 


ner  i  bus)  me  affecit;  thou  hast  benefited  me,  conferred 
favors  upon  me,  tu  me  affecisti  b  e  n  e  ti  c  i  i  s.  In  the 
passive,  this  accusative  becomes  the  subject-nominative  ;  e.  g. 
Favors  have  been  conferred  on  me,  ego  beneficiis  a  ff  e  c- 
tus  sum.  When  it  stands  with  a  noun  which  denotes 
something  unpleasant,  it  is  often  rendered  by  the  word  suffer, 
with  a  noun  denoting  something  agreeable,  by  the  word  en- 
joy  ;  e.  g.  Poena  a  ffi  c  i,  to  suffer  punishment ;  volup- 
t  a  t  e  a  fli  c  i,  to  enjoy  (to  experience)  pleasure. 

Moreover,  an  adverb  is  often  joined  with  the  verbs  used  in  English  ; 
e.  g.  To  reward  richly  ;  in  Latin  this  must  be  an  adjective,  agreeing’ 
with  the  substantive  ;  e.  g.  Thou  hast  rewarded  me  liberally,  tu  me 
magnis  (largis)  muneribus  affecisti ;  you  have  been  honored  as 
you  deserved ,  e  o  (t  a  n  t  o,  tali)  honore  affectus  es,  q  u  o  (q  u  a  n  t  o, 
quali)  es  dignus. 

Examples. 

Hannibal,  on  his  march1  to  Etruria,  suffered  from  a  severe2 
disease3  of  his  eyes.  Bessus,  the  murderer4  of  Darius,  was 
more  severely2  punished  by  Alexander  the  great,  than  was 
just.  It  is  sad,  if  bad  men  are  rewarded  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  good.  It  is  uncertain  how  the  renowned  Scipio  was5 
put  to  death.  Often  reflect6,  how  great  favors  I  have  con¬ 
ferred  on  you.  I  now  enjoy  no  little  pleasure.  The  desire 
for  riches  has  caused  great  injuries  to  many.  They  are  ad¬ 
mired7,  who  surpass8  others  in  virtue.  Despair  of  safety9  had 
afflicted10  the  king  in  this  desert11.  Nicanor  had  filled  all 
with  a  strong  desire  for  himself.  What  sorrow  we  shall  feel, 
when  the  fortune  of  our  country  fails12  !  Ptolemy  has  been 
but  lightly13  wounded.  Thy  letter  would  have  troubled  me 
very  much,  unless14  my  mind  had  been  already  hardened15 
against16  new  sorrow. 

1  petens  (on  his  march).  2  gravis.  3  morbus.  4  percussor.  5(subj.). 
6  considerare.  7  admiratio — afficere.  8  anteire.  9  salus.  10  aegritudo — 
afficere.  11  solitudo.  12  perire  (future).  13  levis.  14  nisi.  15  obdurescere. 
1C  ad. 

206.  (2)  V  i  v  e  r  e,  to  live.  This  has  a  different  construc¬ 
tion,  according  to  its  different  signification. 

Vivere  aliqua  re,  to  live  on  something,  to  support  life ; 
also  metaphorically;  e.  g.  To  live  on  the  compassion  of  others, 

aliena  misericordia;  - in  aliqua  re,  to  spend  life 

16 


182 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§207. 


in  ox  with  something;  -  cum  aliquo,  to  live  with  some 

one ,  to  have  intercourse  with; - de  lucro,  to  owe  one's  life 

to  the  forbearance  of  another. 

(3)  Stare  has  also  a  different  construction,  according  to 
its  different  signification. 

Stare  aliqua  re  and  in  aliqua  re,  to  continue  in  something, 

to  abide  by ,  to  remain  firm  ;  - ab  aliquo,  a  partibus  ali- 

cujus  and  cum  aliquo,  to  be  on  the  side  of  some  one ,  to  hold 
with  some  one ;  e.  g.  Thou  art  on  my  side,  tu  stas  a  me,  a 
m  e  i  s  partibus,  mecum,  So  also  in  metaphorical 
phrases;  e.  g.  A  mendacio  stare,  to  lie,  to  be  deceitful. 

(4)  F  acere  aliquo,  de  aliquo  and  more  frequently  alicui, 
to  do  something  with  some  one;  e.  g.  Quid  facimus  hoc 
homine,  what  are  we  to  do  with  this  man  ?  but  oftener  h  u  i  c 
homini. 

Examples. 

I  had  already  determined1  to  live  on  intimate  terms2  with 
this  man.  Cicero  spent  his  life  mostly3  in  letters4.  All  de¬ 
sired  that  Caesar  would  abide  by  those  conditions,  which  he 
had  made.  The  ancient  Germans  lived  not  only  on  milk, 
cheese  and  corn,  but  they  also  ate5  raw6  flesh.  Whoever  is 
not  on  our  side,  is7  against8  us.  Theophrastus  spent9  a  pretty 
long  period  of  his  life  in  the  investigation10  of  nature.  Zeno 
was  not  of  the  sect  of  the  Epicureans.  Truly  we  owe  our 
life  to  forbearance.  The  gods  are  on  our  side  ;  trusting11  to 
them,  let  us  fight.  Sextus  Roscius  always  dwelt  in  the 
country12,  and  spent  his  life  in  agriculture13. 

decernere.  2 familiariter  (on  intimate  terms).  3  plurimum.  4  lit¬ 
terae.  5vesci.  6erudus.  7stare.  B adversus.  9  vivere  satis  diu  (to  spend 
a  pretty  long  period,  etc.).  10  perscrutatio.  n  fretus.  12  rus.  13  ager 
colendus. 

207.  Besides  the  adjectives  and  verbs  already  mentioned, 
which  are  constructed  with  an  ablative,  the  ablative  also  fre¬ 
quently  occurs  in  sentences,  where  it  does  not  seem  to  de¬ 
pend  on  any  word.  The  predicate  of  a  sentence  oftentimes 
contains  a  more  particular  explanation,  which  denotes  either 
the  time,  the  cause,  the  occasion,  the  instrument,  or  the 


means. 


§  208.] 


ABLATIVE  OF  MEANS  OR  INSTRUMENT. 


183 


The  English  employs  prepositions  in  such  specifications; 
the  Latin  too,  often  uses  these,  but  it  frequently  prefers  the 
ablative  without  a  preposition.  Persons  are  here  always  an 
exception  ;  for  the  person  acting  is  designated  by  a ,  the  one 
acted  upon,  by  de,  the  one  participating  or  accompanying ,  by 
cum,  and  the  one  interposing  or  through  whose  means,  by  per. 
Hence  the  prepositions  can  be  omitted  only  with  inanimate 
objects. 

208.  The  ablative  without  a  preposition  expresses  the  fol¬ 
lowing  relations : 

I.  The  means  or  instrument  with  which  anything  is  done, 
or  by  which  anything  takes  place ;  e.  g.  We  chew  food  with 
the  teeth ,  dentibus;  we  sail  through  the  sea  with  ships, 
navibus;  he  wasted  the  land  with  f  re  and  sword,  f  e  r  r  o 
i  g  n  i  q  u  e  ;  two  cliffs  are  formed  by  a  bridge ,  ponte;  the 
soul  acts  by  its  own  energy,  not  by  that  of  another,  v  i  s  u  a 
non  aliena. 

Here,  to  the  literal  signification  of  the  ablative  belong  pe¬ 
dibus  (with  the  feet),  classe,  classibus ,  navibus  (with  ships), 
equo  (with  a  horse).  Instead  of  this  literal  sense  of  the 
ablative,  we  say,  on  foot,  by  or  in  ships,  on  a  horse;  e.  g. 
I  travel  on  foot  (pedibus)  to  Italy  ;  I  travel  to  Greece  by 
ship  (classe). 

Remarks. 

(1)  Per  with  the  accusative  of  the  inanimate  means  or  instrument 
is  comparatively  rare.  It  is  used  particularly  to  convey  the  idea  of 
under  pretence  of,  or  when  a  deceptive  means  is  employed  ;  e.  g.  p  e  r 
fide  in,  under  pretence  of  fidelity  ;  per  causam  belli,  under  pretence 
of  war ;  per  insidias  interficere,  by  lying  in  wait.  But  the  abla¬ 
tive  also  occurs  in  this  connection.  In  other  instances,  it  may  often  be 
regarded  as  an  adverbial  phrase,  expressing  manner.  See  §  211.  Rem.  1. 

(2)  When  animate  beings  are  the  instrument  or  means,  per  is  used. 
The  question  is  then  asked,  by  means  of  whom  ?  e.  g.  By  me,  per  me; 
by  Cicero,  per  Ciceronem.  Often  also,  instead  of  per,  a  circumlocu¬ 
tion  by  means  of  a  substantive  in  the  ablative,  is  preferred,  as  opera ,  ope. , 
auxilio,  etc.,  and  these  substantives  are  often  joined  with  the  adjec¬ 
tive  pronouns  metis,  tuus,  etc.,  so  that  opera  mea ,  tua,  vestra ,  are 
equivalent  to  per  me,  per  te,  per  vos ;  e.  g.  I  have  been  relieved  from 
misery  by  your  father,  per  bum  p  a  t  r  e  rn  or  t  u  i  patris  a  u  x 


184 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[$  208. 

i  1  i  o.  Here  belongs  also  the  expression,  by  himself itself  (of  itself, 
without  the  cooperation  of  another) ;  e.  g.  Virtue  is  praiseworthy  of  it¬ 
self ,  per  se.  So  also  when  inanimate  objects  are  personified  ;  e.  g. 
By  you  (per  te),  0  religion. 

(3)  When  the  inanimate  means  merely  takes  the  place  of  the  effi¬ 
cient  agent,  it  is  also  expressed,  like  the  animate,  by  per  and  the  ac¬ 
cusative  ;  e.  g.  He  transacted  the  business  by  letter ,  per  1  i  1 1  e  r  a  s  fe¬ 
cit,  the  letter  became  the  agent,  instead  of  the  person  himself. 

Examples. 

The  Athenians  covered1  with  stones  a  certain  Cyrsilius, 
who  counselled2  evil.  The  watchmen  and  keepers  of  the 
temple  were  driven  back3  with  clubs4  and  stakes5.  Bulls  de¬ 
fend6  themselves  with  their  horns,  boars  with  their  tusks7, 
lions  with  their  bite8.  Romulus,  when  he  founded  the  city, 
marked  out9  the  boundaries10  with  a  lituus.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  senate,  to  assist  the  state  by  deliberation11.  Many  old 
men  have  pleased12  themselves  with  the  cultivation  of  land13. 
Athenagoras,  who  had  ventured  to  export  grain  in  a  famine, 
was  beaten14  with  rods.  Certain  towers  at  Cumae,  were  not 
only  struck  by  lightning,  but  even  shaken  down15.  It  is 
dishonorable  to  gain  the  good  will16  of  citizens  by  flatteries17. 
Jupiter  often  gave  signs  of  future  events18  to  the  Roman  state, 
by  fowls.  More  injury19  than  advantage  is  brought20  upon 
the  public  interests21  through  very  eloquent  men.  I  presume22 
you  are  afraid23  that  this  discourse  of  yours  may  get  abroad24 
through  our  means.  This  treachery25  was  prepared  for  Avi¬ 
tus  by26  Oppianicus  through  the  Fabricii.  The  Gauls  seized 
those,  by  whose  means27  they  supposed  the  people  to  have 
been  excited.  Lysander  so  indulged  himself,  that  by  his 
means  the  Lacedemonians  incurred28  the  very  great  odium  of 
Greece.  Through29  me  you  obtained30  his  friendship.  By 
you,  O  Eloquence  and  Poetry,  the  customs  are  improved31. 
Virtue  always  shines  by  itself.  Many  of  these  trees  were 
planted32  by  my  hand.  Varius  despatched33  Drusus  by  the 
sword,  and  Metellus  by  poison.  The  states  were  governed 
by  laws.  Tullus  transacted  the  business  by  means  of  slaves. 
In  nothing34  did  they  glory  more,  than  in  having  deceived35 
the  king  by  a  truce36  and  the  hope  of  peace.  Cicero  was 
banished  from  his  country  by  the  party37  of  Clodius. 

Cooperire.  2 suadens  (who counselled).  3  repellere.  4clava.  5fustis. 
6  tutari.  7  dens.  8morsus.  9  dirigere.  10regio.  11  consilium.  12  oblectare. 
13  ager,  14  caedere.  15  decutere.  16  benevolentia.  17  blanditiae.  18  casus. 
19  detrimentum.  20  importare.  21  res.  22  arbitrari.  23  vereri  (to  be  afraid). 
24 emanare  (to  get  abroad).  25  insidiae.  26  ab.  27  opera.  28  pervenire  in. 


ABLATIVE  OF  CAUSE. 


185 


$209,210.] 


29  opera.  30 accedere  in.  31  emollire.  32  serere.  33  tollere.  34  nulla  res. 
35  rex  deceptus  (abi.).  30  induciae.  37  socius. 

209.  (II.)  The  efficient  ground  or  cause  of  a  quality, 
state  or  action. 

But  here  it  is  to  be  noticed,  that  this  cause  may  be  either 
inanimate  or  animate.  From  this  distinction  arise  two  con- 
structions : 

(I)  When  the  inanimate  efficient  cause,  by  which  a  quality 
or  state  belongs  to  the  subject,  or  generally  by  which  some¬ 
thing  takes  place,  is  expressed,  the  ablative  without  a  prepo¬ 
sition  is  used  ;  e.  g.  Many  distinguish  themselves  by  learning , 
others  by  military  glory ,  multi  doctrina,  alii  be  1  lie  a 
laude;  he  is  wearied  by  labor,  labore;  this  man  died  by 
poisonous  plants,  plantis  venenatis.  Comp,  the  Abl.  in 
the  sense  of  on  account  of,  §  213.  4. 

Remark. 

This  idea  of  inanimale  cause  is  closely  related  to  that  of  means ,  inas¬ 
much  as  both  are  considered  as  effecting  some  end.  But  the  careful 
student  will  generally  be  able  to  distinguish  between  the  two.  The 
means  or  instrument  is  put  in  operation  by  some  external  agency  or 
force,  the  cause  contains  the  motive  power,  by  which  it  operates, 
within  itself ;  e.  g.  the  poison  is  considered  as  the  when  we 

say  :  He  was  put  to  death  by  poison  ;  but  as  the  cause ,  when  it  is  said  : 
He  died  of  or  by  poison,  i.  e.  the  poison  occasioned  his  death.  Some¬ 
times  the  two  ideas  coincide,  and  the  same  object  may  be  either  the 
means  or  the  cause,  according  to  the  point  of  view  from  which  we  re¬ 
gard  it.  Tlius  in  the  above  example,  learning  and  military  glory 
may  be  considered  both  as  the  means  by  which  many  acquire  dis¬ 
tinction,  and  the  cause  or  ground  of  that  distinction,  when  ac¬ 
quired. 

210.  (2)  When  the  efficient  cause  is  an  animate  being,  or 
at  least  is  considered  as  such,  a  is  used,  and  the  question  is 
here  asked,  by  whom  ?  e.  g.  The  world  was  made  by  God, 
a  De  o ;  everything  has  been  wisely  arranged  by  nature , 
a  natura,  because  here  nature  is  considered  as  a  person  ; 
had  it  not  been,  the  preposition  would  have  been  omitted. 

The  student  will  now  notice  the  general  distinction  between  a  with 
the  ablative,  per  with  the  accusative,  and  the  ablative  alone.  The 
originating  author  of  an  action,  from  whom  it  is  derived  and  proceeds, 

16* 


186 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[$211. 


is  expressed  (in  the  passive  construction)  by  a  witli  the  Abl.  ;  the  per¬ 
son  employed  as  a  means  for  its  accomplishment,  by  per  with  the  Acc. ; 
the  thing ,  either  as  means  or  cause,  by  the  Abl.  without  a  preposition. 

Examples  on  §§  209,  210. 

Many  things,  which  have  become  hard1,  dissolve2  by  fire. 
Jugurtha  was  taken  captive  by  Sulla.  At  that  time,  Crassus 
also  was  put  to  death  by  Surena,  the  general  of  the  Parthians. 
It  is  not  probable  that3  Fannius  did  this  from  malice,  and  that 
Roscius  was  deceived  by  inconsiderateness4.  Greece  was 
distinguished5  by  her  learning,  her  many  arts  and  military 
valor6.  Prosperity7  is  embellished8  by  friends,  adversity9 
mitigated10.  Wild11  beasts  are  often  moved12  by  singing. 
Reason,  by  which  alone13  we  surpass14  the  beasts,  is  common 
to  all  men.  All  men  are  united15  to  each  other,  by  a  certain 
natural  benevolence,  and  by  a  common  law.  We  are  pro¬ 
hibited  by  the  law  of  nature  from16  injuring17  others.  The 
earth  opens18  not  only  by  great  earthquakes19,  but  also  by 
great  rains20.  By  the  assistance21  of  a  ring,  Gyges  became 
king  of  Lydia.  By  the  care22  of  his  mother  Cornelia,  Tibe¬ 
rius  Gracchus  was  instructed  in  Grecian  literature  from  child¬ 
hood23.  Pains  are  mitigated24  by  long  continuance25.  Hard 
stones  are  excavated26  by  soft27  water.  Publius  Clodius  was 
murdered  by  Milo  near  Bovillae.  Reason  has  been  given  to 
many  men  by  nature.  We  are  all  influenced28  by  a  desire  of 
praise.  When  absent29,  you  are  praised  by  many,  when 
present,  by  all.  Marius  was  wearied30  by  hunger31  and  floods. 
This  people  is  not  troubled32  by  the  same  superstitions  as 
other  people.  Plancus  was  very  highly33  esteemed34  by  Aulus 
Torquatus,  a  most  venerable35  man.  Caesar  was  killed  by 
Brutus  with  a  weapon. 

1  durescere.  2  liquescere.  3  (acc.  with  inf.)  4  imprudentia.  5  florere. 
6  virtus.  7 res  secundae.  8ornare.  9 res  adversae.  10 sublevare.  11  im¬ 
manis.  12 flectere.  13  unus.  14praestare.  15  continere.  16quominus. 
17  violare.  18  discedere.  19  terrae  motus.  20  imber.  21  beneficium.  22  dili¬ 
gentia.  23a  puero.  24  mitigare.  25  vetustas  (long  continuance).  26 ex¬ 
cavare.  27  mollis.  28  trahere.  29  absens  (when  absent).  30  fessus.  31  ine¬ 
dia.  32 conflictare.  33  maxime.  34  diligere.  35 gravissimus. 

211.  (III.)  The  mode  or  manner ,  in  which  anything  takes 
place.  When  this  does  not  exist  in,  but  is  without  the  sub¬ 
ject,  it  is  considered  as  an  instrument  or  means,  and  is  trans¬ 
lated  by  the  ablative  without  a  preposition  ;  e.  g.  He  con - 


ABLATIVE  OF  MODE  OR  MANNER. 


187 


§211.] 

quered  the  city  with  violence ,  vi  (i.  e.  in  a  violent  manner) ; 
this  happened  justly  (unjustly),  jure  (injuria). 

But  when  the  mode  or  manner  in  which  something  takes 
place,  exists  in  the  subject,  and  denotes  a  frame  of  mind, 
then,  if  the  substantive  is  without  an  adjective,  the  preposi¬ 
tion  cum  is  joined  with  it;  e.  g.  The  people  lamented  with 
mourning  and  sighs,  c  u  m  luctu  et  gemitu.  But  when  there 
is  an  adjective  agreeing  with  the  substantive,  cum  can  be 
used  or  omitted  ;  e.  g.  I  have  read  this  with  great  pleasure , 
magna  voluptate,  and  magna  cum  voluptate. 
In  such  a  with ,  there  is  always  contained  a  proper  sentence 
with  and ;  e.  g.  They  lamented,  mourned  and  sighed ;  I  have 
read  this  and  rejoiced  much. 

Remarks . 

(1)  Instead  of  the  ablative  of  manner,  the  accusative  with  per  some¬ 
times  occurs.  But  these  cases  may  be  regarded  rather  as  adverbial 
phrases,  used  often  when  no  corresponding  adverbs  exist,  and  to  be 
imitated  with  caution  ;  e.  g.  Everything  is  hostile  to  me  by  the  highest 
injustice  (in  the  most  unjust  manner),  per  summam  injuriam;  op¬ 
pressively,  per  oppressionem;  disgracefully ,  per  dedecus;  treach¬ 
erously ,  per  insidias;  jestingly ,  per  ludum  et  jocum;  orderly ,  per 
ordinem.  Hence,  many  English  adverbs  are  expressed  in  Latin  by 
per  ;  e.  g.  Violently ,  per  vim;  artfully,  per  dolum;  angrily ,  per 
iram. 

(2)  The  ablative  also  denotes  the  mode  or  manner  in  which  some¬ 
thing  takes  place,  by  specifying  the  accompanying  circumstances  un¬ 
der  which  it  takes  place.  This  may  be  done  by  means  of  a  substantive 
joined  (1)  with  an  adjective  ;  e.  g.  tcith  a  favorable  wind,  secundo 
vento;  (2)  with  a  pronoun  or  numeral ;  e.  g.  with  this  purpose,  hoc 
consilio;  with  thirty  ships,  triginta  navibus;  (3)  with  a  par¬ 
ticiple,  or  a  substantive  in  its  place  ;  e.  g.  under  the  conduct  of  a  fa¬ 
ther,  patre  ducente  or  duce.  In  English  we  use,. in  these  cases, 
the  prepositions  with, under, on;  as,  on  this  condition,  ea  conditione. 

(3)  The  student  must  distinguish  the  accompanying  circumstance, 
from  the  accompanying  person  or  thing.  The  accompanying  circum¬ 
stance  can  be  expressed  in  the  ablative  without  a  preposition,  by  a 
substantive  having  an  adjective  agreeing  with  it.  The  accompany¬ 
ing  person  or  thing  is  denoted  by  the  ablative  with  cum.  In  this  case, 
the  preposition  expresses  the  idea  of  accompanying  or  fellowship,  in 
distinction  from  without  (sine),  and  does  not  contain  a  subordinate  idea, 
but  takes  the  place  of  the  conjunction  and,  or  the  preposition  together 
with  ;  e.  g.  The  physician  appeared  with  a  cup,  c  u  m  poculo ;  Romulus 
and  Remus  built  Rome ,  cum  Remo  ;  I  have  spoken  ivith  thy  brother , 
cum  fratre  tuo;  Alexander  waged  icar  with  Darius,  cum  Dario;  thou 
livest  on  friendly  terms  with  all  men,  cum  omnibus.  Yet,  in  the  mili¬ 
tary  phrase,  To  march  with  a  large  army,  and  the  like,  examples  are 


188 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§211. 

found,  even  in  Cicero,  and  still  more  in  Caesar  and  Livy,  where  cum 
is  not  expressed.  Hence,  magno ,  ingenti ,  expedito  exercitu  iter  facere, 
magnis  copiis  venire ,  and  even  without  an  adjective,  e.  g.  Equitatu. 

Verbal  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  are  an  exception  to  the  fore¬ 
going  rule  ;  they  may  stand  in  the  Abl.  without  cum ,  even  -when  no 
adjective  agrees  with  them  ;  e.  g.  fletu,  in  tears.  Care  should  be 
taken  in  the  use  of  cum ,  since  its  omission  will  often  essentially  vary 
the  idea ;  e.  g.  Scribo  dolore  is,  I  write  from  or  on  account  of 
pain;  Scribo  cum  dolore,  I  write  with  pain.  In  the  former  case, 
the  pain  is  the  reason  or  motive  of  my  writing ;  in  the  latter,  it  is  an 
accompanying  circumstance. 

Examples . 

Pompey  made1  peace  upon  the  sea2,  with  the  greatest  valor 
and  despatch.  Autronius  came  to  Cicero  with  many  tears, 
humbly  begging3,  that  he  would  defend  him.  We  have  used 
our  strength  with  all  care4,  and5  yet  nothing  is  effected  by  our 
strength.  Bessus,  when  he  had  killed  Darius,  fled  with  a  few. 
The  mortal  nature  often  seems  to  be  at  war6  with  the  im¬ 
mortal.  Miltiades  with  his  fleet  left  the  island  Paros.  With 
such  pride  you  will  not  be  able  to  have  a  friend.  The  soul 
of  man  will  not  perish  with  the  body,  but,  adorned  with  a 
new  body,  will  continue7  after  death.  Cicero  to  (with)  the 
great  joy  of  his  fellow  citizens,  returned  to  his  country.  The 
Macedonians  carried  on  war  many  years  with  the  Persians. 
I  have  deliberated8  with  you  sufficiently  about  this  thing. 
The  death  of  those  whose  life  is  praised,  ought  not  to  be 
passed  over9  in  silence.  I  have  written  three  books  in  verse10 
upon11  my  times.  The  blood  flows  on  all  sides12  in  rivulets13. 
The  assembly14  was  held  with  great  outcries15.  I  have  read16 
the  whole  book  with  the  highest  interest17.  A  sedition  of  the 
soldiers  was  excited  to  the  great  calamity  and  almost  destruc¬ 
tion18  of  the  state.  The  inhabitants  of  Minturnae19  accompa¬ 
nied20  Marius,  at  his  departure,  with  vows  and  tears.  Plancus 
travelled  to  Africa  with  Aulus.  Cicero  set  out21  for  Athens 
under  a  clear  sky.  An  injury  is  done22  in  two  ways,  either 
by  violence,  or  fraud.  Caesar  came  on  foot  to  Marseilles23. 
If  I  have  said  anything  jestingly,  do  not24  take  it  in  earnest25. 
The  Athenian  general  departed  from  Euboea  with  twenty 
ships  of  war.  With  your  good  leave26  and  that  of  this  truly 
excellent  man,  I  may  say  this.  Crassus  returned  home  with 
a  fever.  Under  these  patrons27  and  leaders,  with  the  gods 
assisting,  with  the  Roman  people  approving28,  we  shall  sure¬ 
ly29  be  free  in  a  short  time.  On  (with)  these  conditions  he 
made  peace.  Everything  will  not  perish  together30  with  us. 


§212.] 


ABLATIVE  OF  MATERIAL,  ETC. 


189 


What  disgraceful  deed31  did  not  Catiline  devise32  with  Autro¬ 
nius  and  Lentulus  !  When  the  Macedonians  were  carrying 
on  the  war  with  the  Persians,  they  came  unto  a  valley,  which 
they  filled  with  hideous33  cries.  He  arrived  at  the  sea  with  a 
retinue34  of  thirty  horsemen. 

1  conficere.  2 maritimus  (upon  the  sea).  3  supplex  (humbly  begging). 

4  cura.  5  neque  tamen  quidquam  (and  yet  nothing) .  6  pugnare  (to  be  at 
war).  7  permanere.  8  agere.  9  praeterire.  10(plur.).  11  de.  12  undique. 
13  rivus.  14  concio.  15  clamor.  16perlegere.  17  studium.  18  pernicies. 
19  Minturnenses  (inhabitants  of  Minturnae).  20  prosequi.  21  proficisci. 
22  fieri.  23  Massilia.  24  nolle.  25  in  serium  convertere  (to  take  in  earnest). 
26  venia.  27  auctor.  28  consentire.  29  profecto.  30  una.  31  flagitium  (dis. 
deed).  32  concipere.  33 horrendus.  34  comitatus. 

21  2.  (IV.)  The  ablative  stands  without  a  preposition  in 
answer  to  the  question,  Whereof  ? — to  designate  internal 
or  external  property  or  quality  ;  e.  g.  He  is  of  great  genius , 
magno  ingenio.  This  is  called  the  ablative  of  equality. 
See  §  192,  where  also  the  genitive  of  quality  is  referred  to. 

The  material  of  which  anything  consists,  sometimes  stands 
in  the  ablative ;  e.  g.  We  are  made  up  of  mind  and  body,  ani¬ 
mo  constamus  et  corpore,  but  a  preposition  is  more  fre¬ 
quent.  With  verbs  of  making  and  forming ,  the  material  is 
denoted  by  ex  ;  as,  aliquid  facere,  fingere  e  x  auro,  to  make 
something  out  of  gold.  For  the  Abl.  with  words  of  plenty 
and  want,  see  §  197. 

Remarks. 

(1)  If  the  father  or  mother,  of  idiom  a  child  has  been  born,  is  de¬ 
signated  by  of,  it  is  generally  expressed  by  ex  ;  but  with  participles 
ex  is  usually  omitted  ;  e.  g.  Cupid  was  the  offspring  of  this  Venus  and 
Mercury ,  ex  hac  Venere  et  Mercurio;  the  son  of  Jupiter, 
Jove  natus  (ortus). 

(2)  When  the  preposition  of  denotes  the  object  of  the  action  per¬ 
formed  by  the  subject,  de  is  used  ;  e.  g.  /  have  spoken  with  you  of  this 
thing,  d  e  hac  re  ;  wc  speak  of  God,  d  e  Deo. 

Examples. 

I  will  speak  with  you,  in  detail1,  of  all  those  things,  of 
which  you  have  deliberated2  with  me.  I  have  ascertained3 
many  things  of  the  condition4  of  the  state,  which  I  did  not 
ascertain  from  you.  That  Hercules  was  the  offspring5  of 
Alcmena  and  Jupiter.  Castor  and  Pollux,  born  of  a  mortal 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


190 


[§  213. 


mother,  were  regarded6  as  gods.  Caesar  spoke  of  the  victo¬ 
ries  by  which  he  had  been  honored. 

1  accurate  (in  detail).  2agere.  3comperire.  4status.  5nascor(tobe 
the  offspring  of).  6  habere. 

213.  (V.)  The  ablative  is  joined  to  nouns,  adjectives  and 
verbs  to  express  some  circumstances  by  which  they  are  more 
exactly  defined,  or  in  answer  to  the  question,  Wherein 1 

The  force  of  this  ablative  is  expressed  in  various  ways  in 
English. 

(1)  By  in.  The  ablative  here  usually  stands  without  a 
preposition  ;  e.  g.  To  excel  in  the  knowledge  of  things,  ex¬ 
cellere  (praestare,  florere)  cognitione  rerum;  Jupiter 
was  painted  in  a  royal  dress,  ornatu  regali;  in  my  (thy 
— )  name,  meo  (tuo)  nomine,  me  is  verbis;  also,  to 
conquer  in  battle,  proelio.  But  there  is  a  difference  be¬ 
tween  this  and  the  phrase,  to  fall  in  battle,  in  praelio 
cadere.  The  last  praelio  refers  to  place,  therefore  in  is  ex¬ 
pressed.  So  also  when  the  place  of  the  battle  is  named  ;  e.  g. 
In  the  battle  at  Marathon,  the  Grecians  were  victorious,  i  n 
Marathonia  pugna.  For  the  usage  with  names  of  places, 
see  §§  67—70. 

But  in  the  figurative  phrases,  e.  g.  To  be  in  danger ,  in  error,  in 
fear ,  in  anxiety,  the  preposition  in  must  not  be  omitted  ;  thus,  i  n 
periculo,  in  errore,  in  timore,  in  angore  esse  (versari).  But  when 
an  adjective  agrees  with  the  substantive,  in  may  be  omitted ;  e.  g. 
(i  n)  summo  periculo  esse.  In  the  phrases,  In  this  book ,  letter,  and 
the  like,  the  preposition  in  is  used,  when  something  is  mentioned 
which  occurs  in  the  book  or  letter,  but  of  which  the  whole  book  and 
the  whole  letter  does  not  treat;  on  the  contrary,  in  is  omitted,  when 
the  subject  of  which  the  whole  book  and  letter  treats,  is  mentioned. 

(2)  In  respect  to;  e.  g.  He  is  strong  in  (in  respect  to) 
mind,  mente  (animo);  lame  in  respect  to  his  feet,  or  in 
his  feet,  pedibus.  Here  belongs  the  ablative  nomine, 
in  such  expressions  as,  a  certain  man,  Claudius  by  name  (i.  e. 
in  respect  to  name),  quidam,  no  m  i  n  e  Claudius. 

(3)  According  to,  or  in  accordance  with  ;  e.  g.  According 
to  my  opinion,  mea  sententia;  according  to  my  judg¬ 
ment,  meo  judicio;  according  to  this  custom,  hoc  r  i  t  u, 
hoc  more;  the  first  in  (according  to)  order ,  or  dine, 


ABLATIVE  OF  RESPECT,  ETC. 


191 


§213.] 


Hence,  To  judge ,  to  weigh ,  to  measure  according  to  some¬ 
thing,  metiri,  ponderare  aliqua  re;  I  judge  him 
according  to  his  virtue,  virtute. 

Further,  in  phrases,  as,  To  live  according  to  nature,  where 
according  to  is  the  same  as  agreeable  to,  in  distinction  from 
contrary  to,  secundum  is  used  ;  hence,  Secundum  natu¬ 
ram  vivere. 

(4)  On  account  of.  Here  the  ablative  is  used  without  a 
preposition,  when  the  cause  why  anything  takes  place,  is  in¬ 
ternal,  existing  in  the  subject,  or  when  the  verb  with  which 
this  cause  is  connected,  denotes  a  state  of  the  mind  (e.  g. 
to  rejoice,  to  grieve ) ;  e.  g.  On  account  of  (from)  desire,  d  e- 
siderio;  on  account  of  hatred,  odio.  With  words  de¬ 
noting  the  state  of  the  mind,  we  sometimes  also  use  the  pre¬ 
position  for  ;  e.  g.  To  exult  for  (on  account  of)  joy,  exul- 
tare  laetitia;  to  rejoice  for  joy,  triumphare  gaudio. 
But  when  the  cause  why  anything  takes  place  is  external, 
not  existing  in  the  subject,  the  prepositions  ob,  propter,  de , 
are  generally  used  ;  e.  g.  On  account  of  theft,  ob  (propter) 
furtum.  Still,  even  in  this  last  case,  the  Latins  very  fre¬ 
quently  place  the  ablative  alone.  Thus  Cicero  says,  Guber¬ 
natoris  ars  utilitate  non  arte  laudatur,  on  account  of 
its  utility ,  and  not  on  account  oj  the  skill ;  hae  caerimoniae 
ea  conjunctione,  quae  est  homini  cum  Deo,  conser¬ 
vandae  sunt,  on  account  of  that  connection. 

(5)  Finally,  this  explanatory  ablative  may  be  sometimes 
rendered  by  from;  e.  g.  From  Jear,  metu;  from  love , 
amore;  from  custom,  consuetudine;  by  under,  e.  g. 
Under  the  pretence  of  friendship ,  simulatione  amicitiae ; 
under  the  name  of  tithes,  nomine  decumae  ;  by  at  or  when, 
expressing  the  relation  of  time,  e.  g.  We  grieve  at  the  de¬ 
parture  of  a  friend ,  decessu;  at  your  arrival,  tuo  ad¬ 
ventu;  when  the  sky  is  clear,  coelo  sereno;  also  when 
it  does  not  express  the  relation  of  time,  e.  g.  At  my  com¬ 
mand,  meo  jussu.  See  §  75. 


192 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 


[§  213. 


Examples. 

When  thou  buildest1,  do  not2  go3  beyond4  bounds5  in  ex¬ 
pense6  and  magnificence.  Caesar  was  seldom  conquered  in 
any7  battle.  Greece  was  distinguished8  in  learning,  in  very 
many  arts,  and  in  military  glory9.  Plancus,  the  son-in-law 
of  Torquatus,  was  like10  him  in  every11  virtue.  Men  are12 
often  in  the  greatest13  error,  and  in  ignorance  of  the  most 
important13  things.  What  will  that  man  do  in  darkness14, 
who  fears  nothing  except15  a  witness16  and  judge  ?  Greet17 
my  Tyro  in  our  name.  Men  differ18  in  many  things  from 
beasts.  Pleasure  was  painted  on  the  tablet19  in  the  most 
beautiful  attire20.  Conon  routed21  the  Persians  near  Cnidus, 
in  a  great  battle.  Hamilcar  was  killed  in  battle,  while  he 
was  fighting22  against  the  Vettones.  Men  judge23  many 
things  from  hatred,  or24  love,  or  desire,  or  passion25,  or  pain, 
or  joy,  or  hope,  or  fear,  or  some26  emotion27  of  the  mind. 
From  the  number  of  sparrows,  Calchas  predicted28  the  years 
of  the  Trojan  war.  He  is  not  a  good  man,  who  is  re¬ 
strained29  from  wickedness30,  by  fear  of  punishment. 

History  is  silent31  concerning  many  men,  who  were  dis¬ 
tinguished  in  respect  to  their  birth32.  Many  men  live  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  manner33  of  wild  beasts.  You  judge34  of  this 
book  only  according  to  its  rareness35,  not  according  to  its 
true  worth36.  In  my  opinion37,  piety  is  the  foundation38  of 
all  the  virtues.  All  tortures39,  in  their  external  appearance40, 
are  perhaps  greater,  but  in  the  inward41  pain42,  far  less,  than 
envy.  Both43  the  youth  were  similar  to  Castor  and  Pollux 
inform.  Love  of  country,  at  least44  in  my  opinion,  is  the 
greatest  virtue.  Many  judge45  of  everything  according  to 
pleasure  and  pain.  Dishonest  men  will  estimate46  everything 
according  to  their  advantage47.  Many  excel  in  beauty  and 
strength  of  body.  In  the  Persian  army,  there  were  three 
hundred  and  sixty-five  young  men,  equal48  in  number  to  the 
days  of  a  whole  year.  The  dead49  man,  whom  Gyges  had 
found,  had  a  gold  ring  on  his  finger50.  We  do  not  know 
what51  the  gods  are  in  body,  mind  and  life.  Children52  do 
many  things,  not  only  according  to  the  will  of  their  father, 
but  also  voluntarily53.  At  the  request54  of  Atticus,  Cornelius 
Nepos  wrote  a  book  concerning  the  life  and  character55  of 
Cato.  The  body  of  Darius,  at  the  command56  of  Alexander, 
was  buried  according  to  the  custom  of  his  country57.  Who¬ 
ever  sits58  meditating59  at  a  crowded60  table,  seems  uncivil, 
on  account  of  his  forgetfulness61  of  the  time  and  place.  The 


§  214.] 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


193 


Romans  exulted  for  the  joy  of  victory.  Under  the  name  of  a 
fleet,  money  was  demanded62  of  the  states63.  Catiline  gained64 
many  good  men  under  the  appearance65  of  a  pretended66  vir¬ 
tue.  Lucullus  showed67  himself  benevolent  at  his  first  coming. 
Comets68  appear  even  when  the  air  is  calmest69. 

1  aedificare.  2ne.  3  prodire.  4  extra.  5  modus.  6  sumptus.  7  aliquis». 
8  florere.  9  bellica  virtus.  10  par.  11  omnis.  12  versari.  13  magnus. 
14  tenebrae.  15  nisi.  16  testis.  17  salutare.  18  differre.  19  tabula.  20  vestb- 
tus.  21  fugare.  22  pugnans  (while  he  was  fighting).  23  judicare.  54aut. 
23  iracundia.  26  aliquis.  27  permotio.  28  divinare.  29arcere.  30facinus. 
31  tacere.  32  genus.  33  ritus.  34  judicare.  35  raritas.  36  pretium,  ^judi¬ 
cium.  38 fundamentum.  39  tormentum.  40  species.  41  intestinus,  ^cru¬ 
ciatus.  43  uterque.  44  quidem.  45  ponderare.  46  metiri.  47  commodum. 
48  par.  49  mortuus  (the  dead  man).  50  digitus.  31  qualis.  52  liberi.  53  sua 
sponte.  54rogatus.  53mores.  56jussus.  67  patrius  (of  his  country).  58as- 
sidere.  59  meditari,  "frequens.  61  inscitia.  62  imperare  (with  dative). 
63  civitas.  64  tenere,  "species.  66 assimulatus.  67  praestare.  68  cometes.. 
69  quietus. 

II.  Construction  of  verbs. 

Verbs  have  not  merely  the  power  of  governing  in  a  sen¬ 
tence,  but  they  are  also  themselves  governed,  since  not  only 
the  subject,  but  also  conjunctions  and  the  modification  of  the 
idea  which  the  sentence  contains,  have  an  influence  upon 
them. 

1.  NUMBER. 

214.  As  almost  all  verbs  can  become  predicates  of  a  sub¬ 
ject,  where  this  is  the  case,  the  verb,  as  predicate,  must  de¬ 
pend,  for  its  number,  on  the  subject.  Hence  a  singular  sub¬ 
ject  has  its  verb  in  the  singular. 

But  in  English,  we  have  some  plural  words,  which  in  Latin  are 
expressed  in  the  singular  ;  e.  g.  U  te  r  q  u  e,  both, ;  quotusquisque, 
how  many,  how  few ;  optimus  quisque,  all  the  truly  excellent ; 
sestertium  (declinable)  with  a  numeral  adverb,  a  million;  e.  g. 
Vicies  sestertium,  two  millions',  mille,  (a  thousand)  with  a 
genitive,  and  others  similar.  In  Latin,  the  singular  must  follow  all 
these,  even  in  the  relative  sentences  connected  with  them;  Both 
hastened  to  fight,  uterque  festinavit;  how  few  are  there  who  assert 
this,  quotusquisque  e  s  t,  qui  hoc  d  i  c  a  t  ?  It  is  both  of  us,  icho  say  this 
concerning  ourselves,  uterque  nostrum  e  s  t,  qui  hoc  de  s  e  dicit,  not 
de  nobis  dicimus.  For  uterque  with  the  genitive  of  a  person,  de¬ 
fining  it  more  minutely,  see  §  145.  Collective  words,  as  pars,  quisque , 
juventus,  which,  in  the  poets  and  many  prose  writers,  have  a  plural 

17 


194 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  214. 


verb,  in  Cicero,  Caesar  and  generally  in  the  best  writers,  are  joined 
almost  exclusively  with  a  singular  verb.  The  student  must  not  con¬ 
found  the  case  where  pars,  quisque ,  etc.  are  the  actual  subject,  with  that, 
where  they  are  merely  in  apposition  with  a  subject, expressed  or  implied, 
e.  g.  The  soldiers  provide,  each  one  for  himself ,  milites,  sibi  quisque, 
consulunt.  Here  the  subject  is  milites ,  and  quisque  is  in  apposition  ; 
hence  the  verb  is  in  the  plural. 

A  plural  subject  always  takes  the  plural.  Here  also  the 
English  often  differs  from  the  Latin,  since  it  has  many  words 
in  the  singular,  which  in  Latin  are  plural  ;  e.  g.  Divitiae,  of¬ 
ten  translated  wealth;  castra,  a  camp;  res  secundae,  pros¬ 
perity;  litterae,  a  letter;  nuptiae,  marriage;  scalae,  a  lad¬ 
der;  sarcinae  and  impedimenta,  baggage;  Athena e,  Athens; 
and  so  many  others.  In  Latin,  the  plural  must  follow  such 
words ;  e.  g.  The  camp  is  great,  castra  sunt  magna; 
Athens  delighted  me  much,  valde  me  Athenae  delec¬ 
tarunt. 

The  number  of  the  verb,  when  there  is  more  than  one 
subject,  has  been  treated  under  §§  63  and  64. 

Examples . 

Both1  cannot  obtain9  the  same.  All3  the  truly  wise  ac¬ 
knowledge4,  that5  there  is  a  God.  The  camp  itself,  which 
had  been  abandoned,  was  surrendered  to  the  enemy.  The 
camp,  which  before  had  been  pitched6  upon  a  high  mountain, 
is  now7  brought8  to  the  plain9.  How  few10  are  found  among 
philosophers,  who  agree11  respecting  this  matter19.  Both  of 
us  are  united13  by  the  same  studies.  Both  generals  departed, 
each  to  his  own  home.  By  the  bravery  of  Marcellus,  Syra¬ 
cuse  was  taken,  and  by  his  compassion14  it  was  preserved15. 
Where  are  the  two16  millions,  which  you  possessed17  after  the 
death  of  your  father  1  Under  such  circumstances18,  both  of 
us  can  be  secured19  in  our  resolution99  The  baggage  of  the 
Helvetii,  collected91  in  one  place,  was  taken99  by  the  Romans. 
My  last93  letter  seems  to  have  been  intercepted94. 

'uterque.  2adipisci.  3 sapientissimus  quisque  (all  the  truly  wise). 
4  confiteri.  5  (acc.  with  inf.)  6  positus.  7jam.  8  deferre.  9planum. 
10quotusquisque.  11  consentire  (subj.).  12 res.  13  devincire.  14  miseri¬ 
cordia.  15  conservare.  16  vicies  sestertium.  17  esse.  18  quae  quum  ita  sint 
(under  such  circumstances).  19 munitu».  20 consilium.  21  collatus, 
^capere.  23 proximus.  24 interceptus. 


§  215.] 


PERSONS  OF  THE  VERB. 


195 


2.'PERSONS  OF  THE  VERB. 

215.  The  Latins  distinguish  the  three  different  persons  in 
the  verb,  by  their  proper  endings,  o,  s,  t,  mus,  tis ,  nt,  so  that 
they  can  dispense  with  the  subjects  ego,  tu ,  is,  nos,  vos,  ii; 
yet  these  subjects  must  sometimes  be  expressed. 

(1)  When  two  persons  are  contrasted  with  each  other. 
This  contrast  is  often  denoted  by  such  words  as  but,  at  least, 
not,  either,  or,  not  only ,  but  also,  where  in  English,  stress  is 
then  laid  upon  the  pronouns  in  reading  ;  e.  g.  Thou  art  more 
desirous  of  this,  than  /am,  t  u  cupidior  es,  quam  ego  sum ; 
but  let  us  follow  nature,  nos  autem  sequamur. 

(2)  When  it  is  necessary  that  a  person  should  be  made 
somewhat  more  prominent,  or  be  more  definitely  distinguished, 
as  is  often  the  case ;  e.  g.  1  could  be  satisfied  with  the 
judgment  of  the  ancients,  ego  poteram  esse ;  should  you  not 
esteem  him  ?  hunc  t  u  non  diligas  ? 

In  the  above  examples,  the  I  and  you  are  emphatic,  and  are  accord¬ 
ingly  expressed  in  Latin.  Hence,  the  right  emphasis  upon  the  pro¬ 
nouns  in  English,  shows,  in  most  instances,  whether  they  are  to  be 
translated  or  not. 

Examples. 

I  favor  D.  Brutus,  you  Antonius.  I  wish1,  that2  the  city 
may  be  preserved3,  you  desire4  to  destroy  it.  How5  many 
things  the  painters  see  in  shade6,  which  we  do  not  see !  You 
do  not  love  our  Cato  more7  than  I.  We,  who  are  at  home 
seem  to  you  happy.  I  could  wish8,  that9  you  esteemed  my 
friends  as  highly10  as  I  esteem  thine.  I  return11  to  that  which 
I  had  omitted.  We  practised  the  poetic  art  later  than  the 
Grecians.  Shall12  I  not  esteem  him  highly  ?  Since  so  many 
men  leave  their  country,  why13  do  not  we  do  the  same  1 
Even14  if  others  do  not  do  this,  yet  you  certainly  will  do  it. 
I  have  banished13  kings,  you  have  introduced  tyrants.  The 
judge  does  not  always  hate  him,  whom  you  wish16.  If  we 
seem  to  all  to  be  foolish17,  will18  you  believe  the  same  1 

1cupere.  2  (acc.  with  inf.)  3  conservare.  4  studere.  5  quam.  6  umbra. 
7  plus.  8  velim.  9  (omitted  in  Lat.  and  the  verb  in  the  subj.).  10  (see 
§  153).  11  redire.  12  (subj.  of  diliggre,  shall  I).  13  quidni  (why  not). 


196  CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS  [§216. 

14  quodsi  (even  if).  15  ejicere.  16(subj.).  17  stultus.  18  (with  the  inter¬ 
rogative  nurn). 

216.  The  pronoun  ego  with  its  plural  nos  admits  the  verb 
only  in  the  first  person,  and  the  pronoun  tu  with  its  plural 
vos,  only  in  the  second  person  ;  but  the  other  pronouns,  es¬ 
pecially  qui,  quae,  quod,  according  to  the  person  of  the  words 
to  which  they  refer,  admit  the  verb  in  all  persons.  For  the 
person  of  the  verb,  when  two  subjects  of  different  person  (I, 
thou)  belong  to  the  verb,  see  §  65. 

The  above  mentioned  qui,  quae,  quod,  in  particular,  can 
take  after  it  all  persons.  As  it  is  a  relative  pronoun,  refer¬ 
ring  to  the  preceding  sentence,  when  it  stands  as  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  a  sentence,  it  must  be  in  the  same  person  as  the 
word  to  which  it  refers.  Hence  the  first  person  is  used, 
when  the  relative  refers  to  I,  the  second,  when  it  refers 
to  thou,  and  also  the  third  person,  when  it  refers  to  a 
word  of  the  third  person.  And  so  in  the  plural ;  e.  g.  This 
will  be  very  pleasing  to  me,  who  love  you  from  the  heart,  mihi, 
qui  te  ex  animo  amo  (not  amat);  this  will  be  very  pleas¬ 
ing  to  us  all,  who  love  you,  nobis  omnibus,  qui  te  ama¬ 
mus;  we  are  among  those,  who  deny  these  principles,  nos 
sumus  ii,  qui  negemus;  O,  how  unhappy  I  am,  that  I 
could  not  see  you  !  O  me  infelicem,  qui  non  potuerim. 

Examples. 

I  am  he,  who  favors  you  most1.  Thou  art  not  such2  an 
one,  as3  not  to  know4  what  he  was.  Ye  are  such  as  consid¬ 
er5  life  unpleasant6  without  these  studies.  Thou  believest, 
that7  I,  who  have  defended  him,  ought8  to  be  censured.  Thou 
hast  excited9  suspicion  against  me,  who  am  wholly10  blame¬ 
less.  How  can  we  punish  you,  who,  in  our  opinion,  have 
done11  no  evil  ?  I,  the  same  who  did11  all  those  things12  in 
silence,  am  now  interrupted13.  I  am  he,  who  sees  everything, 
and  measures14  the  long  year.  Thy  brother  has  obtained15,  the 
greatest  praise  by  us,  who  have  always  incited16  and  exhorted 
him.  I  will  judge  of  that,  if  I  am  only17  such  an  one,  as18 
can19  judge  of  it,  or  know  how20  to  judge.  What  shall  I  say 
of  us,  who  were  born  and  educated  for  praise  and  glory  ? 
We  are  among  those21,  who  always  advised22  peace. 


PERSONS  OF  VERBS. 


.197 


§§217,  218.] 

1  maxime.  2  is  (such  an  one).  3  qui.  4(subj.).  5  pulare.  6  insuavis. 
7  (acc.  with  inf.).  8  reprehendendum  esse  (ought  to  be  censured). 
9  commovere.  10  prorsus.  11  agere.  12  illae  omnes  res  (all  those  things). 
13  interpellare.  14  metiri.  15  consequi.  16  impellere.  17  modo.  18  qui. 
19  (subj.).  20  (omitted  in  Lat.).  21  ii  (among  those).  22  auctorem  esse. 

217.  When  English  infinitives  with  to,  ox  in  order  to  fe- 
pend  upon  another  verb,  and  are  translated  by  ut  or  qui,  those 
persons  must  be  used,  which,  when  the  clause  is  resolved,  ap¬ 
pear  as  subjects  with  that  or  in  order  that ;  e.  g.  We  do  not 

« 

need  much  to  live  (that  we  may  live),  utvivamus;  /  entreat 
you  to  go  there  (that  you  would  go  there),  u  t  illuc  eas; 
you  are  worthy  to  be  rewarded  (that  you  should  be  rewarded), 
qui  praemio  afficiamini. 

,  Examples . 

Temperance  admonishes1  us  to2  follow3  reason.  We  fol¬ 
low  these  precepts,  in4  order  to  live  without  anxiety  and  fear. 
He  taught5  all  these  things,  to  lead6  all  rational  men  in  the 
way  of  a  happy  life.  All  come  to  supper7  to  satisfy8  the  de¬ 
sires9  of  nature.  I  earnestly10  entreat  you  to4  do  this  as11 
soon  as  possible,  and  to  undertake  the  whole  affair.  I  asked 
them  to  love12  you,  and  to  count13  you  among14  their  friends. 
You  will  find15  this  youth  worthy  to16  be  loved  by  you.  Thy 
friendship  induced17  me  to18  write  to  you  immediately,  and 
inform19  you  of  everything  which  happened20  here.  The  Sicili¬ 
ans  asked  us  to  undertake21  this  for22  for  the  sake  of  their  honor. 

Monere.  2  ut.  3  sequi.  4  ut  (in  order  to).  5  praecipere.  6  deducere 
(imperf.).  7coena.  8  satiare.  9  desiderium.  10  vehementer.  11  quam 
primum  (as  soon  as  possible).  12  diligere.  13  habere.  14  in  numero. 
15  cognoscere.  16  qui  (instead  of  ut).  17  commovere.  18  (ut  and  the  im¬ 
perf.).  19  certiorem  facere  (comp.  §  §  150andl84).  20geri.  21  suscipere. 
22  causa  (for  the  sake  of). 

218.  The  Latins  frequently  use  the  second  person  singu¬ 
lar  and  plural,  and  also  the  first  and  third  person  plural,  to 
denote  persons  in  general,  i.  e.  in  making  general  statements ; 
e.  g.  Cernas,  you  (any  one)  might  see ;  si  consideres, 
if  you  (any  one)  consider ;  we  (men  in  general)  live,  nor  do 
we  know  how  long,  vivimus  nec  scimus,  quam  diu  ; 
dicunt,  they  (indefinite)  say.  The  English  one,  as  the 
subject  of  a  verb,  is  very  often  expressed  by  the  second  per- 

17* 


198  CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS.  [§219. 

son  singular.  The  subjunctive  is  almost  always  used  where 
one  is  thus  expressed  ;  e.  g.  C  e  r  n  a  s,  one  might  see.  When 
a  pronoun  refers  to  one  thus  expressed,  it  is  in  the  second 
person. 

The  second  person  plural  is  used  more  rarely  in  this  con¬ 
nection.  The  first  person  plural  is  used  in  expressing  a  wish 
and  exhortation ,  where  the  speaker  wishes  to  include  himself; 
e.  g.  Co  g  i  t  e  m  u  s,  let  us  think.  The  third  person  plural 
is  used  in  such  indefinite  phrases  as,  they  say ,  they  relate ,  d  i- 
c  u  n  t,  narrant. 

The  Latin  often  expresses  such  general  statements  by  the 
third  person  singular  of  the  passive,  where  we  use  the  active; 
e.  g.  They  (men)  live ,  vivitur;  they  dream ,  somniatur; 
they  fight ,  pugnatur,  etc.  The  expressions,  if  one ,  when 
one ,  in  case  one ,  may  often  be  denoted  by  the  present  partici¬ 
ple  ;  e.  g.  When  one  is  active  (i.  e.  to  the  active),  no  day  is 
long ,  agenti;  if ,  or  in  case  one  is  punishing ,  he  ought  not 
to  he  angry ,  punientem  non  decet. 

Examples. 

We  do  not  see  God,  and  yet  we  know  him  from  his  works. 
Before  one  begins,  there  is  need1  of  deliberation2,  and  when 
he  has  deliberated3,  of  prompt4  action5.  Then,  when  the 
battle  was  over6,  one  might  have  seen,  how  great  daring7  and 
resolution8  there  was  in  the  army  of  Catiline.  I  know  not 
why  we  believe  dreams.  Let  us  go  to  the  villa  of  Cicero. 

1  opus  esse.  2  consultum.  3  consulere.  4  mature.  5  factum.  6  confec¬ 
tus.  7  audacia.  8  vis  animi. 

3.  DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  VERBS. 

219.  Respecting  the  different  signification  of  verbs  with 
the  ending  o,  it  was  stated  in  the  first  Part  of  this  book,  that 
some  of  them  are  transitive,  others  intransitive  or  neuter,  and 
that  the  former  have  an  accusative,  but  the  latter  do  not  ad¬ 
mit  one. 

Both  classes  of  verbs  have  passive  forms,  but  of  a  different 
kind. 


DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  VERBS. 


§  220.] 


199 


(1)  Transitive  verbs,  which  take  an  accusative,  have  a  per¬ 
sonal  passive,  since  the  object  standing  in  the  accusative  in 
the  active  sentence,  whether  referring  to  a  person  or  thing, 
becomes  the  subject  of  a  passive  sentence ;  e.  g. 

I  love  you. — Active. 

Thou  art  loved  by  me. — Passive. 

Alexander  conquered  Darius. — Active. 

Darius  was  conquered  by  Alexander. — Passive. 

Cimon  routed  these  forces. — Active. 

These  forces  icere  routed  by  Cimon. — Passive. 

So  in  Latin  : 

Ego  amo  te,  or  te  amo. 

Tu  amaris  a  me. 

Alexander  Darium  vicit. 

Darius  ab  Alexandro  victus  est. 

Cimon  has  copias  fudit. 

Hae  copiae  a  Cimone  fusae  sunt. 

Therefore,  the  accusative  of  the  active  sentence  becomes,  in  the 
passive,  the  passive  subject  of  the  verb, — passive,  because  it  does  not 
act  of  itself,  but  something  good  or  bad  happens  to  it  from  another. 
Hence  every  active  sentence,  which  contains  a  subject  and  an  object 
in  the  accusative,  can  become  a  complete  passive  sentence. 

The  student  should  make  himself  familiar  with  the  mode  of  chang¬ 
ing  such  active  sentences  into  passive  ones.  Examples  for  practice 
have  been  given  above,  §  43. 

220.  (2)  Intransitive  verbs  have  only  an  impersonal  pas¬ 
sive.  For,  as  they  have  no  accusative,  which  in  the  passive 
could  become  their  subject  and  nominative,  their  passive  also 
has  no  subject,  either  referring  to  a  person  or  thing.  Hence 
the  personal  form  of  the  third  person  singular  of  such  passive 
verbs,  is  used  impersonally,  and  is  considered  as  neuter  with¬ 
out  a  subject,  and  cannot  be  considered  otherwise. 

Therefore  the  Latin  verb  ire  has  in  the  passive: 

i  t  u  r,  it  is  gone  ; 

i  b  a  t  u  r,  it  was  gone  ; 

i  t  u  m  e  s  t,  it  has  been  gone. 

In  English,  we  more  frequently  render  such  forms,  they 
go,  went,  have  gone. 


200 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  220. 

So  likewise  the  passives  of  all  those  verbs,  which  do  not 
govern  an  accusative,  but  some  other  case,  e.  g.  a  dative  or 
an  ablative,  or  are  constructed  with  a  preposition,  have  no 
definite  subject.  Such  verbs  retain  also  in  the  passive  the 
same  cases  which  they  govern  in  their  active  form. 

•  Thus,  in  the  active,  He  obeys  me ,  paret  mihi; 

in  the  passive,  It  is  obeyed  to  me,  I  am  obeyed,  p  a- 
retur  mihi. 

But  since  many  Latin  verbs,  which  belong  here,  are  trans¬ 
lated  into  English  by  transitive  ones,  and  these  English  verbs 
govern  an  accusative,  which  in  the  passive  becomes  the  sub¬ 
ject-nominative,  therefore  this  English  nominative,  in  Latin, 
must  be  in  that  case,  which  the  verb  governs ;  e.  g. 

He  envies  me,  invidet  mihi; 

I  am  envied,  invidetur  mihi; 

He  envied  us,  invidit  nobis; 

We  were  envied,  invisum  est  nobis; 

He  plays  ball,  ludit  pila  (abi.) ; 

Ball  is  or  was  played,  p  i  1  a  (abi.)  lusum  est. 

So  also  an  auxiliary  verb,  possum,  soleo,  coepi,  and  the  like, 
joined  with  such  impersonal  passives,  can  be  used  only  in  the 
third  person  singular ;  e.  g.  /  can  be  envied,  mihi  invide¬ 
ri  potest.  This  has  been  more  particularly  treated  above, 
§  171. 

As  the  auxiliary  verb  can  be  joined  with  the  infinitives  of 
such  passives  only  in  the  third  person,  so  also  with  the  infini¬ 
tives  of  the  proper  impersonals,  e.  g.  pudere,  poenitere.  I  can 
repent,  me  poenitere  potest;  we  have  ceased  to  repent,  nos 
poenitere  desiit,  not  possum,  desivimus. 

It  is  further  to  be  observed,  that  I  began  or  have  begun ,  is  expressed 
not  only  by  coepi,  but  also  by  coeptus  sum;  /  ceased  or  have 
ceased ,  not  only  by  d  e  s  i  v  i  (desii),  but  also  by  desitus  sum. 
The  active,  coepi  and  desivi  stand  in  active,  and  coeptus  and  desitus 
sum,  in  passive  sentences;  e.  g.  The  JEqui  at  first  began  to  be  con¬ 
quered,  coepti  sunt  vinci;  he  ceased  to  be  called  Fusius ,  d  e  s  i- 
tus  est  nominari.  Nevertheless,  in  many  writers,  the  active 
forms  occur  in  passive  sentences,  but  not  in  Cicero  and  Caesar. 


§221.] 


DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  VERBS. 


201 


Examples  on  §§  219 — 220. 

These  fields1  are  called  the  meadows  of  Quinctius.  News 
were  brought2  to  Rome,  that3  the  consul  was  besieged4. 
Without  the  help  of  the  gods,  we  shall  be  conquered.  When 
the  chiefs5  were  slaughtered6,  no  one  of  the  Romans  was 
spared;  their  houses  were  plundered7,  and  fire  was  set8  to 
them  when  empty9.  The  age  of  young  men  is  not  only10  not 
envied,  but  is  even11  favored12.  I  wish,  that13  the  Samnites 
and  Pyrrhus  himself  could  be  persuaded.  I  have  never  been 
able  to  be  persuaded  by  money.  No  labor  will  be  spared. 
All  my  friends  have  been  convinced.  Men  are  often  ruled14 
more  severely15  and  cruelly16,  than  dumb  beasts.  Avaricious 
men  will  be  most  easily  persuaded  by  plenty17  of  money. 
The  conquered  citizens  were  spared  by  Marcellus.  The 
state  of  the  Athenians  was  severely  punished18.  We  are  re¬ 
quested19  to  undertake  this  business.  Three  men  were  sent 
to  Athens,  and  they  were  commanded20  to  transcribe21  the 
famous22  laws  of  Solon.  The  credulous  can  be  easily  per¬ 
suaded.  That  consul  began  at  first  to  be  called  Furius.  I 
am  assisted23  by  all.  My  life  is  sought24.  Why  do  we  give 
commands25,  that  human  blood  should  be  spared?  The 
praise  and  glory  of  men  are  wont  to  be  especially26  envied. 
After  Cicero,  most  of  the  discourses  of  the  ancient27  orators 
ceased28  to  be  read.  We  never  ceased  to  repent  of  the  war, 
which  had  been  begun29.  He  was  severely30  punished18,  by 
whom  dice31  was  played.  Since  that  time,  I  have  perceived, 
that3  l  began  to  be  especially32  regarded33,  honored  and  es¬ 
teemed34  by  you. 

1  ager.  2  afferre.  3(acc.  with  inf.).  4  obsidere.  5  principes.  6  trucida¬ 
re.  ’diripere.  8  injicere  alicui.  9  exhaustus.  10  modo.  11  etiam,  ^fave¬ 
re.  13  ut.  14  imperare.  15  graviter.  16 dure.  17 magnitudo,  ^animadver¬ 
tere  in  aliquem.  19petere.  20  jubere.  21  describere.  22  inclitus,  ^adju¬ 
vare.  24pet6re.  25  praeceptum,  “maxime.  27 antiquus.  28  desinere. 
29  coeptus  (which  had  been  begun).  30  graviter.  31  alea,  ludere  aliqua 
re  (to  play  something).  32  imprimis.  33  observare.  34  diligere. 

221.  Deponent  verbs  also,  as  they  have  an  active  significa¬ 
tion  and  a  passive  form,  require  a  peculiar  construction,  when 
in  English,  the  verb  is  expressed  passively.  Since  in  Latin 
they  have  no  passive,  every  such  passive  sentence  must  be 
changed  into  an  active  one ;  e.  g.  /  have  been  encouraged  by 


202 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS, 


[§222. 


my  father ,  i.  e.  my  father  has  encouraged  me,  pater  me 
exhortatus  est;  I  was  forgotten ,  i.  e.  they  forgot  me, 
me  oblivisce  b  antu  r  (m  e  obliti  sunt). 

Examples. 

I  cannot  now1  be  overtaken2  by  you.  These  verses  have 
been  badly  translated3  by  you.  This  painting4  will  always 
be  admired5  by  us.  Everything  has  been  promised6  to  me 
by  the  physician.  The  Helvetii  were  attacked7  by  Caesar. 
I  have  been  totally8  forgotten  by  you.  What  is  promised  you 
by  me,  and  will  be  promised,  I  shall  certainly  perform9. 
The  city  Rome  was  a  second  time10  threatened11  by  the  Gauls. 
The  credulity  of  foolish  men  is  often  abused12  by  bad  men. 
He  is  most  admired,  who  is  not  influenced13  by  money.  Land 
and  water  animals14  are  eaten15  by  us.  Nothing  great  can 
be  obtained2  without  great  labor. 

1jam.  2  consequi.  3  interpretari.  4  tabula  picta.  5  admirari.  8  pollice¬ 
ri.  7  adoriri.  8 plane.  9  praestare.  10  iterum.  11  minari.  12  abuti.  13  move¬ 
re.  14  bestia  terrena  et  aquatilis  (land  and  water  animal).  15  vesci. 

4.  TENSES  OF  THE  VERB. 

222.  Time  has  a  three-fold  relation,  present,  past,  and  fu¬ 
ture.  An  event  denoted  by  the  verb  must  belong  to  one  of 
these  three. 

Present  absolute  is  scribo. 

i 

Past  absolute  is  scripsi. 

Future  absolute  is  scribam. 

Yet  every  present,  past  and  future  action  or  event  can  be 
again  considered  either  as  continuing  (cotemporary),  or  ac¬ 
complished,  in  relation  to  another  connected  with  it. 

The  Latin  language  has  appropriate  single  forms  for  these 
different  relations,  three  for  actions*  continuing,  and  three  for 
those  accomplished. 

This  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table. 

*  By  action  is  meant  anything  that  takes  place,  either  actively  or 
passively. 


TENSES  OF  THE  VERB. 


203 


§§  223—225.] 

Continuing 
in  the  past : 
scribebam, 
1  icas  writing  ; 
accomplished : 
scripseram, 
/  had  written. 


Continuing 
in  the  present : 
scribo, 

I  am  writing  ; 
accomplished  : 
scripsi, 

I  have  written. 


Continuing 
in  the  future  : 
scribam, 

/  shall  be  writing  ; 
accomplished  : 
scripsero, 

I  shall  have  written 


REMARKS  ON  THE  SEVERAL  TENSES. 

(a)  Tenses  denotin g  the  continuance  of  the 
action. 

223.  An  action  continuing,  can  be  either  in  the  present, 
past  or  future.  For  this  threefold  relation,  therefore,  there 
must  also  be  three  tenses.  These  are  : 

>  I.  The  Present. 

The  present  denotes  an  action,  which  is  in  the  present 
time,  i.  e.  in  that  time,  in  which  any  one  speaks  or  writes, 
etc. ;  e.  g.  1  read  or  am  reading  this  booh,  lego  librum. 
Here  the  action  spoken  of  \s  present  to  the  speaker. 

224.  Moreover,  this  tense  is  often  used  by  historians  in  de¬ 
scribing  things  already  past,  instead  of  a  perfect,  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  representing  the  ideas  more  vividly,  especially  when 
the  actions  are  performed  with  some  degree  of  ardor,  and 
either  take  place  in  quick  succession,  or  even  simultaneously  ; 
e.  g.  The  tumult  reaches  (penetra  t )  from  the  camp  even  to 
the  city,  the  affrighted  Vtjentes  run  (currunt)  to  arms,  a 
part  go  (e  u  n  t)  to  the  Sabines  for  aid,  another  part  attack 
(adoriuntur)  the  Romans  with  violence.  This  historical 
present  occurs  also  in  English,  in  spirited  narration. 

The  conjunction  dum,  while,  frequently  stands  with  the  present, 
when  the  actions  are  past,  for  the  purpose  of  a  more  vivid  representa¬ 
tion  ;  e.  g.  While  the  Alban  army  are  crying  out  to  the  Curiatii,  Hora¬ 
tius  had  already  gone  to  the  second,  combat.  Comp.  §  2!>4. 

Yet  this  construction  is  employed,  only  when  the  principal  event 
occurs  within  the  time  of  the  other,  not  when  both  events  are  wholly 
cotemporaneous,  in  which  case‘  dum  oftener  signifies  as  long  as,  and 
is  joined  with  the  imperfect. 

225.  The  present  is  often  employed  in  Latin,  where  we, 
in  English,  use  the  imperfect.  This  happens  especially  in 
dependent  sentences,  although  the  principal  sentence  contains 


204  CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS.  [§§  226, 227. 

a  present  and  speaks  of  something  present.  See  more  on  this, 
§  256. 

This  is  the  case : 

(1)  In  such  phrases  as,  It  would  be  too  tedious ,  it  were  too 
tedious ;  I  could ,  followed  by  but.  Here  the  Latins  speak 
definitely  in  the  indicative  present ;  longum,  immensum,  mul¬ 
tum  est;  possum;  e.  g.  It  would  be  tedious  (longum  est) 
to  enumerate  the  battles ;  I  could  (possum)  mention  still 
more ,  but - .  Comp,  also  §  270. 

226.  (2)  In  statements  and  questions  implying  the  possibili¬ 
ty,  doubt  and  propriety  of  an  action  ;  e.  g.  Who  would  not  love 
virtue  ?  quis  virtutem  non  a  m  e  t  ?  who  could  bear  those  men  ? 
quis  istos  ferat?  why  should  I  mention  the  multitude  of 
arts  ?  quid  enumerem  artium  multitudinem  ?  This  pre¬ 
sent  subjunctive,  however,  frequently  corresponds  with  the 
English  future  or  present  potential ;  e.  g.  Who  can  or  toill 
doubt  that  riches  consist  in  virtue  ?  quis  dubitet?  where 
can  or  will  you  fnd  that  man  who  prefers  the  honor  of  his 
friend  to  his  own  ?  ubi  istum  invenias?  Shall  I  not  go  ? 
non  earn? 

227.  (3)  In  hypothetical  sentences,  i.  e.  in  sentences 
where  a  case  is  supposed  or  admitted,  we  often  use  an  im¬ 
perfect.  But,  where  the  possibility  of  a  supposition  is  ad¬ 
mitted,  the  Latin  employs  the  present ;  on  the  other  hand, 
the  imperfect,  when  what  is  supposed  is  impossible ;  e.  g.  If 
you  should  ash  me  this ,  I  could  perhaps  answer  nothing ,  si 
me  hoc  roges,  nihil  fortasse  respondeam;  if  God  ivere 
(esset)  unrighteous ,  he  woidd  punish  (poena  afficeret) 
the  innocent  also.  If,  therefore,  the  idea  is,  If  this  or  that 
happens,  then  some  other  event  might  happen,  a  present  is 
used  ;  but  if  the  idea  is,  If  this  or  that  were ,  or  should  happen 
(but  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  speaker,  is  not,  and  does 
not  happen),  some  other  event  would  happen,  then  the  im¬ 
perfect  is  used.  In  a  clause  with  than  if  or  just  as  if  ( ac  si), 
accompanying  a  sentence  expressed  in  the  present,  the  im- 


§  228.] 


TENSES. - PRESENT. 


205 


perfect,  and  not  the  present,  is  used  ;  since  this  clause  con¬ 
tains  only  something  conceived  of ,  and  not  real  and  true  ;  e.  g. 
I  recommend  to  you  all  his  affairs ,  just  as  if  they  ivere  my 
own,  non  secus,  ac  si  mea  essent,  not  s  i  n  t. 

228.  In  expressing  a  wish,  in  cases  possible  and  doubtful , 
the  Latin  employs  the  present,  first,  where  the  present  only  is 
thought  of,  and  second,  where  something  is  wished  for,  which 
is  still  possible.  But  when  something  impossible  or  vain  is 
wished  for,  especially  in  reference  to  what  has  already  taken 
place,  and,  therefore,  the  wish  can  be  no  longer  gratified,  the 
imperfect  is  used  ;  e.  g.  I  wish  you  would,  or  I  would  be  glad, 
if  you  icould  write  to  me,  velim  mihi  scribas  (this  is  still 
possible) ;  I  could  wish  you  had  written  to  me,  vellem  mi¬ 
hi  scripsisses  (this  is  no  longer  possible) ;  I  could  wish 
ice  could  say  the  same,  vellem  nobis  hoc  idem  liceret 
(he  considers  it  impossible) ;  I  could  wish  you  had  said, 
vellem  diceretis  (they  had  said  something  different 
from  what  he  wished).  I  wish,  I  hope,  that  fortune  has 
taken  nothing  from  you ,  is  expressed  by  velim  ne  quid  for¬ 
tuna  tibi  eripuerit,  when  I  do  not  yet  know,  whether  it  has 

happened;  but  by  vellem - eripuisset,  when  I  know 

that  it  has  taken  something.  I  hope  that  my  father  is  still  alive , 
utlnam  pater  vivat!  when  there  is  no  news  as  yet  of  his 
death;  utmam  pater  viveret!  when  he  is  really  no  longer 
alive,  and  the  wish  is  expressed,  that  he  were  still  alive. 
Hence  one  is  represented  in  the  times  of  Caesar,  exclaiming 
among  the  statues  of  the  elder  Brutus,  who  had  been  long 
dead:  Utmam  viveres!  O  that  you  were  still  alive! 
Therefore  the  expression,  I  wish  he  would,  or  1  hope  he  will 
come,  must  be  translated,  utmam  veniat,  when  he  is  ex¬ 
pected  ;  but  utmam  veniret,  when  the  wish  is  vain ,  and 
his  coming  is  neither  expected,  nor  even  possible.  I 
hope  he  has  come!  utmam  venerit,  when  it  is  not  known, 
whether  he  has  come,  but  he  is  expected;  but  utmam  ve¬ 
nisset,  when  it  is  known,  that  he  has  not  come,  where  his 

18 


206 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  '229. 


coming  may,  or  may  not,  have  been  expected.  The  wish  is, 
therefore,  vain.  In  like  manner,  If  you  wished,  is  expressed 
by,  si  velis,  when  the  person  perhaps  wishes  something,  or 
at  least,  can  wish  something;  but  si  velles,  when  he  does 
not  wish  anything,  or  cannot  wish.  Therefore  the  wish,  ve¬ 
lim,  stands  in  connection  with  a  present  or  perfect,  but  vel¬ 
lem,  with  an  imperfect  or  pluperfect. 

II.  Imp  e  rf  e  ct. 

229.  The  imperfect  denotes  an  action  or  event  in  time 
past,  cotemporancous  with  another,  and  moreover  continuing 
at  the  time  of  the  other. 

This  tense  does  not  stand  in  connection  with  the  present. 
As  it  relates  to  the  past,  it  is  sometimes  connected  with  the 
narrative  historical  perfect,  which  is  its  most  general  usage ; 
sometimes  with  the  pluperfect,  and  sometimes  also  with  an 
imperfect. 

But  the  English  imperfect,  except  the  periphrastic  form,  I 
was,  etc.,  with  the  present  participle,  e.  g.  I  was  speaking, 
does  not  always  denote  that  one  action  is  cotemporaneous 
with  another,  inasmuch  as  we  use  it  also  in  narration,  as  a  his¬ 
torical  tense.  We  say,  using  our  imperfect,  Alexander  con¬ 
quered  Darius  ;  Romulus  built  Rome.  Although  neither  the 
conquering  nor  the  building  took  place  at  once,  but  continued 
for  many  years ;  yet  these  events,  as  they  are  expressed  in 
the  form  of  narration,  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  continuing, 
or  as  unaccomplished  in  the  past,  because  nothing  is  men¬ 
tioned,  which  took  place  during  their  continuance.  Hence 
they  cannot  be  translated  into  the  Latin  also  by  an  imperfect, 
but  by  a  perfect,  vicit,  condidit.  When  an  action  is  to  be 
expressed  in  the  imperfect,  it  is  considered  as  unaccom¬ 
plished  in  the  past,  still  continuing  in  it,  and  interrupted  by 
another  action.  The  period  of  continuance  may  be  repre¬ 
sented  by  a  line - ,  upon  which  either  another  event  falls 

( - j-),  or  to  which  another  is  wholly  parallel  (  ~) ;  e.  g. 


TENSES. - IMPERFECT. 


207 


§§230,  231.] 

When  I  teas  sitting  (imperfect)  in  the  garden ,  a  stone  fell 
(perfect)  down.  When  I  ions  sitting  (imperfect)  in  the  gar¬ 
den,  my  sister  was  (imperfect)  busy.  In  both  sentences,  the 
state  denoted  by  the  word  sitting,  is  considered  as  continu¬ 
ing  and  not  yet  accomplished  while  another  took  place. 
The  first  would  be  represented  by  the  first  of  the  above  char¬ 
acters  ( - [-),  and  the  second  by  the  parallel  lines  (  — — ). 

230.  The  imperfect  is  used,  therefore  : 

( 1 )  In  principal  and  subordinate  sentences ,  which  represent 
an  action  that  was  still  continuing ,  and  not  yet  accomplished, 
when  another  intervened  or  took  place;  e.  g.  When  Alexan¬ 
der  was  passing  over  (cum  transiret)  to  Asia,  no  obsta¬ 
cles  obstructed,  (obstiterunt)  his  way.  When  1  was  read¬ 
ing  (cum  legerem)  in  this  booh,  my  brother  came  (venit) 
to  me.  The  pirates  were  sailing  (nav  igabant)  with  Bac¬ 
chus  to  Asia,  but  he  changed  (mutavit)  the  mast  and  rud¬ 
der  into  serpents.  In  these  three  sentences,  the  passing  over, 
the  reading  and  sailing,  are,  in  reference  to  the  obstruction, 
the  coming  and  the  changing,  cotemporaneous  but  incomplete 
events.  In  the  last  sentence,  the  sailing  was  not  yet  finished, 
but  still  continued,  when  the  changing  took  place.  It  might 
also  be  expressed  :  When  the  pirates  were  sailing - Bac¬ 
chus  changed - . 

In  narration,  the  Latin  often  omits  the  conjunction,  in  the 
first  clause,  and  places  it  before  the  principal  clause  which 
follows  ;  but  the  time  is  not  thereby  changed  ;  e.  g.  The  crim¬ 
inal  was  stretching  (porrigebat)  his  neck,  when  the  king 

appeared  (apparuit)  - , instead  of,  When  the  criminal 

was  stretching  his  neck,  the  king  appeared - .  There  were 

(e  r  a  n  t )just  thirty  days,  when  I  wrote  this  letter - ,  in¬ 
stead  of,  When  there  were  just  thirty  days,  I  wrote - . 

Tarquin  was  preparing  (parabat)  to  surround  the  city 
with  a  wall,  when  the  Sabine  king  interrupted  (intervenit) 
his  undertaking.  Comp.  §  239. 

231.  (2)  The  imperfect  is  further  used  in  principal  senten- 


208 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  232. 


ces,  which  are  so  connected  with  a  subordinate  sentence,  that 
both  events,  take  place  entirely  within  the  same  time,  conse¬ 
quently  two  past  events  still  continuing  together,  and  parallel  in 
time ;  e.  g.  While  my  brother  was  writing  (s  c  r  i  b  e  b  a  t)  a 
letter ,  I  was  sitting  (sedebam)  idle.  When  Caesar  was 
(esset)  in  winter  quarters,  reports  were  frequently  brought 
(afferebantur)  to  him.  Nevertheless  the  perfect  also  is 
often  used  here,  denoting  cotemporaneous  action. 

232.  (3)  The  imperfect  also  stands  in  principal  sentences, 
when  customs,  habits,  admitted  opinions  and  principles,  be¬ 
longing  to  a  subject  of  past  time,  are  specified.  For  then  the 
writer  does  not  speak  of  what  has  happened  only  once,  but  of 
that  which  is  often  repeated,  which  is  accustomed  to  be  done  ; 
e.  g.  The  ancient  Germans  were  careful  (studebant)  to 
harden  themselves  from  their  very  childhood.  Socrates  main¬ 
tained  (censebat,  i.  e.  was  wont  to)  that  the  soul  was  im¬ 
mortal.  Cimon  was  (e  r  a  t)  uncommonly  generous. 

Hence  this  tense  is  especially  used  in  delineating  character, 
and  when,  in  descriptions  of  battles,  countries  and  other  ob¬ 
jects,  something  is  to  be  represented,  as  it  was  at  the  time  re¬ 
ferred  to. 

Such  a  continued  and  repeated  action  or  condition,  cotem¬ 
poraneous  with  a  principal  clause,  is  found  in  phrases  like 
the  following:  Could  I  indeed  fear  this  (at  that  time)? 
Could  I  believe  that  I  should  be  feared?  These  are  express¬ 
ed  by  :  Ego  timerem?  Ego  crederem?  So  also : 
What  could  I  do?  quid  agerem?  Could  I  refuse  this  ? 
hoc  ego  repudiarem?  You  might  or  could  believe,  cre¬ 
deres;  then  you  could  perceive,  cerneres,  videres. 
Tum  vero  is  used  with  these  to  strengthen  them.  Who  would 
then  dare  to  say  this?  quis  turn  hoc  auderet  dicere? 
As  these  sentences  contain  nothing,  which  took  place  before 
something  else,  the  pluperfect  cannot  be  used. 

(4)  The  imperfect  is  used  in  intermediate  and  adjunct 
clauses,  which  denote  an  action  that  was  cotemporaneous 


TENSES. - IMPERFECT. 


209 


§  232.] 

with  another,  but  cannot  be  considered  as  completed  before  the 
other.  In  English,  we  often  use  here  the  pluperfect;  e.  g. 
When  Hamilcar  had  come  to  Carthage ,  he  found  the  state 
far  different  from  ichat  he  expected ,  or  had  expected ,  multo 
aliter  ac  sperabat;  Caligula  boasted  to  Caesonia ,  waked 
from  sleep,  of  what  he  had  done ,  while  she  had  been  asleep , 
(dum  meridiaret,  not  m  e  r  i  d  i  a  s  s  e  t)  at  noon-day  ; 
we  icould  not  have  done  this ,  if  ice  had  supposed ,  si  arbi¬ 
traremur,  not  arbitrati  essemus;  those  men  would 
not  have  honored  the  gods,  unless  it  had  been  in  their  hearts, 
nisi  in  eorum  mentibus  haereret,  not  haesisset. 
There  is,  therefore,  need  of  caution  in  regard  to  the  English 
pluperfect.  For  the  imperfect  indicative  instead  of  the  plu¬ 
perfect  subjunctive,  see  §  (270,  a.) 

But  it  is  here  to  be  remarked,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the 
Latins  often  use  the  imperfect  in  introductory  clauses,  where 
the  pluperfect  seems  to  be  necessary,  because  something  al¬ 
ready  accomplished  is  spoken  of,  which  is  prior  to  the  action 

in  the  principal  sentence  ;  e.  g.  When  he  had  asked - he 

said - ,  instead  of  which  we  often  say,  When  he  asked - 

he  said - .  This  usage  seems  to  have  been  adopted,  when 

the  second  event  follows  the  other  immediately;  because  by 
using  the  pluperfect,  some  time  is  imagined  between  the  two 
events.  Hence  in  such  cases,  an  abridged  expression,  by 
means  of  the  participle  of  the  same  time  as  the  other  event 
or  in  the  present,  can  be  employed,  §  453  (2).  In  other  places, 
on  the  contrary,  the  same  idea  is  expressed  by  the  pluperfect, 
even  when  both  events  are  simultaneous;  e.  g.  When  Hiero 

had  asked  (asked)  Simonides  what  God  was,  he  demanded - , 

and  when  on  the  following  day  he  again  asked,  he  inquired 

- ,  Hiero,  quurn -  quaesivisset,  postulavit 

- .  Q,uum  idem  quaereret  - ,  petivit ;  When  some 

one  had  said  to  Laelius -  He  replied  - ,  Laelius, 

quum - diceret - ,  inquit;  when  the  messenger 

saw  (had  seen )  the  commander  slain,  he  said - ,  nuntius 

18* 


210 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  233,  234. 


quum  imperatorem  prostratum  videret,  dixit - ;  where 

indeed  both  ideas,  that  he  had  seen  and  was  still  seeing ,  are  con¬ 
tained. 

Finally,  in  conditional  sentences,  a  Latin  would  say  :  Li¬ 
brum  emissem,  si  haberem,  if  I  neither  then  had  money, 
nor  now  have ;  but,  si  habuissem,  if  I  had  no  money  then, 
but  now  have. 

III.  The  Future. 

233.  The  future  denotes  an  action  continuing,  and  still  in¬ 
complete,  in  the  future  ;  e.  g.  My  father  will  be  reading  the 
letter,  pater  leget.  In  this  example  the  action  is  consid¬ 
ered  as  future,  and  also  continuing  in  that  time.  But  here  a 
conjecture  only  is  expressed  without  any  efforts  being  made 
to  accomplish  the  thing.  Hence,  this  tense  sometimes  de¬ 
notes  the  future  merely  absolutely,  without  any  idea  of  the 
continuance  of  the  action  ;  e.  g.  Thou  wilt  break  the  leg, 
fr  anges;  he  will  enter  the  office,  inibit. 

234.  But  the  future  is  frequently  employed  in  Latin,  where 
we  use  the  present ;  especially  in  subordinate  sentences, 
which  are  not  dependent ;  in  all  general  precepts  or  instruc¬ 
tions,  when,  in  the  principal  sentence,  a  future  or  an  impera¬ 
tive,  or,  instead  of  this,  a  present  subjunctive  stands ;  e.  g. 
Whoever  wishes  (volet)  to  obtain  true  glory,  let  him  perform 
(fungatur)  the  obligations  of  justice ;  perhaps  still  more 
will  be  written  by  us,  if  life  is  prolonged  (suppetet);  we 
shall  obtain  this,  if  we  are  cautious  (cavebimus);  if  you 
wish  (voletis),  you  will  find  this ;  I  will  explain  this,  as 
well  as  I  can  (potero);  be  courageous,  if  a  contest  is  to  be 
engaged  in  (subeunda  erit).  And  so  in  phrases,  as,  What 
wilt  thou  answer,  if  I  ask  thee  ?  I  will  call  you  when  it  is 
time  ;  I  will  go  where  my  fortune  carries  me.  Especially  is 
the  future  of  v  e  1 1  e  and  posse  often  used,  where  the  Eng¬ 
lish  employs  the  present.  But  if  in  the  English  present,  no 
futurity,  as  in  the  principal  sentence,  is  to  be  denoted,  the  future 


TENSES. - PERFECT. 


211 


§§  235, 236.] 

tense  is  not  admissible  ;  e.  g.  If  you  judge  me  unjustly ,  I  will 
condemn  you ,  this  is  expressed  by,  si  iniquus  e  s  in  me  judex, 
if  he  has  already  judged  (as  Cic.  Fam.  II,  1),  but  si  eris, 
-if  he  is  yet  to  judge. 

So  also  must  a  present  infinitive,  with  the  verbs  to  hope ,  to  promise , 
and  others  similar,  be  expressed  by  a  future  infinitive,  when  the  idea 
of  futurity  is  contained  in  it;  e.  g.  I  hope  to  spend  the  winter  there , 
spero  me  ibi  hibernaturum;  I  promised,  to  help  him ,  me  eum 
adjuturum,  (see  §  402).  And  so  in  certain  English  phrases:  / 
go  (i  b  o)  to-morroic  ;  my  brother  comes  (veniet)  in  the  morning . 

(h)  Tenses  denotin  g  actions  co  mp  l  eted. 

235.  These  include  all  events,  which  are  completed  before, 
or  are  prior  to,  some  other  event.  Here  also  there  is  a  three¬ 
fold  relation  of  time.  The  accomplishment,  or  priority  of 
time  can  be  regarded  as  present,  or  past,  or  future.  Hence, 
there  are  here  also  three  tenses,  which  are  evidently  related 
to  each  other  in  form.  These  are  the  following  : 

I.  The  Perfect. 

236.  The  perfect  properly  denotes  an  event  prior  to  the 
present  time,  but  completed  in  the  present ;  e.  g.  / have  writ¬ 
ten  the  letter ,  epistolam  scripsi.  By  this  I  wish  to  say,  I 
have  now  finished  writing  the  letter.  In  English,  we  can  ex¬ 
press  such  an  idea  only  by  our  perfect,  not  by  an  imperfect. 
Therefore,  where  we  speak  in  the  perfect,  an  event  that  has 
just  happened,  is  intended,  and  accordingly  no  account  of 
it  is  given  previous  to  that  time. 

But  as  this  now ,  or  the  present  period,  is  constantly,  from 
hour  to  hour,  and  from  time  to  time,  moving  further  forwards, 
the  perfect  has  at  length  received  a  general  and  more  histori¬ 
cal  sense,  and  accordingly  denotes  any  action  considered  as 
complete,  and  not  as  continuing.  It  can  therefore  be  called 
the  Aorist  Perfect.  The  Greek  here  uses  the  Aorist,  and  we 
our  imperfect.  Hence  in  principal  propositions,  all  com¬ 
pleted  actions  are  expressed  by  this  tense.  We  do  not  here 
think  of  a  continuance,  or  frequent  repetition,  or  interruption, 


212 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS.  [§§  237 - 239. 

or  that  another  action  is  to  follow  the  accomplishment  of  the 
one  stated.  As  in  English,  we  here  make  use  of  the  imper¬ 
fect,  there  is  therefore  need  of  care  in  translating  ;  e.  g.  Cae¬ 
sar  determined  (constituit)  to  cross  the  Rhine ;  the  enemy 
hastened  (petierunt)  to  the  nearest  forest ;  we  afterivards 
went  (contulimus)  home ;  Tar  quin  came  (venit)  to  Rome ; 
Romulus  built  (condidit)  the  city.  For  its  difference 
from  the  imperfect,  comp,  above,  §  229. 

237.  This  narrative  perfect  is  used  for  the  most  part  in 
principal  propositions,  and  describes  an  action  which  occur¬ 
red,  either  during  another,  which  stands  in  the  imperfect,  or 
after  another,  which  stands  in  the  pluperfect ;  e.  g.  While  the 
Tribunes  were  doing  (agerent)  this  hastily ,  messengers  came 
(venerun  t)  from  Tusculum  ;  while  he  was  driven  back  by 
the  crowd ,  silence  was  commanded  (factum  est);  when  the 
Decemvir  had  shouted  (intonuisset)  this,  the  crowd  sep¬ 
arated  (dimovit )  of  their  own  accord . 

238.  In  clauses  beginning  with  a  conjunction,  the  perfect 

is  rarely  used,  yet  almost  wholly  with  the  particles  of  time, 
postquam,  ut,  ubi,  simulae,  after  that,  when,  as  soon 
as,  if  in  the  principal  clause  a  perfect  is  used,  and  an  action 
is  described  as  already  completed,  which  is  followed  by  an¬ 
other  ;  e.  g.  When  Virginius  nowhere  saw  (vidit)  any  aid 
he  said - ;  as  soon  as  (u  b  i)  this  icas  announced  (nun¬ 

tiatum  e  s  t)  at  Rome,  the  consul  immediately  departed  ivith 
the  army ;  after  (postquam)  they  heard  this,  Quinctius 

said - .  Comp.  §  273.  For  quum  with  the  perfect,  see 

both  §  239  and  §292,  Remark. 

239.  As  the  sentences  with  quum,  when,  while,  are  gene¬ 
rally  only  dependent  sentences,  to  which  the  principal  sen¬ 
tence  refers,  the  usual  time  in  these  is  either  the  imperfect, 
denoting  contemporary  action,  or  the  pluperfect,  denoting 
prior  action.  But  if,  by  the  removal  or  inversion  of  the  con¬ 
junction  quum,  the  sentences  are  as  it  were  interchanged, 
(see  §  230),  nevertheless  in  the  preceding  and  apparently  the 


TENSES. - PERFECT. 


•213 


§§240,  241.] 

principal  sentence,  the  imperfect  or  pluperfect  without  the 
conjunction,  is  used,  and  quum  is  followed  by  the  perfect  or 
the  historical  present,  indicating  the  true  principal  sentence; 
e.  g.  Valerius  was  already  commanding  (jubebat)  the 
Liclors  to  withdraw ,  when  (quum)  Appius  returned  (r  e  c  e- 

p  i  t)  to  his  house ,  for  quum  jam  Valerius - juberet, 

Appius - se  recepit.  Comp.  §§  230  and  244.  This 

is  always  the  case,  when  with  the  adverb  now  (jam)  or  scarce¬ 
ly  (vix,  vixdum)  or  just,  (commodum,  tan  turn 
qu  od),  an  event  is  stated  to  define  the  time  of  the  following 
event.  In  such  instances  the  principal  sentence  with  quum 
follows  the  other,  and  the  verb  is  in  the  perfect  or  in  the  his¬ 
torical  present. 

Instead  of  the  pluperfect,  which  can  be  used  where  there 
is  such  a  transposition  of  the  conjunction  (see  §  230),  the 
perfect  also  is  frequently  employed  to  give  animation  to  the 
discourse,  and  is  followed  by  the  spirited  present  for  the  per¬ 
fect,  but  only  with  quum.  Thus  there  is  in  Cicero  the  fol¬ 
lowing  narration  :  When  he  had  come  into  the  temple  of  Cas¬ 
tor ,  and  had  declared  to  the  consul  that  the  omens  were  unfetr 

vorable,  the  crowd  at  once  exclaim - ;  therefore  in  Latin, 

Venit  in  templum  Castoris,  obnuntiavit  consuli,  quum 
subito  manus  illa - exclamat,  where  both  of  the  pre¬ 

ceding  single  clauses  make  the  narration  more  spirited. 

240.  When  the  perfect  is  used  in  adjunct  and  intermedi¬ 
ate  clauses,  it  refers  to  more  transient  actions,  in  which 
there  is  no  lively  conception  of  the  continuance  of  the  action 
at  that  time  ;  e.  g.  He  made  (f  a  c  i  e  b  a  t)  his  way,  wherever 
he  went  (i  b  a  t),  with  the  sword,  until  he  reached  the  gate  (ad 
portam  perrexit);  you  will  say  that  Syracuse  was  found¬ 
ed  by  that  man  icho  took  (cepit)  it,  but  was  taken  by  him 
who  received  (accepit)  it  when  organized. 

241.  The  perfect  indicative  of  debere,  oportere,  and  the 
like,  when  followed  by  an  infinitive  present,  is  translated  by 
our  ought,  and  the  infinitive  by  our  infinitive  perfect ;  e.  g. 


214 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  242,  243. 

Themistocles  did  not  suffer  the  injustice  which  he  ought  to 
have  suffered ,  quam  ferre  debuit;  this  money  ought  to  have 
been  given  to  the  Sicilians  (dari  oportuit).  Comp.  §  (270, 
a.),  where  other  cases  are  mentioned. 

The  perfect  subjunctive  must  also  often  be  used  for  the 
pluperfect  subjunctive,  when  it  does  not  describe  an  event 
completed  before  the  one  connected  with  it,  but  rather  an 
event  cotemporary  with  the  other.  Here  indeed  the  imper¬ 
fect  also  can  be  employed ;  e.  g.  Was  (an  fuit)  there  any  one  at 
that  time ,  who  would  have  defended  him  ?  qui  eum  defen¬ 
derit?  not  defendisset;  no  one^was  an  enemy  of  the 
country ,  who  teas  not  my  enemy ,  quin  mihi  inimicus  fuerit, 
not  fuisset;  I  have  heard  no  one ,  who  spoke  more  reproach¬ 
fully,  qui  criminosius  diceret,  not  dixisset. 

242.  Finally,  the  Latins  frequently  use,  but  generally  only 
in  principal  clauses,  the  perfect  subjunctive  instead  of  the  pres¬ 
ent,  to  denote  ability  and  permission ;  e.  g.  Perhaps  some  one 
might  say,  fortasse  dixerit  quispiam ;  in  almost  all  things 
I  could  sooner  say  (dixerim),  what  is  not ,  than  what  is  ; 
I  too  would  rather  learn  (didicerim),  than  censure  (rep¬ 
rehenderim)  you.  So  with  nc ,  when  one  wishes  to  pre¬ 
vent  or  hinder  something,  the  perfect  is  used  as  an  impera¬ 
tive  ;  e.  g.  Do  not  do  this ,  hoc  ne  f  e  c  e  r  i  s ;  do  not  hesitate 
to  send ,  ne  dubitaris  mittere. 

The  perfect  subjunctive  is  frequent  in  prohibitions  of  this  kind,  when 
the  prohibition  relates,  not  to  continuing  actions,  habits  or  permanent 
states,  but  to  single  actions  of  instant  or  rapid  accomplishment,  or  mo¬ 
mentary  states  ;  e.  g.  Do  not  cross  the  river ,  ne  trans  i  er  is;  do  not 
stir  a  step  anywhere ,  nusquam  te  vestigio  moveris. 

II.  The  P  lupe  rf  ect. 

243.  The  pluperfect  denotes  an  action,  which  took  place 
before  another  past  action,  and  therefore  always  refers  to  an¬ 
other  event  also  past,  which  follows  it.  It  occurs: 

(1)  In  sentences  beginning  with  a  conjunction,  containing 
an  event,  which  took  place  before  another ;  e.  g.  When  he 


§§  244,  245.] 


TENSES. - PLUPERFECT. 


215 


pidus  had  lain  down,  he  said,  Lepidus  quum  recubuisset 

- inquit.  The  actions,  lain  down  and  said  are  both  past ; 

but  the  lying  down  is  prior  to  the  saying,  which  follows  it. 

But  it  has  already  been  stated  above,  §  232,  in  explaining 
the  use  of  the  imperfect,  that  the  Latins,  even  in  such  intro¬ 
ductory  sentences,  sometimes  use  the  imperfect,  as  well  when 
the  second  event  immediately  follows  the  first,  as  when  the 
first  is  to  be  considered  as  still  continuing  at  that  time.  Hence, 
where  there  is  a  change  to  the  abridged  participial  construc¬ 
tion,  the  participle  of  the  present  can  be  used  for  the  pluper¬ 
fect  tense.  And  it  has  also  been  stated  above,  §  238,  that 
some  particles  of  time,  as  postquam,  ubi,  etc.,  when  they  de¬ 
note  an  action  that  occurs  before  another,  do  not  take  a  plu¬ 
perfect,  but  a  perfect, except,  when  in  the  principal  sentence, 
there  is  an  imperfect  or  a  pluperfect,  or  when  the  sentence,  in 
which  these  particles  are  found,  is  a  more  definite  explanation 
of  another,  but  is  not  an  introductory  sentence.  Comp,  on 
this  §  273. 

244.  (2)  The  pluperfect  is  used  in  principal  clauses,  where 
the  action  is  wholly  cotemporary  and  equally  completed  with 
that  of  the  introductory  clause.  Both  events  are  past,  but 
both  also  are  completed  at  the  same  time  ;  e.  g.  When  I  had 
read  (legissem  or  legeram)  my  book,  my  brother  also 
had,  read  (legerat)  his. 

The  pluperfect  is  further  used  in  such  principal  sentences, 
as  are  so  connected  with  a  sentence  beginning  with  a  con¬ 
junction,  that  the  apparently  principal  sentence  should  pro¬ 
perly  be  the  introductory  sentence,  and  the  sentence  begin¬ 
ning  with  a  conjunction,  the  principal  sentence;  e.  g.  Al¬ 
ready  had  the  report  of  the  unsuccessful  engagement  arrived 
(perlata  erat),  when  (q  uum)  new  hope  appeared  (a  ff  u  1- 
s  i  t ;  they  had  not  yet  heard  (e  r  a  t  an  d  i  t  u  m),  that  you 
had  come  to  Italy,  when  (q  u  urn)/  sent  (m  i  si)  Villius  to 
you  with  this  letter.  Comp,  above,  §  239. 

245.  (3)  The  pluperfect  is  used  in  subordinate  clauses, 


216 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  246. 


which  give  the  reason  of  another  past  action,  and  hence  be¬ 
gin  with  nam ,  quia  and  the  like;  e.  g.  For  he  had  been  in 
his  way ,  while  he  was  bashing,  offecerat  apricanti.  For 
the  cause  is  prior  to  the  effect.  In  English,  we  here  often 
use  the  imperfect.  It  is  so  also  in  sentences  like  this  :  No¬ 
thing  had  happened  to  Polycrates  (acciderat),  which  he 
did  not  wish,  except  that  he  had  thrown  his  ring,  which  he 
loved,  into  the  sea,  nisi  quod  —  abjecerat.  And  so 
also  in  conditional  sentences  ;  as,  V  Croesus  had  ever  been 
(fuisset)  happy,  he  might  have  led  (pertulisset)  a  hap¬ 
py  life  to  the  day  of  his  death. 

(4)  The  pluperfect  is  used  in  relative  clauses,  when  some¬ 
thing  is  stated  in  them,  which  took  place  prior  to  what  is 
stated  in  the  principal  clause.  Sometimes,  in  English,  an 
imperfect  is  used  here ;  e.  g.  Themistocles  did  the  same, 
which  Coriolanus  did  (fe  c  e  r  a  t,  not  faciebat)  among  us 
twenty  years  before. 

III.  The  Future-perfect. 

246.  The  future-perfect  denotes  an  action  completed  in 
the  future ;  e.  g.  I  shall  have  written,  scripsero.  The 
action  is  indeed  in  the  future,  but  it  is  conceived  of  and  re¬ 
presented  as  completed  in  the  future.  With  such  events 
there  is  usually  connected  another  later  future,  or  an  impera¬ 
tive,  or  a  subjunctive  used  imperatively,  which  also  contains 
the  idea  of  futurity.  We  sometimes  translate  the  future-per¬ 
fect,  by  our  perfect  indicative,  sometimes  by  the  present  or 
the  simple  future ;  e.  g.  When  you  have  read  (legeris)  the 
book,  send  (mitte)  it  to  me;  when  I  have  ivrittcn  the  letter 
(scripsero),  I  will  come  (veniam)  to  you  ;  the  more  persons 
we  benefit  or  shall  benefit  (profuerimus),  the  more  friends 
we  shall  have.  The  one  is  a  future  continuing ,  the  other 
completed,  and  prior  to  the  first.  And  so  in  laws,  which  com¬ 
mand  something  future,  where  a  past  tense  is  used,  it  is  al¬ 
ways  the  future-perfect;  e.  g.  Whoever  is  sacrilegious,  ought 


§§  247 — 249.]  tenses. — future-perfect.  217 

to  be  execrated ,  qui  sacrilegus  f u  e  r  i  t  (whoever  shall  have 
been). 

247.  It  does  not  follow  from  what  is  said  above,  that  a  fu¬ 
ture  must  always  be  connected  with  a  future-perfect.  For 
the  sake  of  vivacity,  the  present  may  be  used,  or  a  future  may 
be  expressed  in  another  manner ;  e.  g.  If  I  shall  have  effected 
(profecero)  nothing ,  still  I  am  (sum)  full  of  courage  r 
if  I  shall  find  (invenero)  no  house  which  pleases  me,  I  have 
determined  (decrevi)  to  live  with  you,  i.  e.  I  will  then  live 
with  you,  as  I  have  determined. 

248.  Moreover,  it  does  not  follow,  that  a  future  of  the 
principal  sentence  must  have  a  future-perfect  in  the  sentence 
connected  with  it  by  a  conjunction ;  this  latter  sometimes 
contains  a  simple  future,  when  only  cotemporary  and  con¬ 
tinuing  actions  are  described  in  the  future ;  e.  g.  We  will 
speak  (loquemur)  of  these  matters,  when  we  are  (eri¬ 
mus,  not  fuerimus)  at  leisure.  Comp.  §  234.  But  some¬ 
times  either  a  future-perfect  or  a  future  is  admissible  and 
proper.  Thus  Cicero  says  (Fam.  VI.  22,  6) :  Si  quid  ad 
me  scripseris,  ita  faciam,  ut  te  velle  intellexero;  sin  au¬ 
tem  tu  minus  scripseris,  ego  tamen  omnia,  quae  tibi  utilia 
esse  arbitrabor,  summo  studio  curabo ;  where  for  intel¬ 
lexero,  also  i  n  t  e  1 1  i  g  a  m  might  have  been  used,  and  for 
arbitrabor,  also  arbitratus  ero. 

249.  The  future-perfect  is  usually  found  in  introductory 
sentences  with  a  conjunction,  since  the  principal  sentence 
denotes  an  action,  which  is  assumed  as  following  the  accom¬ 
plishment  of  the  first  named.  So  it  is  in  the  examples  under 
§  246.  But  often  the  principal  sentence  also  contains  an 
action  which  is  to  be  considered  as  completed  at  the  same 
time  with  the  other,  in  the  future ;  where  therefore  the  re¬ 
sult  is  immediately  connected  with  the  action  itself,  and  takes 
place  during  its  accomplishment.  Both  actions  therefore 
proceed  together,  and  are  accomplished  at  the  same  time ; 
e.  g.  When  you  have  (shall  have)  finished  your  letter,  I  also 

19 


218 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  250, 251. 


shall  have  finished  mine ;  whoever  shall  crush  (shall  have  crush¬ 
ed — oppresserit)  Antony ,  will  (will  have)  put  an  end 
(confecerit)£oa  most  cruel  war;  you  loill  confer  (will  have 
conferred)  a  very  great  favor  (pergratum  f  e  c  e  r  i  s)  on  me,  if 
you  will  take  care  (curaris)  of  that ;  you  will  very  greatly 
increase  (auxeris)  your  merit,  if  you  will  do  ( f  e  c  e  r  is)  this. 
These  and  similar  forms  of  gratum  facere  in  this  tense  are 
found  very  frequently  in  the  thirteenth  book  of  Cicero’s  letters. 
We  say  more  frequently,  Thou  wilt  confer,  instead  of  Thou  wilt 
have  conferred.  But  the  construction  would  be  different,  if  the 
signification  were,  It  will  he  pleasing  to  me,  e  r  i  t,  not  fu- 
erit;  e.  g.  Id  si  correxeris,  mihi  valde  gratum  erit. 
This  tense  therefore  is  proper  also  in  phrases,  such  as,  He 

will  deserve  well  of  this  place,  who - ,  meruerit  de  hoc 

loco,  qui,  followed  by  the  future-perfect. 

250.  This  tense  sometimes  occurs  also  in  Cicero  for  the 
other  future,  when  the  action  is  considered  as  prior,  rather 
than  cotemporary  with  the  action  of  the  principal  sentence, 
since  the  speaker  does  not  transfer  himself  to  the  time  in 
which  he  will  do  something,  but  directly  to  the  time  in  which 
he  wishes  it  already  done.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with 
posse,  velle,  licere,  placere,  etc.  Hence  so  often,  si  potue¬ 
ro,  si  voluero,  si  placuerit,  si  licuerit,  for  si 
potero,  volam,  placebit,  licebit. 

It  is  particularly  to  be  observed,  that  in  English,  instead  of  this  tense, 
i.  e.  our  second  future,  we  very  often  employ  a  present,  or  a  perfect,  or  a 
first  future;  hence  there  is  need  of  caution  in  translating  into  Latin. 
Thus,  in  the  following  sentences  :  If  you  take  from  nature  (shall  take) 
the  binding  influence  of  benevolence,  no  house  can  sta  nd  ;  If  I  hear  (shall 
hear)  anything  more  certain  respecting  this ,  I  will  inform  you  ;  how  will 
you  be  able  to  be  a  friend  to  any  one ,  unless  you  are  attracted  by  love  ; 
if  the  sick  man  takes  (will  take)  this  remedy ,  he  will  be  restored  to  health. 
In  all  these  examples,  the  Latin  would  use  the  future-perfect. 

Additional  Remarks  on  the  Tens  es. 

(251.  a.)  As  time  is  only  threefold,  present,  past  and  fu¬ 
ture,  every  state  or  action,  which  is  denoted  by  a  verb,  must 
fall  within  one  of  these  three  periods.  It  must  either  be 


§251.] 


TENSES. - ABSOLUTE  AND  RELATIVE. 


219 


now,  present  to  the  writer  or  speaker,  or  before  in  the  past, 
or  after  in  the  future. 

But  a  state  or  an  action  can  be  considered  and  represented, 
either  by  itself,  as  absolute,  without  any  relation  to  another, 
or  as  relative,  in  relation  to  a  second. 

There  are  only  three  absolute  tenses,  one  of  the  present, 
one  of  the  past,  and  one  of  the  future. 

1.  Absolute  present ,  e.  g.  scribo,  I  write. 

2.  Absolute  past,  e.  g.  scripsi,  I  wrote. 

3.  Absolute  future,  e.  g.  s  c  r  i  b  a  m,  I  shall  write. 

Here,  no  idea  of  anything  cotemporary  or  prior  is  intro¬ 
duced,  since  the  speaker  has  in  mind  only  the  present,  and 
describes  what  takes  place  in  it,  by  the  present,  what  took 
place  before  it,  by  the  perfect,  and  what  will  take  place  after 
it,  by  the  future. 

The  necessity  of  expressing  what  is  prior  and  cotempo¬ 
rary  has  occasioned  the  use  of  the  relative  tenses.  But  in 
this  case,  there  must  be  two  sentences  referring  to  each 
other,  a  principal  and  a  subordinate  sentence,  both  either 
cotemporary,  or  so  related  that  the  subordinate  sentence  is 
before  the  other  in  time.  Since  in  the  space  of  the  present, 
there  can  be  no  past,  there  should  be  five  relative  tense-forms, 
two  for  the  past,  one  for  the  present,  and  two  for  the  future. 
But  only  the  past  has  its  two  relative  forms,  the  present  none, 
and  the  future  but  one. 

Further  remarks : 

I.  T he  Present. 

(251.  b.)  This  is  only  a  small  period  of  time;  for  what  I 
say  or  do  in  this  present,  is  already  past  in  the  next  moment, 
therefore  said ,  done  ;  then  we  say,  I  have  said,  1  have  done. 
Hence,  in  the  period  of  the  present,  there  can  be  only  the 
cotemporary  existence  of  two  or  more  actions,  but  no  priority 
of  one  to  another ;  for  what  is  prior  to  another  is  past. 
There  is  here,  however,  no  separate  relative  form  for  cotem- 


220 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§251. 


porary  existence,  but  this  is  expressed  by  the  absolute  present ; 
a  past  event,  related  to  the  present,  is  expressed  by  the  per¬ 
fect,  that  is,  by  the  form  of  the  absolute  past. 

Absolute  Present. 

Present. 

Homo  videt,  audit,  sentit,  cogitat.  Quid  au¬ 
dio?  Tuo  facto  delector.  Hoc  moleste  fero.  Iras¬ 
cor.  Iratus  sum. 

Relative  Present. 

Here  are  only  two  cases : 

1.  Cotemporary  existence  with  another  present  action; 
thus  .  .. 

Present  —  Present. 

Quum  epistolam  ad  fratrem  scribo,  me  ejus  desiderium 
tenet.  Agricola,  quum  arat  et  serit,  sperat.  Hoc 
quum  dicit,  non  attendit. 

2.  Priority  in  reference  to  the  present ;  thus - . 

Perfect —  Present. 

Quum  venit  calamitas,  tum  detrimentum  accipitur. 
Senes,  quum  cenaverunt,  meridiant. 

t  11.  The  P as  t. 

(251.  c.)  This  embraces  the  entire  great  period,  preced¬ 
ing  the  time  present  to  the  speaker.  Everything  which  takes 
place  in  this  period,  whether  it  occurred  a  long  or  a  short 
time  since,  is  expressed  by  the  perfect,  when  there  is  no  re¬ 
ference  to  another  event. 

Absolute  Past. 

Perfect. 

Deus  aedificavit  mundum.  Romulus  condidit 
Romam.  Hodie  epistolam  scripsi  ad  meum  fratrem. 

In  these  three  examples,  the  exact  time  in  the  past,  when 


$  251.]  TENSES. — -ABSOLUTE  AND  RELATIVE.  221 

the  several  events  occurred,  is  very  different ;  the  first  is  in 
the  most  remote  past,  the  last  in  the  nearest ,  the  second  is  be¬ 
tween  the  other  two.  But  this  remoteness  or  nearness  makes 
no  difference  whatever  in  the  tense  of  those  three  sentences. 

The  perfect  is  also  very  frequently  used,  where  I  might  con¬ 
sider  and  state  the  proposition  in  relation  to  another  event, 
either  cotemporary  or  prior ,  but  do  not  do  so,  and  therefore 
speak  without  any  reference  to  an  event  happening  after 
or  at  the  same  time  with  it,  and  have  in  mind  nothing  ex¬ 
cept  the  time  of  the  past.  Hence  the  perfect  occurs  so  of¬ 
ten  merely  as  an  aorist ,  i.  e.  without  reference  to  anything 
else  mentioned  before  or  after.  Thus,  Livy,  II.  1,  says,  Nam 
priores  (reges)  ita  regnarunt,  ut  numerentur,  where  he 
could  have  also  said  in  reference  to  the  newly  chosen  con¬ 
suls,  of  whom  he  began  to  speak,  regnarant,  inasmuch 
as  it  expresses  what  was  prior  to  something  else. 

(251.  d.)  The  imperfect  is  used  in  preference  to  the  perfect, 
only  when  an  action,  also  without  any  reference  to  another, 
is  to  be  considered  as  repeated ,  or  as  a  custom  and  habit. 
By  this  use  of  the  imperfect,  the  action,  viewed  as  continuing 
in  a  former  time,  appears  more  vivid  ;  yet  instead  of  this, 
where  there  is  no  reference  to  the  repetition,  the  event  may  be 
considered  only  as  past,  and  may  be  expressed  by  the  per¬ 
fect  ;  e.  g.  Germani  veteres  venatui  studebant  (studue¬ 
runt).  Hence  a  continued  belief,  a  fixed  opinion,  or  thought, 
often  repeated  by  a  person,  is  generally  expressed  by  crede¬ 
bat,  censebat,  cogitabat,  etc. 

(251.  e.)  But  as  the  period  of  time  is  so  great,  that  several 
events  can  have  taken  place  simultaneously  and  consecutively , 
and  as  these  can  be  stated  with  relation  to  each  other,  two 
actions  are  here  sometimes  cotemporary,  sometimes  the  one 
is  prior  to  the  other.  The  former  relation  is  properly  de¬ 
noted  by  the  imperfect,  the  latter  by  the  pluperfect. 

19* 


222 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  251. 


Relative  Past. 

The  following  cases  occur  here  : 

1.  An  action  wholly  cotemporary,  from  beginning  to  end, 
with  another  past  one ;  thus  ---. 

Imperfect  —  Imperfect. 

Q,uum  haec  scribebam,  bellum  magnum  erat.  De¬ 
cii,  quum  in  hostium  aciem  irruebant,  fulgentes  gladios 
videbant. 

2.  Both  cotemporary ,  yet  only  so  far,  that  the  principal 
event  happened  during  the  continuance  of  the  other  ;  thus 

-+• 

Imperfect  —  Perfect. 

Q,uum  adolescens  essem  in  Peloponneso,  vidi  quos¬ 
dam  Corinthios.  Aratus,  quum  ejus  civitas  a  tyrannis  t  e- 
neretur,  Sicyonem  profectus  est. 

3.  Both  cotemporary,  yet  so,  that  the  principal  action  fol¬ 
lowed  immediately  from  the  first,  and  originated  from  it.  Such 
sentences  often  contain  the  idea  of  thereby,  therefrom;  thus 
also 

Perfect  —  Perfect. 

Q,uum  ter  praetor  renuntiatus  sum,  (thereby)  i  n- 
t  e  1 1  e  x  i  — .  Senatus,  quum  indici  praemium  decrevit, 
(thereby)  indicavit  suam  sententiam. 

4.  Priority  of  one  past  event  to  another ;  the  one  was 

earlier  than  the  other  which  followed  it ;  thus - . 

Pluperfect  —  Perfect. 

Pompeius  quum  Rhodum  venisset,  audire  voluit 
Posidonium.  Q,uod  Aristides  quum  audivisset,  in  con¬ 
cionem  venit. 

5.  Two  events  prior  to  a  third  already  past,  so  that  one 

of  the  first  two  is  again  prior  to  the  other ;  thus - 


§251.]  TENSES. - ABSOLUTE  AND  RELATIVE. 


223 


Pluperfect,  Pluperfect,  Perfect. 

duum,  quid  Romae  actum  esset,  cognovissem,  Brun¬ 
disium  profectus  sum.  Dionysius  caede  familiaris  d  o- 
luit;  quem  enim  amara  t,  occiderat.  Here  the  verbs 
amare,  occidere  and  doler  e  denote  a  threefold  relation  of  past 
time,  amare  is  prior  to  occidere,  and  occidere  to  dolere.  It 
could  also  have  been  expressed :  Dionysius,  quum  familia¬ 
rem,  quem  amara  t,  occidisset,  doluit. 

6.  Two  prior  to  a  third,  but  both  of  these  cotemporary , 
as  the  action  of  the  principal  subordinate  sentence  was  co¬ 
temporary  with,  or  happened  during  that  of  the  other ;  thus 

Pluperfect,  Imperfect,  Perfect. 

duum,  quid  ageres,  audivissem,  Romam  reliqui, 
duum  Romae,  tum  quum  apud  Pharsalum  pugnabatur, 
seditiones  coortae  essent,  Caesar  eoprofectus  est. 
Cicero  hoc  curavit,  ut  omnes  viderent,  quod  antea 
fuisset  occultum. 

III.  The  Future. 

(251.  f.)  This  embraces  the  whole  great  period  that  fol¬ 
lows  the  present.  When  merely  the  future  is  considered, 
there  is  no  reference  to  what  is  near  or  remote  in  the  future. 
But  there  is  such  a  reference,  where  two  future  events  are 
spoken  of,  if  they  are  stated  in  relation  to  each  other,  whether 
they  are  cotemporary  or  one  is  prior  to  the  other,  as  it  were 
a  prior  future. 

Absolute  Future. 

Future. 

Deus  tibi  providebit.  Hodie  apud  inferos  fortasse 
cenabimus.  Animus  non  interibit  cum  reliquo  cor¬ 
pore. 

Relative  Future. 

Here  the  following  cases  occur  : 


224 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  VERBS. 


[§  251. 

1.  A  future  event  cotemporary  with  another  future ;  thus 
— .  Here  neither  is  considered  as  yet  accomplished. 

Future  —  Future. 

Si  mihi  probabis  ea,  quae  dices,  libenter  assen¬ 
ti  a  r.  Quern  librum  si  legere  voletis,  reperietis.  Nunc 
tu,  si  putabis  me  esse  conveniendum,  constitues,  quo 
loco  id  commodissime  fieri  possit. 

2.  Priority  of  one  future  event  to  another  ;  thus - . 

Future-perfect — Future. 

Instead  of  one  of  these  tenses,  an  imperative  also  can  be 
used.  Si  te  rogavero  aliquid,  non  respondebis? 
Si  te  amicus  rogaverit,  quid  facies?  A  me,  quum 
paulum  otii  nacti  erimus,  uberiores  litteras  expec- 
tato.  Subduc  cibum  unum  diem  athletae ;  Jovem  Olym¬ 
pium  implorabit. 

The  clauses  seldom  stand  in  an  inverted  order ;  e.  g. 
Quum  tu  haec  leges,  ego  illum  fortasse  convenero. 

3.  Both  so  prior  to  another  future  event  implied,  that  they 
are  considered  as  completed  at  the  same  time,  the  action  con¬ 
tained  in  the  principal  clause  taking  place  immediately  with 
the  first,  and  as  a  consequence  of  it ;  thus  =. 

Future-perfect  —  Future-perfect. 

Instead  of  the  first  future-perfect,  an  imperative  also  can 
be  used. 

Quae  vitia  qui  fugerit,  is  omnia  fere  vitia  vitaverit. 
Haud  e  r  r  a  v  e  r  o,  si  a  Zenone  principium  duxero.  Gra¬ 
tissimum  nobis  feceris,  si  hoc  a  te  didicerimus. 
T  oil  e  hanc  opinionem  ;  luctum  sustuleris.  . 

(251.  g.)  In  writing,  the  student  should  adhere  as  strictly  as  pos¬ 
sible  to  this  use  of  the  absolute  and  relative  tenses,  and  should  admit 
no  irregularity  on  account  of  an  occasional  departure  in  the  best 
writers.  Especially,  should  he  be  careful  in  the  use  of  the  imperfect 
and  pluperfect,  which  differ  very  perceptibly,  not  only  from  each  other, 
but  also  from  the  perfect.  The  imperfect  is  used  either  absolutely ,  and 


§  252.] 


TENSES. - PERIPHRASTIC  FUTURE. 


225 


then  signifies  the  repetition  of  the  action  or  fact,  or  it  is  used  relatively , 
and  then  denotes  something  cotemporary  with  another  past  action. 
The  perfect,  on  the  contrary,  does  not  indicate  the  repetition  of  an 
action,  but  describes  it  only  as  past.  If  it  is  said,  Dionysius  was  thir¬ 
ty-eight  years  king  of  Syracuse ,  it  is  expressed  by  fuit ;  on  the  con¬ 
trary,  if  it  is  said,  He  intrusted  (or  was  wont  to  intrust)  the  protection 
of  his  body  to  slaves ,  then  committebat,  is  used,  which  declares  this  as 
characteristic  of  him,  or  shows  that  that  action  was  constantly  re¬ 
peated.  Further  :  In  order  that  he  might  not  intrust  his  head  to  a  bar¬ 
ber ,  he  taught  his  daughters  to  shave  him  ;  accordingly  after  this  they 
shaved  their  father.  These  actions  would  be  expressed  by  committe¬ 
ret,  docuit ,  tondebant.  There  is  some  difference  between  the  two 
following  sentences :  Themistocles  took  a  walk  nightly ,  i.  e.  every 
night :  Themistocles  took  a  walk  the  following  night  ;  the  former  is 
rendered  by  ambulabat ,  the  latter  by  ambulavit.  But  if  another  action, 
which,  in  narration,  would  be  the  principal  event,  had  occurred  co¬ 
temporary  with  the  last,  then  that  also  must  be  expressed  by  ambula¬ 
bat.  Moreover,  that,  which  is  premised  to  the  narration  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  action,  as  its  cause  or  occasion ,  if  it  be  partly  prior  to,  but  also 
partly  cotemporary  with  that  which  follows,  is  put  in  the  imperfect. 
Therefore,  when  Livy,  II.  48,  says,  Aequi  se  oppida  receperunt, 
murisque  se  tenebant:  eo  nulla  pugna  memorabilis  fuit,  the  re¬ 
treating  contained  in  receperunt ,  in  relation  to  the  following  principal 
clause,  co  nulla  — ,  denotes  nothing  continuing  or  cotemporary ,  but 
something  prior,  which  Livy  states  merely  historically,  as  something 
past,  without  reference  to  the  principal  clause.  On  the  contrary, 
the  remaining  in  the  wails,  expressed  by,  in  murisque  se  tenebant, 
is  something  cotemporary,  and  contains  the  reason  of  the  principal 
clause  ;  hence  the  imperfect.  It  could  also  have  been  written  :  Q,uum 
Aeq.  —  recepissent,  murisque  se  tenerent. 

(251.  h.)  Finally,  sentences  with  ut  and  ne,  dependent  on  a  verb 
signifying  to  fear,  are  never  used  in  the  future,  although  something 
future  is  denoted,  but,  according  to  the  different  tense  of  the  govern¬ 
ing  verb,  either  in  the  present,  imperfect  or  perfect ;  e.  g.  Vereor, 
ne  temeritas  tua  tibi  maerorem  det,  or,  where  the  consequence  has 
probably  already  commenced,  dederit.  Verebar  (veritus  sum), 
ne  —  daret.  Verebor,  ne  —  det.  In  like  manner,  sentences  de¬ 
noting  design ,  intention,  with  ut  (that,  in  order  that,  to),  although  they 
signify  something  future,  are  not  put  in  the  future,  but  in  a  tense  co¬ 
temporary  with  the  principal  clause,  either  in  the  present  or  imperfect ; 
e.  g.  Mitto  tibi  hunc  hominem,  ut  dicat,  quid  agam.  Misi  —  ut 
diceret,  quid  agerem. 


Periphrastic  Conjugation  in  the  Active. 

252.  A  future  action  can  be  represented,  either  prophetically, 
as  one  still  uncertain,  whether  it  be  considered  as  still  contin¬ 
uing,  or  already  completed,  e.  g.  I  will  write  or  he  writing  to 
you  (scribam);  when  1  shall  have  written  to  you,  (scrip- 


226 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  253. 


s  e  r  o),  you  will  understand  (cognosces)  everything 
definitely ;  or  it  can  be  so  represented,  as  also  to  signify  that 
preparations  have  been  made  to  perform  it,  and  give  it  a  real 
existence.  For  this  the  Latin  uses  the  participle  in  urus, 
combined  with  the  verb  sum,  because  this  participle  denotes 
one  who  is  destined  to  something  by  fate,  is  to  be  or  do  some¬ 
thing,  is  willing  and  inclined  to  do  it.  When  Cicero  (Fam. 
II,  7)  says,  Paucis  diebus  sum  missurus  domesticos 
tabellarios,  the  meaning  is,  I  intend,  design  to  send - . 

The  principal  ideas  expressed  by  this  form  are,  willing,  de¬ 
signing,  intending,  being  about,  being  on  the  point  of,  having 
a  mind,  having  in  mind,  making  preparations,  and  the  like. 
Where  it  denotes  an  action,  which  also  refers  to  the  future, 
and  the  Latin  verb  is  in  the  subjunctive  or  infinitive,  we  often 
render  it  by  our  auxiliaries,  would,  should  and  will ;  e.  g.  I 
know  that  he  woidd  have  obtained,  eum  impetraturum 

fuisse; - that  he  will  obtain,  eum  impetraturum 

esse;  I  doubt  not  that  he  will  do  this,  quin  facturus 
s  i  t. 

253.  But  an  action  thus  determined  on,  can  not  only  be 
considered  in  the  three  relations  of  time,  present,  past,  and 
future,  but  also  as  continuing  and  completed.  It  can  continue 
in  those  three  relations  of  time,  but  be  completed  properly 
only  in  the  first  two.  Hence,  therefore,  there  are  here  also 
five  tenses,  the  present,  imperfect,  future,  perfect  and  plu¬ 
perfect. 

The  following  are  general  examples  : 

What  are  you  designing  or  about  to  do  ?  Q,  u  i  d  estis 

acturi? 

% 

What  were  you  designing  to  do  ?  Q  u  i  d  e  r  a  t  i's  a  c  t  u  ri  ? 

What  will  you  be  about  Zo  cfo  ?  Q  u  i  d  eritis  acturi? 

What  did  you  design ,  or  were  you  about  to  do  ?  Q  u  i  d 
fuistis  acturi? 

What  had  you  designed,  or  been  about  to  do?  Quid  f  u- 
eratis  acturi? 


TENSES. - PERIPHRASTIC  FUTURE. 


227 


[§  253. 

Some  definite  examples  from  authors  : 

Hortensius  asked  his  colleague ,  But  you ,  ichat  do  you  design  to  do  ? 
(quid  acturi  e  s  t  i  s  ?)  do  you  intend  to  deprive  the  people  of  jus¬ 
tice  (erepturi),  and  to  destroy  (eversuri)  the  tribunitial  power  ? 
Pompey  was  about  to  go  (e  r  a  t  i  t  u  r  u  s)  to  Ariminum  to  the  army. 
The  king  ought  to  permit  no  army  to  pass  through  his  country ,  which 
designs  to  wage  tear  (gesturus  erit)  with  the  Roman  people.  On 
account  of  this ,  Caesar  intended  to  speak  (f  u  i  t  a  c  t  u  r  u  s)  in  the  sen¬ 
ate,  on  the  fifteenth  of  March.  The  session  of  the  senate  urns  to  have 
been  (f  u  erat  futurus)  to-day.  You  intend  to  shut  up  Carthage 
(es  clausurus).  You  were  about  to  unite  (conciliaturi  fu¬ 
istis)  with  him.  When  Jupiter  was  about  to  precipitate  (dejecturus 
esset)  Apollo,  Latona  prevented  him.  I  have  never  doubted,  that 
(quin)  the  Roman  people  would  make  (facturus  esset)  you  con¬ 
sul, — would  have  made  (facturus  fuisset).  There  is  no  doubt 
that  Brutus  icould  have  done  (f  acturus  fuerit)  this.  If  Flaminius 
had  listened  to  the  auspices,  the  same  icould  have  happened  to  him  (even¬ 
turum  fuisset). 

Examples  on  §§  222 — 253. 

(1)1  went  yesterday  through  the  market,  with  my  brother, 
and  wished  to  visit1  thy  friend.  Suddenly  a  stranger2  ap¬ 
proached3  us,  who,  as  it  appeared,  was  a  man  of  distinction4, 
and  asked  us  this  and  that.  I  had  heard  him  speak5  long6 
of  our  country,  when  I  at  length7  asked  him,  whether8  he 
wished  to  remain  with  us,  or9  to  depart10.  I  will  remain 
here,  said  he,  and  then11,  after  a  few  days,  will  proceed12. 
Have  I  not13  sufficient  cause  to  be  angry14  with  you,  that15 
you  have  designedly16  concealed17  this  from  me  ?  And  truly18 
I  will  be  angry,  until  thou  hast  promised19  to  write  as  soon  as 
possible20.  I  wish  you  had  sent  the  letter  to  me  by  another. 
Pompey  was  with  me,  when  I  wrote  this,  and  I  told  him  with 
pleasure21,  that22  you  were  my  most  intimate23  friend.  I  had 
not  doubted24,  that25  I  should  see  you  at  Tarentum,  ts  We 
have  not  set  out  upon  our  journey,  because  we  did  not  know 
where  we  should  see  your  brother.  I  would  write  to  you  of- 
tener,  if  my  pain  had  not  deprived26  me  of  all  recollection*. 
If  I  shall  receive  the  letter  which  I  expect,  and  if  the  hope 
shall  be  realized,  which  is  caused27  by  report28,  I  will  go29  to 
you.  The  Romans  returned  sorrowful30  to  their  camp  ;  they 
must  have  been  considered31  as  vanquished. 

1  visere.  2  quidam.  3acced8re.  4  nobilis  (man  of  distinction).  5lo- 
quen3.  6diu.  7 tandem.  8 utrum.  9 an.  10 discedere.  11  demum,  ^pro¬ 
ficisci.  13nonne.  14irasci.  15 qui  (that  you).  16consulto.  17 reticere. 
18  profecto.  19  polliceri.  20  quam  primum  (as  soon  as  possible).  21  liben¬ 
ter.  22  (acc.  with  inf.).  23 amicissimus  (most  intimate  friend),  ^dubi¬ 
um  esse.  ^quin.  26adimere.  *  mens.  27  afferre.  28  rumor.  29  se  conferre. 
30 maestus.  31  credere. 


228 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  253. 

*  (2)  I  wish  you  would  come1  to  Athens.  When  the  sons 
of  Tarquin  had  executed2  the  commands3  of  their  father,  they 
desired4  to  ask5,  to  which  of  them  the  empire  would  come 
hereafter.  They  received  the  answer :  He  shall  have  the 
highest  power,  who  will  first  give  a  kiss6  to  his  mother. 
When  Theramenes  had  drunk  the  poison,  he  threw7  the  re¬ 
mainder8  from  the  cup  in  such  a  manner*,  that  it  reechoed9, 
and  he  said,  I  drink10  this  to  the  beautiful  Critias  !  For  the 
Greeks  were  accustomed,  at  their  feasts11,  to  name  him,  to 
whom  they  were  about  to  present  the  cup.  Therefore  he 
jested12,  when  dying,  and  predicted13  to  him,  whose  health 
he  drank14,  the  death  which  followed15  shortly  after.  When 
an  assembly16  was  held17  in  Syracuse,  Timoleon  came  into 
the  theatre,  drawn18  by  a  span19  of  horses.  When  Camissa- 
res  was  carrying  on  war  against  the  Cadusians,  he  fell  fight¬ 
ing  bravely.  As  often  as20  a  Roman  cohort  assaulted21  the 
Treveri,  a  great  number  of  the  enemy  fell.  When  the  young 
Torquatus  heard  that  his  father  would  be  involved22  in  diffi¬ 
culties23,  he  ran  to  Rome,  and  came,  early  in  the  morning24, 
into  the  house  of  his  accuser25,  Pomponius.  When  it  was 
announced  to  him,  that  he  had  come,  he  rejoiced,  and  im¬ 
mediately  arose26  from  his  bed27.  ./If  any  one  wished,  he 
could  view28,  in  these  actions,  the  life  of  that  man,  as  in  a 
mirror.  Cato  relates,  that  the  legions  often  went29  cheer¬ 
fully30  to  the  place,  from  which  they  believed  that31  they 
should  not  return.  After  the  battle  was  over32,  you  (one) 
could  see33,  how  great  courage  there  had  been  in  the  army 
of  Catiline. 

4se  recipere.  2  perficere.  3  mandatum.  4  cupido  incessere.  5  scisci¬ 
tari.  8  osculum.  7  ejicere.  8  reliquum.  *  ita.  9  resonare.  10  propinare. 
11  convivium.  12ludere.  13augurari.  14 cui,  praebibere  (whose  health 
he  drank).  15 consequi.  16 concio.  17habere.  18  vectus.  19  jumenta 
juncta  (span  of  horses).  20  quoties  (as  often  as).  21  procurrere.  22  ex¬ 
hibere.  23negotium.  24  prima  lux  (early  in  the  morning).  25accusator. 
26surgere.  27lectulus.  28intueri.  29proficisci.  "alacer.  31  (acc.  with 
inf.).  32 confecto  proelio  (when  the  battle  was  over).  33  cernere. 

(3)  Of  the  same  mind1  was  that  Lacedemonian2  woman, 
who,  when  she  lost3  her  son  in  battle,  said,  I  bore4  him,  that 
he  might  be  one  who  would  not  hesitate5  to  die  for  his  coun¬ 
try.  The  messengers  announced  these  words  of  the  king  at 
home;  and  now  preparations6  were  making  for  war  on  both 
sides7,  with  great  power  ;  yet  the  issue  of  the  war  made  the 
conflict  less  mournful8.  Whoever  despises9  vain-glory,  will 


*  253.] 


TENSES  OF  THE  VERB. 


229 


obtain10  the  true.  I  wish  that  you  believed11,  that  I  would 
have  preferred12  your  will  to  my  own  interest,  if  you  had 
come  to  me.  No  one  then  used  his  mind  without  his  body  ; 
in  peace  and  in  war,  good  morals  were  honored  ;  alterca¬ 
tions13  and  hostilities14  they  practised  with  the  enemy,  but 
citizens  vied  with  citizens  for16  excellence10.  O  that17  I 
may  yet  see  the  day,  when  I  can  thank18  you,  that  you  have 
hitherto19  assisted20  me  so  faithfully21.  When  you  come  to 
Athens,  we  shall  be  able  to  come  to  a  conclusion22  concern¬ 
ing  our  whole  journey.  I  will  answer  you,  but  not  before 
you  have  answered  me.  When  there  is  anything  certain  re¬ 
specting  this,  I  will  inform23  you  immediately.  Aid24  us  by 
thine  opinion25;  when  thou  hast  done  this,  thou  wilt  pro¬ 
mote26  our  common27  interest.  O  that  you  may  reach28  that 
happy  age,  .that  you  may  be  able  to  enjoy  these  advantages. 
A  day  would  not  be  sufficient29,  if  I  wished  to  defend  the 
causes  of  the  poor.  Then  the  Albans  could  have  been  seen30, 
at  one  time31,  joyful,  at  another,  terrified32. 

1  animus.  2 Lacaena  (Lacedemonian  woman).  3 amittere,  ‘‘gig¬ 
nere.  5  dubitare.  6  parare  aliquid  (to  make  preparation  for  something). 
7jutrimque  (on  both  sides).  8  miserabilis.  9  spernere.  10  habere.  11  ita 
existimare.  12  anteferre.  13  jurgium.  14  simultas.  15  de.  16  virtus.  17  uti- 
narri.  18  gratias  agere.  19  adhuc.  20  inservire.  21  fideliter.  22  consilium 
capere  (to  come  to  a  conclusion).  23 certiorem  facere.  24 adjuvare. 
25  sententia.  26  inservire.  27  communis.  28  pervenire.  29  deficere  (not  to 
be  sufficient).  30  animadvertere.  31  modo  (at  one  time).  32pavldus. 

(4)  I  would  cheerfully  grant1  all  riches2  to  all,  if  it  were 
lawful  for  me  to  live  in  this  manner.  Any  one3  could  say 
with  truth4,  that5  death  is  a  journey6  to  those  regions7  which 
they  inhabit8,  who  have  departed9  from  this  life.  When  I 
had  sailed10  from  Epidaurus  to  the  Piraeus,  I  there  visited11 
Marcellus,  and  spent12  a  day,  that13  I  might  be  with  him. 
On  the  following  day,  when  I  had  left14  him,  with  the  inten¬ 
tion15  of16  going  to  Boeotia,  he  wished,  as  he  said,  to  sail 
to  Italy.  Do  you  wish,  while  I  live17,  and  while18  the  rest  of 
the  army  is  unimpaired,  with  which  I  took  Carthage,  in  one 
day,  to  snatch19  the  province  Spain  from  the  Roman  people? 
There  are  the  Balearian  islands,  the  larger  of  which  has  a 
harbor,  where  Mago  believed,  (for  it  was  already  the  end20 
of  autumn,)  that  he  should  spend  the  winter21  conveniently22. 
But  they  met23  the  fleet  in  a  hostile24  manner,  so  that  the 
ships  did  not  venture  to  enter25  the  harbor.  Thence  they 
passed  over26  to  the  smaller  island.  Since27  the  Scipios  came 

20 


230 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  254, 255. 


into  our  province,  they  have  ceased28,  at  no  time,  to  do  what 
was  pleasing29  to  us.  But,  when  we  were  already  on  the  point30 
of31  being  in  a  desirable32  condition33,  these  Scipios  diedj 
Then  we  seemed  truly  to  be  brought  back34  to  our  former 
condition*,  to35  see  again  a  new  destruction36  of  our  state, 
when  you  unexpectedly37  sent  to  us  this  Scipio.  Catiline 
knew  everything  which  took  place38  in  the  state,  dared39 
everything,  and  could  endure40  cold,  hunger  and  thirst. 

1  concedere.  2  opes.  3  quispiam.  4  vere.  5  (acc^.  with  inf.).  6  migratio. 
7ora.  8incolere.  9discedere.  10navi  advehi  locum.  11  convenire. 
,2consumere.  13ut.  14  digredi  ab  aliquo.  15  consilium.  16  (ut  with  subj.). 
17mene  vivo  (while  I  live).  18  cetero  incolumi  exercitu  (while - un¬ 

impaired).  19 eripere.  20  extremum.  21  hibernare.  22comrndde.  23 oc¬ 
currere.  24  hostiliter.  25  intrare  aliquid.  26  trajicere.  27  ex  quo.  28  desis¬ 
tere.  29 secundus.  30prope  esse  (to  be  on  the  point).  31  ut.  32optabilis. 
33  fortuna.  34  retrahere.  *  status.  35  ut.  36  excidium.  37  ex  insperato. 
38 geri.  39 audere.  40 ferre. 


DEPENDENCE  OF  TENSES. 

/  J 

254.  In  all  dependent  sentences  which  are  connected  by 
the  particles  that ,  in  order  that ,  who,  which  ( qui  with  the 
subjunctive),  and  by  any  of  the  interrogative  words,  or  in 
any  other  manner,  and  in  all  those  sentences  which  have  a 
mutual  connection  with  each  other,  even  if  they  are  not  de¬ 
pendent  on  one  another,  the  tenses  of  the  verbs  must  agree, 
i.  e.  they  must  be  similar. — Examples  of  sentences  dependent 
on  each  other :  Who  is  there ,  that  docs  not  know  this  ?  He 
requested  me,  that  I  would  write  to  him  shortly.  Pliny  read 
no  book,  from  which  he  did  not  make  extracts.  The  follow¬ 
ing  is  an  example  of  a  sentence,  whose  parts  are  mutually 
connected  with,  and  related  to  each  other  :  We  endure  smaller 
pains,  that  we  may  not  experience  greater  ones,  as  we  should , 
if  we  did  not  do  this.  There  are,  however,  marked  differ¬ 
ences  between  the  dependence  of  tenses  in  the  English,  and 
the  Latin.  Some  of  these  will  be  pointed  out  in  what  fol¬ 
lows,  and  others  will  be  manifest  from  the  examples. 

255.  The  relative  meaning  of  the  principal  and  subordi¬ 
nate  clauses  in  a  sentence  must  alone,  in  all  cases,  determine 
the  necessary  tense.  The  three  primary  tenses,  the  present, 


§  256.] 


DEPENDENCE  OF  TENSES. 


231 


perfect  and  future,  are  mutually  related  to  one  another,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect,  neither  of 
which  are  ever  connected  with  a  present  or  future,  though 
they  are  with  a  historical  perfect.  It  is  therefore  necessary 
to  understand  fully  the  signification  of  each  tense. 

I.  The  Present. 

256.  (1)  The  present  is  followed  by  the  present,  when  the 
action  described  by  the  dependent  sentence  occurs  also  in 
the  present,  and,  therefore,  is  cotemporary  with  the  action  de¬ 
scribed  by  the  principal  sentence;  e.  g.  I  wish  that  I 
had  (u  t  habeam);  thou  art  (e  s)  not  in  circumstances 
to  he  ignorant  (nescias)  of  what  is  (s  i  t)  proper  ;  where  is 
(e  s  t)  there  a  state ,  which  has  (habeat)  not  wicked  citizens  ? 
I  wish  (v  e  1  i  m),  that  you  would  write  (scribas)  tome  soon , 
how  you  do  (quid  ag  as).  So  also  after  verbs  denoting/ear, 
a  present,  and  not  a  future,  is  used  :  I fear  that  it  will  rain 
(ne  pluat).  So  also  in  sentences  with  that ,  denoting  inten¬ 
tion,  wish  and  command.  Comp.  §  (251.  h.) 

(2)  The  present  is  followed  by  the  perfect,  when  the  ac¬ 
tion  denoted  by  the  dependent  sentence  is  past.  The  Eng¬ 
lish  sometimes  improperly  uses  the  imperfect;  e.  g.  Think 
(cogit  a)  how  fate  has  hitherto  dealt  (egerit)  with  us  ;  I 
fear  (vereor)  that  this  letter  gave  (has  given)  (dederint) 
you  more  grief  than  joy  ;  where  is  (e  s  t)  there  a  state ,  which 
has  not  had  (h  a  b  u  e  r  i  t)  wicked  citizens  ?  I  doubt  not,  that 
the  whole  multitude  would,  have  turned  to  you,  quin - con¬ 

versura  fuerit,  not  fuisset. 

The  present  is  also  employed  with  the  accusative  and  infi¬ 
nitive  ;  e.  g.  I  acknowledge  that  there  have  been  (fuisse) 
many  men  of  great  mind;  but  esse  would  he  cotemporary 
with  f  a  t  e  o  r  ( that  there  are  many  men). 

An  imperfect  also  is  admissible,  only  when  a  repeated  action  is  sig¬ 
nified  ;  e.  g.  It  is  added  to  this,  that ,  or  besides  this  (huc  accedit) 
your  desire  via  s  (e  s  se  t)  more  concealed  and  hidden, — where,  more¬ 
over,  huc  accedit,  could  have  scarcely  any  influence,  and  without 


232 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  257,  258. 


it,  the  sentence  would  be  expressed,  Vestra  ista  cupiditas  erat,  not 
fuit.  Non  dubium  est,  quin  multi,  qui  naturae  vitia  haberent, 
restituerentur  et  corrigerentur  ab  natura  aut  arte  atque  me¬ 
dicina, — where  also  the  clause,  non  dubium  est,  for  sine  d  u- 
b  i  o,  has  no  influence  upon  the  verb.  And  so  in  similar  places,  where 
there  is  an  apparent  departure  from  the  rule. 

(3)  The  present  is  followed  by  the  future,  when  a  future 
action  is  spoken  of ;  e.  g.  I  doubt  (d  u  b  1 1  o)  not,  that  you 
will  think  so,  existimaturus  sis;  I  know  not  in  what 
way  this  icill  break  out,  eruptura  sint.  Often  also  the 
present  is  sufficient,  as  in  posse,  which  wants  the  periphrastic 
future  ;  e.  g.  I  doubt  not,  that  I  shall  be  able  to  overtake  you, 
quin  te  possim  consequi.  Sentences  which  express  a 
fear,  and  those  which  denote  intention,  wish  and  command , 
constitute  an  exception  here.  For  such  sentences,  see  § 
(251.  h.). 

Remarks. 

257.  (1)  Where  the  present  of  a  principal  sentence  is  a  historical 
present  (see  §  224),  which  is  used  for  an  imperfect  or  a  perfect,  not 
only  a  present,  but  also  an  imperfect,  and,  where  the  actions  are  com¬ 
pleted,  instead  of  a  perfect,  a  pluperfect  can  follow  in  the  dependent 
sentence  ",  e.  g.  Caesar  'persuades  (persuadet)  him ,  that  he  would 
undertake  this ,  conaretur  for  conetar;  he  makes  known  (a  p  e- 
r  i  t)  to  him  what  he  had  learned  (comperisset,  for  compererit) 
from  the  letter. 

(2)  When,  before  such  sentences  as,  What  xcould  you  do,  if  your  fa¬ 
ther  should  now  come  ;  what  would  you  have  done ,  if  your  father  had 
come ,  a  present  is  used,  e.  g.  Tell  me,  dicas  mihi;  then  such  con¬ 
ditional  sentences  are  wholly  independent  of  that  present,  and,  there¬ 
fore,  the  usual  tenses  remain,  viz.  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect ;  d  i- 
c a  s  mihi,  quid  fa c e r e  s,  si  pater  nunc  veniret  (venisset),  di¬ 
cas  mihi,  quid  fe  c  i  s  s  e  s,  si  pater  venisset.  Hence,  Non  dubito 
quin,  si  modo  esset  in  republica  senatus,  statua  huic  statuere¬ 
tur  (Cic.  Sext.  38),  is  correct. 


II.  The  Imperfect. 

258.  (1)  The  imperfect  is  followed  by  the  imperfect,  when 
the  action  of  the  dependent  sentence,  is  cotemporary  with  the 
other,  and  is  still  continuing  in  the  same  past ;  e.  g.  Apelles  used 
to  say  (dicebat),  that  those  painters  were  defi  cient  (pecca¬ 
re),  who  did  not  know  (sentirent)  what  was  (esset)  enough. 
All  were  waiting  (expectabant),  what  Verres  would  then 


§§259,260.]  DEPENDENCE  OF  TENSES.  233 

(/o  (acturus  esset).  Thorius  used  to  live  (vivebat)  in 
suck  a  manner ,  that  there  was  (esset)  no  pleasure  of  which 
lie  did  not  have  an  abundance ,  qua  non  abundaret. 

(2)  The  imperfect  is  followed  by  the  pluperfect,  when  the 
action  of  the  dependent  sentence  is  prior  to,  and  not  cotem¬ 
porary  with  the  other ;  e.  g.  I'Ve  did  not  k?ww  (nescieba¬ 
mus)  till  now,  what  had  been  done  (actum  esset)  at 
Rome.  Because  I  was  afraid  (verebar)  that  letter  had 
caused  (fecissent)  you  sadness,  I  immediately  sent  you 
this  new  one. 

A  clause  with  ut ,  containing  a  conclusion  drawn  from  what  pre¬ 
cedes,  is  often  considered  wholly  independent  of  anything  before, 
and,  therefore,  in  this  clause,  a  present,  perfect  or  future,  can  follow 
even  an  imperfect.  Thus  Cicero  says,  Fin.  II.  20,  Thorius  erat 
ita  non  (so  little)  timidus  ad  mortem,  ut  in  acie  s  i  t  ob  rempublicam 
interfectus.  Here  an  event  follows,  which  took  place  neither 
during  nor  before  the  other ;  the  consequence  of  his  courage  is  con¬ 
sidered  independent  of  what  precedes,  and  moreover,  is  not  cotempo¬ 
rary  with  the  preceding  permanent  fact,  as,  in  that  case,  an  imperfect 
would  be  more  suitable  in  the  conclusion. 

III.  The  Be  rfe  c  t. 

259.  (1)  The  perfect  is  followed  by  the  present,  when  the 
action  of  the  dependent  sentence  is  confined  to  the  present 
merely,  and  has  no  relation  to  the  past;  especially  therefore, 
when  the  (present)  design  or  result  of  a  past  action  is  stated, 
which  is  to  be  viewed  only  in  the  present ;  e.  g.  It  has  been 
enjoined  (tributum  e  s  t)  by  nature  upon  the  race  of  ani¬ 
mals,  that  each  should  protect  (tueatur)  himself  and  his 
life.  I  have  undertaken  (sumpsi)  this  new  work,  that  I 
may  not  give  myself  up  (d  e  d  a  m)  wholly  to  sorrow.  Caesar 
has  so  distinguished  (eminuit)  himself  by  his  achievements , 
that  he  is  considered  (habeatur)  the  greatest  general.  You 
have  come  here  to  murder  (u  t  juguletis)  him.  A  present 
also  follows  a  perfect  subjunctive,  when  it  is  used  as  a  present ; 
e.  g.  If  I  deny  this,  wise  men  can  see  (viderint)  how  justly 
I  do  it  (facia  m). 

260.  (2)  The  perfect  is  followed  by  the  imperfect.  In  this 

20* 


234 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§261. 

case,  the  perfect  of  the  principal  sentence  is  used  as  a  his¬ 
torical  tense,  which  is  its  most  frequent  use.  See  §  237. 
When,  therefore,  the  action  of  the  dependent  sentence  is  con¬ 
sidered  cotemporary  with  that  of  the  principal  sentence,  and 
also  continuing ,  the  imperfect  is  employed  ;  e.  g.  There  were 
(fuerunt)  some  philosophers, who  denied  (negarent)  this. 
I  requested  (petivi)  you  to  consider  (haberes)  a//as  your 
friends ,  whom  I  shoidd  recommend  (commendarem)  to 
you.  You  came  here  (in  a  former  time)  to  murder  him  (ut — 
jugularetis).  Did  he  not  write  (nonne  scripsit)  to 
you  recently ,  that  you  might  prepare  (parares)  yourself 
for  this  event.  At  that  time,  there  was  scarcely  one ,  to  whom 
gain  was  (esse  t)  not  pleasing. 

Clauses  denoting  a  purpose  which  stands  in  connection  with  past 
time,  are  expressed  by  the  imperfect  alone  ;  e.  g.  The  father  intrusted 
his  son  to  you,  in  order  that  you  might  instruct  him,  ut  eum  insti¬ 
tueres;  he  withdrew,  that  he  might  not  be  suspected,  ne  in  suspicio¬ 
nem  veniret.  So  in,  He  wrote  this  book  to  be  useful.  Words  were 
invented  to  make  known  the  mind ,  ut  indicarent.  So  in  clauses 
which  express  a  wish,  command  or  fear,  respecting  the  past.  Comp. 

§  (251.  h.)  Butin  clauses  containing  a  conclusion,  the  imperfect  is 
used,  for  the  most  part,  only  when  there  is  a  repeated,  continuing 
action;  otherwise  the  perfect.  Comp.  §  261. 

(3)  The  perfect  is  followed  by  the  perfect.  This  is  the  case  : 

261.  (a)  When  a  conclusion  is  drawn  from  what  precedes, 
which,  in  respect  to  time,  agrees  directly  with  the  action  of 
the  principal  sentence,  and  is  considered  properly  as  an  inde¬ 
pendent  sentence,  without  any  reference  to  continuance  and 
repetition,  denoting  only  what  is  past.  This  often  occurs  with 
ut,  after  the  words  sic,  tam,  adeo,  tantum,  tantus  and  the  like  ; 
e.  g.  The  cruelty  of  Verres  towards  the  people  was  so  great , 
that  many  took  their  own  lives,  mortem  sibi  consciverint. 
Didst  thou  so  wholly  lose  thy  sense  of  shame  and  chastity ,  that 
thou  didst  dare  (ausus  sis)  to  say  this  in  a  temple  ?  In 
this  tumult,  a  senator  was  so  abused, that  he  lost  (amiserit) 
his  life. 

Yet  when  such  a  clause  with  that ,  is  considered  as  contin¬ 
uing  during  the  time  of  the  other,  or  as  repeated  and  wholly 
cotemporary  with  it,  the  imperfect  is  used.  Comp.  §  260. 


§$  *262— 264.] 


DEPENDENCE  OF  TENSES. 


235 


(b)  When  qui  non  and  quin  stand  in  the  dependent  clause, 
which  is  cotemporary  with  the  other ;  e.  g.  No  one  came 

to  Messina,  without  seeing  this  image,  quin - viderit. 

Was  there  indeed  a  conflagration  in  this  city,  to  which  toe  did 
not  hasten  ?  cui  non  subvenerimus. 

But  when  such  a  sentence  denotes  a  cotemporary  and  re¬ 
peated  action,  the  imperfect  is  better ;  e.  g.  Pliny  read  no 
hoolc,  from  which  he  did  not  make  extracts,  quern  non  excer¬ 
peret  (also  excerpserit).  So  also  in  the  following  sen¬ 
tences  :  What  place  was  there  then  so  remote,  that  it  was 
concealed  ?  (lateret)  Who  sailed  upon  the  sea  at  that 
time,  who  did  not  expose  (committeret)  himself  to  the 
danger  of  slavery  ? 

262.  (4)  The  perfect  is  followed  by  the  pluperfect,  when 
the  action  of  the  dependent  sentence  is  completed  before  that 
of  the  principal  sentence  ;  e.  g.  Caligula  boasted  (gloria¬ 
tus  est)  to  Caesonia,  how  much  he  had  done  (quantum  egis¬ 
set),  while  she  was  asleep  at  mid-day.  Theophrastus,  when 
dying,  complained  of  (acccusavit)  nature,  because  she  had 
given  (quod  dedisset)  so  short  a  life  to  men. 

263.  (5)  The  perfect  is  followed  by  the  future,  when  the 
action  is  future;  e.  g.  Thou  hast  brought  it  to  this  (effe¬ 
cisti)  by  thy  faithlessness,  that  no  one  will  trust  (fidem 
habiturus  sit)  you  in  future. 

The  future  stands  also  with  the  perfect  subjunctive,  which 
is  used  for  the  present ;  e.  g.  We  cannot  easily  say  (dixe¬ 
rimus)  how  much  we  shall  benefit  (profuturi  simus) 
others  herein. 

IV.  The  Pluperfect. 

264.  (I)  The  pluperfect  is  followed  by  the  imperfect,  when 
the  action  of  the  dependent  sentence  is  cotemporary  with  the 
other  in  the  past ;  e.  g.  I  had  charged  Herodes  to  write  (scri¬ 
beret)  to  you  immediately .  The  Gauls  had  posted  the 
bowmen  between  the  horsemen,  that  these  might  come  to  the 
assistance  of  (succurrerent)  their  friends. 


236 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  265. 


Nevertheless,  in  clauses  with  ut,  containing  a  conclusion, 
the  historical  perfect  is  also  properly  placed  instead  of  the 
imperfect,  because  such  sentences  are  generally  considered 
independent ;  e.  g.  Their  strength  had  so  much  increased, 
that  they  attempted  it  (ut  ausi  sint,  for  auderent.) 

(2)  The  pluperfect  is  followed  by  the  pluperfect,  when  the 
action  of  the  dependent  sentence  is  completed  prior  to  that  of 
the  principal  sentence ;  e.  g.  When  I  had  heard  what  had 
happened  (accidisset)  to  you ,  I  was  greatly  rejoiced .' 


V.  The  Future. 

265.  (1)  The  future  is  followed  by  the  present,  when  the 
action  is  almost  cotemporary,  already  near,  and,  as  it  were, 
taking  place. 

We  sometimes  use  a  future  instead  of  a  present;  but  the 
Latin  is  here  satisfied  with  the  future  of  the  principal  sen¬ 
tence,  and  puts  the  other  in  the  present,  but  always  of  the 
subjunctive  mode ;  e.  g.  I  will  not  doubt,  that  you  tvill  faith¬ 
fully  perform  (perficias)  the  duty.  Thou  wilt  see  from 
this  letter,  hoic  I  am  (sim)  disposed  towards  thee.  Where 
shall  we  find  such,  as  will  not  prefer ,  qui  non  anteponant. 
So  also  in  sentences  denoting  fear ;  e.  g.  Thou  wilt  justly 
fear,  that  he  may  (of  will)  confess  (fateatur)  this. 

(2)  The  future  is  followed  by  the  perfect,  when  the  action 
of  the  dependent  sentence  is  already  past ;  e.  g.  I  will  not  al¬ 
low,  that  that  letter  was  (fuerint)  more  pleasing  to  you  than 
to  me.  I  will  tell  you  (d  icam)  in  few  words,  why  you  ought 
not  to  have  believed  (non  debueris  credere)  this  report. 

(3)  The  future  is  followed  by  the  future,  when  the  action 
of  the  dependent  sentence  is  in  future  time ,  but  later  than 
that  in  the  principal  sentence  ;  e.  g.  Any  one  will  indeed  he 
uncertain  (dubitabit),  what  he  will  accomplish  (p  e  r  fe  c- 
tiir  u  s  sit)  by  his  virtue,  ivho  has  already  accomplished  so 
much  by  his  authority, — this  could  not  be  expressed  by  per¬ 
ficiat.  Shall  we  therefore  say,  that  those  youth  are  hopeful, 


237 


§§  266,  267.]  DEPENDENCE  OF  TENSES. 

of  whom  we  shall  believe  that  they  will  attend  to  (inservi¬ 
turos)  their  own  interests ,  and  will  do  (facturos)  what  is 
prof  table  for  themselves  ? 

VI.  The  Futur e-perf ect. 

266.  (1)  The  future-perfect  is  followed  by  the  present, 
when  the  action  of  the  dependent  sentence  refers  to  the  pre¬ 
sent  time ;  e.  g.  When  you  have  (shall  have)  written  me  as  soon 

as  possible ,  how  you  are,  (quid  agas),  then - .  I  will 

send  you  the  book,  as  soon  as  I  have  found  (shall  have  found) 
some  one,  to  whom  I  can  safely  intrust  it,  cui  recte  commit¬ 
tam. 

(2)  The  future-perfect  is  followed  by  the  perfect,  when 
the  action  of  the  dependent  sentence  is  a  past  one ;  e.  g.  I 
shall  always  be  anxious  respecting  what  you  are  doing,  till  1 
have  (shall  have)  ascertained,  how  you  have  done  (quid  ege¬ 
ris). 

Remarks. 

267.  (1)  The  two  infinitives  fore  and  futurtim  esse  are  followed  by 
the  conjunction  ut,  either  with  a  present  or  an  imperfect  after  them  ; 
this  depends  upon  the  tense  of  the  principal  sentence ;  e.  g.  /  believe 
that  you  will  easily  learn  this  language ,  credo  fore,  ut  hanc  linguam 
facile  discas.  1  believed  (have  believed,  had  believed)  that  you 
would  easily  learn  this  language ,  credebam  (credidi,  credide¬ 
ram)  fore,  ut  hanc  linguam  facile  disceres. 

(2)  Since  the  present  infinitive,  as  it  denotes  cotemporary  action,  is 
also  the  infinitive  of  the  imperfect,  and  the  perfect  infinitive,  as  it 
denotes  priority  of  action,  is  also  the  infinitive  of  the  pluperfect  and 
future-perfect,  therefore,  according  as  each  is  the  one  or  the  other,  a 
different  construction  can  follow  it ;  e.  g.  Many  men  are  wont  to  la¬ 
ment ,  that  they  are  icithout  pleasures ,  multi  deplorare  (present)  so- 
lent,  quod  voluptatibus  c  a  r  e  a  n  t.  These  men  were  wont  to  complain , 
that  they  were  without  pleasures ,  hi  homines  deplorare  (cotempo¬ 
rary  past)  solebant,  quod  voluptatibus  carerent.  Theophrastus  re¬ 
lates  that  Cimon  commanded  (imperasse)  his  stewards ,  to  give  all 
things  to  every  one  who  might  put  up  at  his  manor ,  omnia  praebe¬ 
rent,  not  praebeant,  because  it  depends  on  imperasse. 

Examples  on  §§  254 — 267. 

(I)  What  is  there,  which  I  could  wish  more  heartily1,  than 
that2  you  had  returned  safe  to  your  country,  and  that  you  had 
obtained3  the  object4  of  your  journey  ?  There  will  never  be 
a  time,  when  the  remembrance  of  thy  favors  to  me  will  perish5. 


238 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERRS, 


[§267. 


Cato  the  elder6  reminded7  his  son  in  a  letter,  to13  take  care8  not9 
to  go10  into  a  battle,  as  he  was  no  soldier.  Ulysses  endured11 
the  insults12  of  his  slaves,  in  order  that13  he  might  attain14 
that  which  he  wished ;  but  he  had  so  deformed  himself,  that 
no  one  recognized15  him.  When  the  Stoic  Dionysius  had  a 
pain  in  the  kidneys16,  he  exclaimed,  that17  that  was  false, 
which  he  before  believed18  respecting  pain.  You  ask  me 
to13  read  and  examine  your  books,  whether19  they  are  worth 
publishing20.  Many  books  of  the  ancients  have  so  perished21, 
that22  now  they  nowhere23  appear.  Let  us  imagine24,  that25 
there  is  one  man  who  has  nothing  evil,  and  upon  whom  fate 
has  inflicted26  no  wound.  If  night  does  not  deprive27  us  of 
happy  life,  I  do  not  know,  why  the  last  day  of  life  should  de¬ 
prive  us  of  it.  Every  one  hopes  for  the  fortune  of  Metellus, 
just  as  if28,  in  human  affairs29,  there  were  anything  certain, 
or,  as  if  it  were  wiser  to  hope  than  to  fear.  You  have  been 
so  brought  up30  and  instructed31,  that32  you  must  do  this,  un¬ 
less  you  wish  to  be  a  different33  man  from34  what35  we  have 
learned  to  consider36  you.  Under  the  direction  of  this  man37, 
we  so  conducted38  ourselves,  as  to  consult  rather39  for  all, 
than  for  ourselves.  Seneca  inquired40,  in  his  treatise  on  Pro¬ 
vidence,  why  evils41  befell42  even  the  good,  when43  yet  there 
was  a  Providence. 

1  magis  ex  ammo.  2ut.  3  assequi.  4  consilium.  6mori.  6  senex. 

7 monere.  8 cavere  (to  take  care).  9ne.  10 inire  aliquid.  11  perferre. 
12 contumelia.  13  ut  (in  order  that).  14  pervenire.  15agnoscere.  16 ex 
renibus  laborare  (had  —  kidneys).  17(acc.  with  inf.).  18sentire.  ,9ne. 
20 editio.  21  evanescere.  22 ut.  23  nusquam.  24finggre.  25  (acc.  with  inf.). 
26  infliggre.  27adimgre.  28  perinde  quasi  (just  as  if).  29  humanae  res. 
30educare  (to  bring  up).  31  docere.  32ut.  33alius  (a  different  man). 
34ac(from).  35 qualis.  36 cognoscere.  37 hoc  auctore  (under — man). 
38gergre.  39 potius,  ^quaerere.  41  malum.  42accidere.  43 quum  (when 
yet). 

(2)  I  had  commanded1  your  brother  to2  write  to  you  ;  but 
I  know  not  how3  it  happened4,  that2  he  did  not  write  to  you. 
Suetonius  say\  in  the  life  of  Vespasian,  No  one5  will  easily6 
be  found,  who,\vhen  innocent7,  was  punished  by  him,  unless 
he  were  absent,  or  it  were  done  without8  his  knowledge  and 
wish.  He  will  never9  ask  of  you  anything,  which  will  be  dis¬ 
pleasing  to  you.  When  Pompey  the  Great  visited10  Posido¬ 
nius  in  sickness*,  and  said,  that  he  was  grieved11  that12  he 
could  not  hear  him,  he  replied,  I  will  not  allow13,  that14  my 
pain  should  cause15  so  great  a  man  to**  come  to  me  in  vain16. 
Who  is  so  wretched17,  that18  he  has  not,  at  certain  times  of 


§267.] 


DEPENDENCE  OF  TENSES. 


239 


his  life,  experienced19  the  kindness20  of  the  gods,  and  who 
must  not  acknowledge21,  that22  there  have  been  many  things 
which  he  has  received  from  the  gods  ?  I  deny23  that24  there 
was  any  painting  which  Verres  did  not  search25  for,  examine26 
and  carry27  away.  Is28  he  worthy  of  the  name  of  a  rational29 
man,  who  employs30  all  his  life  in  pleasure  ?  Who  is  so  de¬ 
sirous31  of  learning  to  understand32  nature,  that33  he  does  not, 
when  the  danger  of  his  country  has  been  announced34  to  him, 
relinquish  all  these,  even  if  he  thought,  that  he  could  survey35 
the  vast  world?  I  have  contended36  with  no  one,  who37  has 
not  yielded38  to  me.  We  all  fear,  that39  this  will  not  eventu¬ 
ate  well40. 

1mandare.  2  ut.  3quo.  4fieri.  5  (comp.  §122).  6temere.  7insons. 
8eo  ignaro  et  invito  (without — wish).  9 nihil  unquam.  10visere. 
*  (adjective).  11  moleste  ferre  (active).  12quod.  13 committere.  14ut. 
15  efficere.  **ut.  16 frustra.  17  miser.  18  ut.  19  sentire.  20  benignitas. 
21  confitendum  esse  (must  acknowledge).  22  (acc.  with  inf  ).  23  negare. 
24  (acc.  with  inf.)  25  conquirere.  26  inspicere.  27  auferre.  i8njim  is  est  (is 
he).  29sanus.  30 collocare  in  aliqua  re.  31  cupidus.  32 perspicere.  33  ut. 
34afferre.  35metiri.  36  arma  conferre.  37  quin  (who  not).  38  succumbere. 
39  ne.  40 feliciter  evenire  (to  eventuate  well). 

(3)  There  are  some1  disgraceful2  things,  which  the  wise 
man  would  not  do,  even  if  he  could  save3  his  country.  Dogs 
are  said  to  drink  from  the  Nile,  while  running,  that  they 
may  not  be  seized4  by  the  crocodiles.  Thou  wilt  find  no 
one,  to  whom  something  has  not  flowed5  from  that  most 
benign6  fountain  of  the  Deity.  From  many  biographies7  of 
renowned  men,  it  is  not  very8  evident9,  what  was  the  disposi¬ 
tion10  and  virtue  of  those  men,  and  by  what  means  they  ob¬ 
tained11  so  great  renown.  Since12  he  has  been  with  me  and  ac¬ 
companied  me,  I  have  perceived13  in  him  so  great  fidelity14, 
that  I  value  no  man  more.  At  the  close15  of  your  letter,  you 
write,  that,  if  your  reasons16  satisfied17  me,  you  would  not 
trouble18  yourself  about  what  others  might  think  or  say  re¬ 
specting  them.  I  will  relate,  at  the  proper19  time,  how  the 
son  of  Arminius  was  treated20  at  Ravenna.  I  have  let  no 
one  pass21,  to  whom  I  have  not  given  a  letter  for  you.  There 
is  no  one,  who  could  advise22  you  more  wisely,  than  yourself. 
Now  I  will  mention23  his  domestic  life,  and  how  he  lived 
and  conducted24  himself  at  home  and  among  his  friends. 
There  have  been  many,  who  have  withdrawn25  from  public 
business,  and  retired26  to  private  life.  Cicero  did  all  these 
things,  that  he  might  reconcile27  Pompey  to  himself. 

Quaedam.  2  flagitiosus.  3  conservare.  4  rapere.  5  manare.  6benig- 


240 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  267. 


nissimus.  7  vita.  8  satis.  9  apparere.  10  animus.  11  consequi.  12  ex  quo. 
13 cognoscere.  14 fides.  15 extremae  litterae  (the  close  of  a  letter). 
16 ratio.  17 placere.  18 laborare.  19 suus,  "tractare.  21  praetermittere 
(to  let  pass),  "suadere.  23  referre.  24 se  gerere.  25 se  removere.  26 ad 
otium  perfugere  (retire  —  life).  27  sibi  conciliare. 

/  (4)  When  Marcellus  had  taken  the  city  Syracuse,  he  gave 
orders1,  that2  no  one  should  put  to  death  Archimedes,  by 
whose  exertion3  the  city  had  been  so  long  defended.  All 
those  works4  have  been  so  written,  that5  now  they  are  not 
even6  read.  There  have  been  many  illustrious7  men  in  our 
state,  who  were  wont  to  explain8  the  civil  law  to  the  people. 
Many  believe,  that16  the  law  is  a  precept,  the  force  of  which 
is  of  such  a  nature9,  that10  it  commands  to  do  right,  and  for¬ 
bids  to  do  wrong11.  Nature  has  lavished12  so  great  an  abun¬ 
dance13  of  things  for  the  use  of  men,  that14  all  this  seems  to 
be  bestowed  upon  us  designedly15.  I  will  prove,  that16 
Ulysses  had*  a  cause  for  killing  Ajax.  Have  I  not17  suffi¬ 
cient  cause  to  be  angry18  with  you,  that19  you  designedly 
conceal20  from  me  all  these  things  ?  There  will  always  be 
persons,  who  will  complain  that21  God  has  cared22  less  for 
them,  than  for  others.  When  the  defendant**  says,  that23 
he  has  erred  from  ignorance24,  the  inquiry  is25,  whether26  he 
could  have  known  or  not27.  Who  is  there,  that  does  not 
know  what  pleasure  is  ?  It  is  known  to  all,  that16  Epaminon¬ 
das,  Julies  Caesar,  Alexander  and  Hannibal  were  the  great¬ 
est  commanders. 

1  ed  icere  (to  give  orders) .  2  ne  quis  (that  no  one) .  3  opera.  4  liber. 

5ut.  6  ne — quidem  (comp.  §  472).  7 summus.  8  interpretari.  9is(such 
a  nature).  10  ut.  11  delinquere.  12  largiri.  13  ubertas.  14  m.  15  consulto. 
16  (acc.  with  inf.).  *esse.  17 nonne.  18 succensere.  19 quod,  "reticere 
(subj.).  21  quod,  "consulere.  **reus.  23  (acc.  with  inf.) .  24imprudens 
(from  ignor.).  25 quaeritur  (the  —  is),  "utrum.  27 annon  (or  not). 

(5)  It  is  my  fate,  that1  no  one,  for  these  twenty  years,  has 
been  an  enemy  of  the  state,  who  has  not  at  the  same  time  de¬ 
clared2  war  against  me  also.  I  do  not  see,  either  in  my  life 
or  in  my  actions3,  what  Antony  could  despise4.  I  see  no  one 
among  this  assembly5  of  senators,  who  has  not  cared6  for  my 
good,  and  to  whom  I  am  not  attached7  by  the  unceasing8 
remembrance  of  his  kindness.  There  was  no  one  then  so 
infirm  at  Agrigentum,  that9  he  did  not,  on  that  night,  excited 
by  this  report,  arise10  and  seize11  a  weapon.  Aemilius  Pau¬ 
lus  brought12  so  much  money  into  the  treasury,  that  the 
spoil  of  this  one  commander  put13  an  end  to  taxation.  Who 
was  there,  at  that  time,  at  Syracuse,  who14  had  not  heard, 


DEPENDENCE  OF  TENSES. 


241 


§  267.] 

and  did  not  know,  that  this  agreement15  had  been  made  1 
There  is  no  one  among  us,  who  does  not,  at  this  very16 
time,  wish  that17  Caesar  might  he  conquered  as  soon  as  pos¬ 
sible18.  I  have  so  lived,  that  I  do  not  believe19,  that20  I  have 
been  born  in  vain.  Dolabella  wras  so  unmindful21  of  humani¬ 
ty,  that  he  committed  insatiable  cruelty,  not  only  upon22  the 
living,  but  also  upon  the  dead. 

1  ut.  2  indicere.  3res  gesta.  4  despicere.  5  consessus.  6 esse  curae, 
’obstrictus.  8 sempiternus.  9  ut.  10surgere.  11  arripere.  12  invehere  in. 
13 finem  alicujus  afferre.  14  quin  (who —  not).  15  pactio.  16ipse.  17ut. 
18  quam  primum.  19  existimare.  20  (acc.  with  inf.)  21  immemor.  22  in 
(with  ablative). 

(6)  Your  kindness  and  that  of  your  commander  toward1 
us  has  been  so  great,  that  we  do  not  regret  our  defeat2.  I 
see  not,  what  more  shameless3  could  be  said.  Hast  thou 
lost4  shame  and  modesty5  to  such  an  extent6,  that  thou  darest 
to  say  this  in  this  holy  temple  ?  The  Carthaginians  were  so 
much  terrified7  by  this  calamity8,  that  they  entreated  the 
Romans  also  to  aid  them.  This  one9  act  of  Regulus  is  wor¬ 
thy  of  admiration,  that10  he  thought11,  that12  the  captives 
ought  to  be  retained13.  To  me  indeed14,  the  composing15  of 
this  book  has  been  so  pleasing,  that  it  has  not  only  removed16 
all  the  troubles17  of  age,  but  has  even  rendered'8  age  easy19 
and  pleasant.  Pythius  called20  the  fishermen21  to  himself,  and 
requested  them  to*  fish22,  the  following  day,  before  his  gar¬ 
dens.  Ambiorix  exhorted23  the  Nervii  not24  to  lose25  the  op¬ 
portunity  to  avenge26  themselves  for  the  injuries  which  they 
had  received.  He  who  is  in  fear27  that28  he  shall  lose29  some 
of**  his  goods,  cannot  be  happy.  Metellus  was  so  scrupu¬ 
lous30,  that  he  came  to  the  judges,  and  said  that  he  was 
troubled!  by  the  erasure31  of  one  name.  Who  could  pardon 
him,  who  had  taken32  it  upon  himself  to  correct33  the  habits, 
and  to  censure34  the  faults35  of  others,  when  he  himself  had 
neglected36  his  own  duty  ? 

1  erga.  2  clades.  3iinpudens.  4perdcre.  5pudicitia.  6  adeone  (to — 
extent),  ’perterrere.  8malum.  9  hoc  unum  (this  one  act).  10quod. 
11  censere.  12(acc.  with  inf.).  13  retinendum  esse.  ,4quidem.  15  confectio. 
16  abstergere.  17  molestia.  18  efficere.  19  mollis.  20  convocare.  21  pisca¬ 
tor.  *  ut.  22  piscari.  23 hortari.  24  ne  (not  to).  25  dimittere.  26  ulcisci  ali¬ 
quid.  27  timere  (to  be  in  fear.)  28  ne.  29  perdere.  **ex.  30  diligentia(comp. 
§193).  t  movere.  31  litura.  32 sumere  sibi  (to  take  —  himself).  33cor- 
rigere.  34  reprehendere.  35peccatum.  36 ab  officio  declinare  (to  neglect 
duty). 


21 


242 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS, 


[§§  268, 269. 


MODES  OF  VERBS. 

268.  Modes  denote  the  manner  and  way  of  considering  an 
action,  whether  definitely  and  certainly,  or  indefinitely ,  un¬ 
certainly  and  doubtfully,  or  imperatively ,  the  last  indicating 
that  something  should  or  should  not  be  done.  When  an  action 
is  represented  in  one  of  these  three  ways,  it  is  done  in  rela¬ 
tion  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  But  it  makes  no  differ¬ 
ence,  whether  the  action  is  positive  or  negative,  because  the 
negative  sentence  may  be  as  definite,  as  the  positive. 

There  are  three  modes,  the  indicative,  subjunctive  and 
imperative. 

A.  The  Indicative. 

269.  The  indicative  attributes  something  to  the  subject 
with  definiteness  and  certainty ,  either  positively  or  negative¬ 
ly,  and  therefore  it  represents  an  event  as  an  actual  fact ;  e.  g. 
Dum  aegroto  anima  est,  vivit,  as  long  as  the  patient 
breathes,  he  lives. 

The  indicative  is  used,  both  in  principal  and  subordinate 
sentences,  as  the  example  shows.  In  the  latter  it  is  con¬ 
nected,  either  with  the  pronoun  qui,  quae,  quod,  and  those 
derived  from  it,  or  with  a  conjunction.  But  the  pronoun 
qui,  quae,  quod,  often  partakes  of  the  nature  of  such  a  con¬ 
junction,  as,  in  Latin,  is  followed  by  the  subjunctive.  Hence 
the  indicative  does  not  always  follow  this  pronoun,  although 
it  might,  perhaps,  be  expected  in  English,  but  often  the  sub¬ 
junctive.  This  will  be  treated  hereafter,  under  its  proper 
head.  So  there  are  a  number  of  conjunctions,  which  always 
have  the  subjunctive  after  them.  These  also  will  be  treated 
particularly  hereafter. 

In  principal  sentences,  on  the  contra^,  the  indicative 
prevails  entirely,  as  in  English,  when  something  definite  and 
certain  is  predicated  of  the  subject.  Sentences  beginning 
with  the  conjunctions  for,  lienee,  therefore ,  yet  and  but ,  are 
also  principal  sentences. 


MODES. — —INDICATIVE, 


243 


§270.] 


270.  Yet  sometimes,  the  English  uses  the  potential  or 
subjunctive,  where  the  Latin  speaks  definitely  in  the  indi¬ 
cative.  Here  belong: 

(fi)  Such  phrases  as,  It  would  he  too  tedious ,  it  were  too 
tedious ,  expressed  by  longum ,  immensum ,  infinitum ,  multum 
est ;  it  would  have  been  too  tedious ,  expressed  by  longum  — 
erat ;  e.  g.  it  would  be  too  tedious  to  enumerate  all  the  exam¬ 
ples  (longum  e  s  t).  So,  It  were  difficult,  difficile  e  s  t ;  it 
would  have  been  difficult ,  difficile  e  r  a  t ;  I  could  (possum) 
quote , — I  could  have  (poteram,  potui)  quoted  many  de¬ 
lights  of  my  country  life ,  but  — .  The  distinction  here  be¬ 
tween  the  English  and  the  Latin  consists  in  this,  that  in  Latin 
these  statements  are  expressed  absolutely  and  unconditionally 
(it  is  tedious),  while,  in  English  we  express  them  for  the 
most  part  with  an  implied  or  suppressed  condition  (it  would 
be  tedious,  i.  e.  if  I  should  proceed). 

(270.  a.)  (2)  When  some  duty  or  necessity  is  denoted; 
thus  with  oportere ,  debere ,  necesse  esse ,  aequum ,  par,  justum , 
consentaneum ,  officium  esse ,  convenire  and  the  like,  unless 
the  clause  be  a  part  of  a  conditional  sentence.  So  with  the 
periphrastic  conjugation  in  the  passive.  In  translating  the 
above  words,  we  frequently  use  the  indicative.  The  Latins 
think  of  every  duty,  as  an  absolute  necessity  ;  hence  the  in¬ 
dicative.  They  always  employ  the  indicative  present,  when 
something  present  is  spoken  of,  and  the  imperfect  or  perfect, 
when  something  past  is  spoken  of,  the  pluperfect  indicative 
but  seldom  ;  e.  g.  You  should  (or  ought)  to  strive  more  (now), 
debes  majorem  dare  operam  ;  this  should  (or  ought  to)  rath¬ 
er  have  been  taught ,  illud  potius  praecipiendum  fuit,  not 
fuisset;  the  coming  of  this  man  should  (ought  to)  have 
been  wished  for  by  Sulla  himself  ’  esse  debuit,  not  debu¬ 
isset;  Verres  received  the  money  tvhicli  ought  to  have  been 
given  to  the  states  of  Sicily,  dari  oportuit,  not  opor¬ 
tuisset;  this  word  should  not  have  been  changed,  mutari  non 
debebat  (debuit),  or  mutandum  non  era  t(  fuit); 


244 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  270. 


how  becoming  it  would  have  been  (quam  bellum  erat)  rather 
to  confess  your  ignorance  ;  it  would,  be  more  proper  (aequi¬ 
us  est)  for  you  to  be  silent ;  it  would  have  been  more  proper 
(aequius  erat,  fuit,  fuera  t)  for  you  to  have  been  silent. 
So  also,  nihil  erat,  quod,  it  would  not  have  been  necessary 
that — ,  not  fuisset. 

The  same  usage  often  occurs  with  the  adverbs  nearly  and  almost , 
paene  and  prope,  when  si  or  nisi  with  the  subjunciive  pluperfect 
follows,  even  if  a  matter  of  fact  is  spoken  of ;  e.  g.  The  Sublician 
bridge  would  almost  have  furnished  the  enemy  a  passage ,  had  it  not 
been  for  one  man ,  pons  Sublicius  iter  paene  hostibus  dedit,  ni 
unus  vir  fuisset.  We  often  use  the  indicative,  however  ;  e.  g.  /  had 
almost  forgotten  what  I  ought  especially  to  have  written ,  prope  obli¬ 
tus  sum,  quod  maxime  fu  it  scribendum. 

(270.  b.)  (3)  After  the  words  whoever ,  whichever,  whatever, 
wherever,  however  and  the  like,  we  often  use  the  potential, 
although  in  the  indefinite  expression  a  real  fact  is  contained. 
The  indicative  is  also  very  frequently  used.  But  the  Latin 
joins  the  words  quicumque,  quisquis,  qualiscumque,  quantus - 
cumque,  utcumque,  ubicumque,  quotquot ,  quoquo  modo,  cuicui¬ 
modi,  utut  and  the  like,  with  the  indicative,  when  they  be¬ 
long  to  a  sentence,  which,  in  definite  discourse,  is  expressed 
by  the  indicative  ;  e.  g.  Whoever  this  is  or  may  be,  quicum- 
que  e  s  t ;  this  doctrine,  from  whomsoever  it  may  be,  cujus- 
cumque  est;  whatever  that  may  be  (quidquid  est  illud), 
ivhich  he  thinks  ;  however  matters  are  or  may  be,  quoquo  mo¬ 
do  se  res  1^1  bent;  wherever  this  may  have  happened,  ubi¬ 
cumque,  hoc  factum  est.  It  is  so  also  with  s  i  v  e  —  s  i  v  e. 
Comp.  §  280.  The  indicative  here  denotes  that,  though  we 
do  not  know,  or  do  not  wish  to  know,  what,  where,  when,  or 
how  a  thing  is,  it  is  yet  actual  and  really  exists  under  some 
circumstances  or  other. 


Examples  on  §§  268 — (270.  b.) 

Wherever  a  parricide1  may  be  committed,  there  it  is  done 
maliciously2 ;  and  whoever  may  have  done*  it,  is  worthy  of 
the  punishments  of  death.  It  would  be  too  tedious4  to  reply 
to  all  which  has  been  said  by  you.  Good  men  practice  every 


MODES. - SUBJUNCTIVE. 


245 


§270.] 

duty,  however5  it  may  be  called.  The  curious6  desire7  to 
know  all  things,  of  whatever  kind8  they  are.  These  writings, 
of  whatever  kind9  they  may  be,  please  my  friends.  Truly, 
no10  wine  ought  to  have  been  given11  you,  since  you  are  suf¬ 
fering12  from  a  fever.  Themistocles  did  not  endure13  the 
grief14  of  his  ungrateful  country,  as15  he  ought  to  have 
done**.  Thy  daughter  must  have  died16  some  years  after17, 
because18  she  was  born  a  mortal.  Volumnia  should19  have 
been  more  kind20  than  she  has  been,  and  the  very  things 
which  she  has  done,  she  could  have  done  more  circumspectly. 
Cicero  then  mentioned  only  a  few  brave  Romans ;  for  it 
would  have  been  tedious21  to  have  named  all.  This  circum¬ 
stance22  has  escaped23  me,  which  perhaps  ought  not.  It 
would  certainly  be  just  for24  you  to  write  as  often25  as  pos¬ 
sible  to  your  parents.  It  would  have  been  better,  that  Aga¬ 
memnon  had  not  kept26  his  promise. 

1  parricidium.  2  improbe.  *  facere.  3  supplicium  (punishment  of 
death).  4  longum.  5  quomodocumque.  8  curiosus.  7  cupere.  8  cujus- 
cumque  modi  (of  —  kind).  9  qualiscumque  (in  the  nom.,  of  —  kind). 
10non.  11  dandum  esse.  12laborare.  13ferre.  14injuria.  15  qui  (in  acc.). 
**  (omitted  in  Lat.).  16  moriendum  esse.  17post.  18quoniam.  19debere. 
20  officiosus.  21  infinitus.  22  res.  23  fallere.  24  ut  (for  —  to).  25  quam  sae¬ 
pissime  (as  —  possible).  26  servare. 

B.  The  Subjunctive. 

(270.  c.)  The  subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  dependence , 
indejiniteness  and  doubt ,  where  one  considers  something  only 
as  possible ,  or,  at  most,  as  probable ,  and  leaves  it  undecided, 
whether  it  is  real  and  true.  Hence  it  is  employed  to  express 
what  is  conceived  in  the  mind,  what  is  fictitious ,  to  denote 
everything  which  one  wishes ,  admits  and  concedes  ;  whereas 
the  indicative  denotes  what  is  actual ,  or  what  is  considered 
as  such. 

The  English  often  corresponds  with  the  Latin,  in  the  use 
of  the  modes,  and  often  also  differs.  The  greatest  difference 
is  in  subordinate  clauses,  the  least  in  principal  clauses. 

The  subjunctive  is  therefore  used  especially  : 

(270.  d.)  (1)  Where  may ,  can ,  might ,  could,  would,  etc., 
occur  in  English;  e.  g.  It  may  be  so !  sit  ita  !  I  would 
come,  if  — ,  venirem  si  — .  Comp.  §  232. 

21* 


246 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  270. 


(2)  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  questions  implying  doubt 
respecting  the  propriety  or  certainty  of  an  action  ;  e.  g.  Why 
shall  I  not  count  myself  (numerem)  ?  What  shall  or  can 
I  do  (faciam)?  Why  shall  I  enumerate  the  great  number 
of  employments  (enumerem)?  What  could  I  do  (face¬ 
rem)?  These  questions  are  equivalent  to,  There  is  no  rea¬ 
son  why  I  should  not  count  myself  I  do  not  know  what  I 
shall  or  can  do ,  etc. 

(3)  The  present  subjunctive  often  has  the  signification  of 
an  imperative  ;  then,  in  a  sentence  containing  a  prohibi¬ 
tion,  the  word  not  is  expressed  by  ne ;  e.  g.  Let  every  one 
learn  to  know  his  own  mind  (noscat)  ;  learn  to  know  thy 
own  mind  (noscas);  let  every  one  beware  of  this  fault  (ca¬ 
veat);  let  the  youth  not  squander  his  patrimony  (n  e  e  ff  u  n- 
d  a  t) ;  now  let  no  inquiry  be  made  (ne  habeatur);  let  us 
go  (e  a  m  u  s)  ;  let  us  follow  nature  (sequamur). 

(4)  It  stands  in  hypothetical  sentences,  in  which  a  possible 
case  is  supposed.  If  this  supposed  case  should  happen  or 
should  have  happened,  then  something  else  would  happen  or 
would  have  happened;  e.  g.  If  Croesus  had  been  (fuisset) 
happy,  he  would  have  continued  (pertulisset)  his  happy 
life  to  the  day  of  his  death.  If  it  were  not  so  (esset) 
I  ivould  not  strive  for  (haud  niterer)  glory. 

(5)  The  Latin  uses  the  subjunctive  in  stating  the  senti¬ 
ments  of  another,  when  they  are  not  given  in  the  words  of 
the  speaker,  but  only  in  a  narrative  form,  provided  the  sen¬ 
tence  begins  with  a  relative  pronoun  or  a  conjunction.  Such 
a  discourse  is  called  oblique,  indirect,  dependent  discourse, 
oratio  obliqua.  All  kinds  of  subordinate  clauses,  there¬ 
fore,  which  in  direct  discourse  would  have  the  indicative,  re¬ 
quire  the  subjunctive,  whenever  they  are  to  be  represented  in 
indirect  discourse.  This  will  be  treated  more  at  length  in 
its  own  section.  Only  a  few  examples  are  given  here  :  Sul¬ 
la  wrote  to  him,  that  he  had  done  right  in  not  sparing  (p  e- 
percisset)  any  ; — that  he  should  endeavor  (daret  ope- 


§  270.] 


MODES. - SUBJUNCTIVE. 


247 


ram)  to  bring  under  his  power  (redigeret)  those  also ,  who 
had  (haberent)  a  camp  in  Megara.  Scaptius  said,  that 
that  jitld  which  he,  when  a  soldier,  had  acquired  (cepisset) 
by  his  strength,  lie  would  now  also,  when  an  old  man,  defend 
by  his  voice,  the  only  means  by  which  he  teas  able  (posset). 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  Latin  usage,  of  which  examples  are  numerous 
in  Cicero,  that  in  causal  sentences,  formed  with  quod,  because ,  and 
similar  conjunctions,  in  which  the  thought  or  expressions  of  another 
are  stated  as  the  reason  of  what  is  contained  in  the  principal  sentence 
( because  he  said,  because  he  believed ),  the  verbs  of  thinking  and 
speaking  (dicare,  putare,  etc.)  are  put  in  the  subjunctive,  followed  by 
an  Acc.  with  the  Inf.  ;  e.  g.  I  could  not  obtain  from  the  Athenians  the 
gift  of  a,  place  of  burial  within  the  city ,  because  they  said  they  were  pre¬ 
vented  by  religious  scruples ,  quod  religione  se  impediri  dice- 
rent;  i.  e.  quod  impedirentur  (because  they  were  prevented) 
ut  dicebant. 

The  two  clauses, q  uodimpedi  rentur  and  ut  dicebant,  are 
here  blended  into  one, and  dicebant  itself  takes  the  mode,  which  be¬ 
longs  usually  to  indirect  assertions  in  a  dependent  causal  sentence. 
1  peiccive  that  your  letter  was  too  short ,  because  you  had  supposed  that 
the  messenger  himself  would  bring  it,  quod  putasse  s,  when  one 
would  have  expected,  putaras.  The  same  construction  occurs 
in  relative  sentences  :  Verres  named  the  slave,  respecting  whom  he 
said,  that  he  was  the  keeper  of  the  flock,  quem  magistrum  pecoris  es¬ 
se  diceret,  instead  of  qui,  ut  dicebat,  magister  pecoris  esset. 

Examples  on  §§  (270.  c.)  (270.  d.) 

Nothing  can  be  so  difficult,  but  that1  it  can  be  investigated. 
Let  us  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  life.  Kings  can  retain2  their 
kingdoms  for  themselves,  the  rich,  their  riches.  Caesar  be¬ 
lieved,  that  it  would  not  be  expedient  to  wait  till3  the  forces4 
of  the  enemy  should  be  increased,  and  the  cavalry  should  re¬ 
turn5.  Who  indeed6  could  justly7  blame8  me  I  Alexander 
was  troubled9  that10  a  city  stood11  in  his  way.  Since12  we 
are  at  leisure13,  let  us  discourse  of  civil  law.  I  wish  that  you 
would  define,  what  pleasure  is.  Let  us  strive14  that  death 
may  find  as  little  as  possible15,  which  it  can  destroy16.  In 
this  region,  you  can  see  many  old  men  ;  and,  if  you  were 
there,  you  would  believe,  that  you  were  born  in  another  cen¬ 
tury.  May  the  gods  preserve17  to  you  this  joy  and  this  glory. 
Plato  recommends18,  that  we  should  consider19  those  as  our  ad¬ 
versaries,  who  carried  arms  against  us,  not  those,  who  would20 
defend21  the  state.  Even  in  prosperity,  let  us  avoid  pride22 
and  arrogance.  It  is  foolish  that23  I  should  prescribe18  what 
you  should  do24.  . 

1  quin  (but that).  2habere.  3dum.  4copiae.  5 reverti.  N^tandem. 


248 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  270. 

7  jure.  8  reprehendere.  9  aegre  ferre  (active).  10  quod.  11  obstare  (stand 
in  the  way).  12  quoniam.  13  vacuum  esse.  14  niti.  15  quam  paucissima. 

16  abolere.  17  servare.  18  praecipere.  19  existimare.  20  velle.  21  tueri. 
22  superbia.  23  (acc.  with  inf.).  24  agere. 

(2)  If  you  should  perchance1  find  any  one2,  who  scorned 
to  look3  upon  the  beauty  of  the  world4,  who  would  not  be 
charmed5  by  any  odor,  touch6  and  taste7,  and  would  shut8 
his  ears  against  every  delight9,  I  should  consider  him  a  favo¬ 
rite10  of  the  gods.  May  this  desert  and  rough11  way  be 
abandoned12  by  all.  Let  something  be  granted13  to  youth, 
let  not  all  pleasures  be  forbidden14,  let  not  reason  always  be 
supreme15,  Jet  desire  sometimes16  vanquish  reason,  provided17 
moderation  is  observed18;  let  youth  spare  their  own  modes¬ 
ty19,  not  plunder20  the  property  of  another21,  not  squander22 
their  patrimony,  frighten  no  one  by  violence,  and  be  free23 
from  crime24.  The  Romans  returned  in  sadness25  to  their 
camp :  one  would  have  thought26  them  vanquished.  When 
the  battle27  was  over,  one  could  have  seen  how  great  boldness 
there  had  been  in  the  army  of  Catiline.  Then,  one  could 
have  perceived28  the  Albani,  now29  joyful  and  now  trem¬ 
bling30. 

1  forte.  2  quis.  3  oculis  aspernari  (scorn  to  look).  4  res  (plural).  8  ca¬ 
pere.  6  tactus.  7  sapor.  8  excludere.  9  suavitas.  10  deliciae.  11  incultus. 
12  relinquere.  13  dare.  14  denegare.  15  superare  (active).  16  aliquando. 

17  dummodo.  18  tenere.  19  pudicitia.  20  spoliare.  21  alienus  (property  of 
anothei).  22  effundere.  23  carere.  24  scelus.  25  maestus  (in  sadness), 
^credere.  27  confecto  proelio  (wrhen  —  over).  28  animadvertere.  29  mo¬ 
do.  30  pavidus. 

Further  use  of  the  Subjunctive. 

(270.  e.)  The  subjunctive,  in  general,  expresses  depen¬ 
dence.  It  almost  always  depends  on  another  sentence  and 
supposes  such  a  one.  Hence,  every  sentence  which  depends 
upon  another  or  is  even  only  so  considered,  is  expressed  by 
the  subjunctive  ;  for  whatever  is  dependent  is  so  far  not  real. 
Therefore,  when  the  subjunctive  is  used,  the  idea  of  the 
future,  as  yet  uncertain  with  regard  to  the  issue,  is  implied 
in  it. 

Purposes  and  designs ,  consequences  and  efects,  properties 
and  qualities ,  i.  e.  assertions  that  this  or  that  is  so,  as  well  as 
limitations,  in  short,  all  cases  of  mere  possibility  are  denoted 


MODES. - SUBJUNCTIVE. 


249 


§  270.] 

by  the  subjunctive.  When  such  relations  occur,  the  event  is 
dependent ,  being  an  effect  that  has  happened  or  should  hap¬ 
pen,  from  a  preceding  cause.  The  subjunctive,  therefore, 
represents  the  action  subject  to  a  certain  condition ,  and  not 
as  a  real  and  actual  fact. 

Hence : 

(270.  f.)  (1)  Interrogative  sentences  with  whether ,  who, 
when,  where,  how,  why  and  the  like,  when  they  do  not 
ask  definitely,  but  are  dependent  upon  another  sentence,  are 
expressed  by  the  subjunctive.  Such  interrogative  sentences 
are  called  indefinite,  indirect.  Such  are,  e.  g.  I  know  not 
where  thou  art  ( hast  been,  will  be),  ubi  s  i  s  (f  u  e  r  i  s,  f  u  t  u- 
r  u  s  sis).  Write  me  soon,  how  you  live  (vivatis),  and 
what  is  doing  (agatur)  in  the  city.  Remember  what  plea¬ 
sant  days  we  have  spent  (v  i  x  e  r  i  m  u  s).  Hear,  why  I  have 
done  (fe  c  e  r  i  m)  this.  Say,  when  you  go  thither ,  e  as  or 
proficiscar  e. 

More  will  be  said  of  such  interrogative  sentences,  in  the 
section  on  indirect  questions,  §  319. 

(270.  g.)  (2)  The  subjunctive  stands  in  sentences,  which 
express  what  is  general  or  universal,  and  do  not  speak  of  defi¬ 
nite,  real  persons  and  actual  facts.  It  stands  too  in  sen¬ 
tences  which  contain  actions  that  are  repeated  and  are  consi¬ 
dered  possible  at  all  times.  Yet  this  mode  does  not,  in  such 
cases,  stand  in  principal,  but  only  in  subordinate  sentences, 
which  begin  with  a  conjunction  or  a  relative  word,  (e.  g. 
qui,  qualis,  quantus) ;  e.  g.  You  can  dismiss  pain  when  you 
wish  (quum  velis).  Use  this  good,  while  it  is  present  (dum 
adsit),  and  do  not  long  for  it,  when  it  is  absent  (dum  a  b- 
s  i  t).  Freedom  consists  in  living  as  you  wish  (ut  velis). 
You  must  make,  to  those  whom  you  unwillingly  injure  (o  fi¬ 
fe  n  d  a  s),  every  apology  which  you  can  (possis);  tell  them 
why  that  which  you  did  (feceris)  was  (fuerit)  necessa¬ 
ry  ;  and  why  you  could  not  (potueris)  have  done  other¬ 
wise.  Do  wrong  to  no  one,  although  wrong  has  been  done  (i  1- 


250 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  270. 


lata  sit )  to  you.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  last  sentence  re¬ 
ferred  to  an  actual  instance  of  wrong,  that  had  been  done, 
and  the  meaning  was :  Do  this  man  no  wrong ,  although  wrong 
has  been  done  to  you ,  it  must  be  written  :  illata  est.  Do  not 
believe ,  that  all  men  whom  you  have  conquered  (viceris), 
are  your  enemies  ;  but :  Do  not  believe  that  these  men  whom 
you  have  conquered  (v  i  cisti),  are  your  enemies.  What  de¬ 
sires  can  such  a  one ,  as  has  always  dwelt  (h  a  b  i  t  a  v  e  r  i  t)  in 
the  country  have  ?  but :  What  desires  will  this  man  have ,  who 
has  always  dwelt  (habitavit)?  The  indefinite  you,  one, 
a  man,  a  woman  belong,  for  the  most  part,  to  universal  or 
general  statements ;  hence  in  them  the  subjunctive  is  general- . 
ly  used. 

(270.  h.)  (3)  In  stating  the  thought  or  action  of  another, 
the  subjunctive  must  also  be  used  in  all  subordinate  sentences, 
which  show  the  intention  or  reason  of  the  one  thinking  or  act¬ 
ing,  given  by  himself,  why  he  does  or  thinks  something ;  in 
short,  the  subjunctive  is  used,  when  what  is  said,  is  the  senti¬ 
ment  of  the  person,  whose  thought  or  action  is  narrated. 
When,  on  the  contrary,  the  narrator  or  writer  makes  additions 
of  his  own,  or  makes  the  thought  and  reason  of  another  his 
own,  the  indicative  must  be  used.  Therefore,  the  mode  of 
the  verb  depends  alone  upon  the  thought  and  will  of  the  wri¬ 
ter,  whether  he  wishes  to  make  an  idea  depend  upon  his  own 
conception,  or  upon  that  of  another. 

The  following  examples  will  explain  this  usage  :  Old  age  seems  to 
many  sad,  because  it  withdraws  them  from  the  direction  of  business,  and 
renders  the  body [  weak,  quod  avocet  et  faciat.  If  it  had  been 
said,  quod  avocat  et  facit,  this  would  be  my  opinion  also,  and 
not  merely  the  opinion  of  the  many.  J\'o  one  abhors  pleasure  itself, 
because  it  is  pleasure,  quia  voluptas  s  i  t.  Tisagoras  spoke  for  his  bro¬ 
ther  Miltiades,  because  he  could  not,  quoniam  non  posset.  The  last, 
therefore,  are  the  words  of  Tisagoras,  containing  the  reason  why  he, 
and  not  Miltiades,  spoke.  Darius  placed  guards  over  the  bridge,  as 
long  as  he  teas  absent,  dum  ipse  abesset.  The  last  clause  is  the 
sentiment  of  Darius,  and  not  the  idea  of  the  writer  narrating  it, — • 
they  should  be,  as  long  as  he  was  absent,  until  he  had  returned. 

But  when  it  is  said,  e.  g.  He  charged  it  upon  him  as  a  crime ,  that  he 
had  banished  his  son  Titus ,  who  teas  afterwards  called  Torquatus,  then 
the  last  clause  is  expressed  by  qui  est  appellatus;  for  it 


§270. 


MODES. - SUBJUNCTIVE. 


251 


does  not  belong  to  the  statement  of  the  complainant,  but  is  an  obser¬ 
vation  of  Cicero,  the  narrator.  Know ,  that  what  ice  have  done  for  the 
good  of  our  country ,  is  -praised  by  the  ichole  world ,  quae  nos  pro  salute 
patriae  gessimus,  not  gesserimus,  because  otherwise  Cice¬ 
ro  would  have  stated  doubtingly  this  indisputable  fact  to  which  he 
refers. 

Remark.  It  is  generally  given  as  a  rule,  that,  in  sentences  contain¬ 
ing  the  accusative  and  the  infinitive  or  conjunctions  which  signify 
that ,  and  in  interrogative  sentences,  all  the  subordinate  clauses  be¬ 
longing  to  them,  must  be  put  in  the  subjunctive.  This  is,  to  be  sure, 
the  case  in  most  instances,  because  these  sentences  are  intimate¬ 
ly  connected  with  such  other  sentences,  or  depend  upon  them.  But 
this  requires  great  caution,  as  the  foregoing  and  many  other  examples 
prove ;  because  the  subjunctive  can  be  used,  only  when  there  is  a  re¬ 
al  dependence  on  some  other  sentence.  In  respect  to  qui,  quae ,  quod 
and  other  relatives,  in  which  there  is  often  concealed  a  purpose ,  con¬ 
sequence  or  cause ,  and  which  then  take  the  subjunctive,  as  well  as  in 
respect  to  the  conjunctions,  which  are  either  always,  or  in  certain 
significations,  followed  by  the  subjunctive,  see  the  next  following 
sections. 


f  f  f\  |  ■  ‘  Examples  on  §§  (270.  e.) — (270.  h.) 

'  /I  do  not  know  why1  you  are  afraid.  No  one  knows  whe¬ 
ther2  this  is  true.  Write  me  as  soon3  as  possible,  how4  you 
are5.  You  do  not  see,  in  how  great6  danger  you  are.  Re¬ 
member  what  letters  I  have  written  to  you.  I  will  write  to 
you  what  I  missed7  in  your  letter.  I  know8  well,  how9  im¬ 
pudently  I  act10.  Thou  wilt  learn11  from  Pollio,  what  is  do¬ 
ing12  here  at  Rome.  It  is  not  easy  to  write,  how13  things 
are  at  present.  I  know  not  what  resolution  our  Pompey  has 
adopted,  or  adopts.  I  do  not  believe,  that  Marcellus  was 
brave  at  Clastidium,  because14  he  had  been  irritated.  Let 
us  see,  how  powerful15  are  the  remedies,  which  are  applied16 
by  philosophy  to  the  diseases  of  the  soul.  We  must17  strive18 
to19  obtain20  those  blessings  which  have  been  granted21  to  us. 
Plato  says,  that  those,  who  contended  with  one  another,  in* 
regard  to  which  of  two  governed22  the  state  best,  acted  in  the 
same  manner23,  as24  if  pilots  should  dispute25  which  of  them 
steered26  best27.  To  restrain28  your  feelings  and  language29, 
when  you  are  angry,  is  the  mark  of  no  ordinary  mind30.  No¬ 
thing  is  more  shameful,  than  to  wage  war  with  those,  with 
whom  one  has  lived31  on  intimate32  terms.  Panaetius  praises 
the  younger33  Scipio,  because34  he  was  abstemious. ,\Tt  is  not 
contrary  to  nature,  if  one  can,  to  plunder35  those,  whom  it  is 
honorable36  to  kill.  What  is  more  foolish,  than  to  fear,  that37 


252 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[$  270. 


you  cannot  longer"8  do  that,  which  you  do  willingly.  I  be¬ 
lieve,  that  such  a  man  will  do  nothing,  except39  what  is  use¬ 
ful40  to  him41.  It  often  happens,  that  he,  who  has  been  re¬ 
commended  to  some  one,  values42  him  more,  to  whom  he  has 
been  recommended,  than  him,  by  whom  he  has  been  recom¬ 
mended.  What  is  freedom  ?  Power43  to  live  as  you  wish. 
It  is  not  enough  to  have  virtue,  as  it  were44,  some  art,  unless 
you  use  it.  Can  we  indeed45  consider  such  a  one,  in  any  re¬ 
spect46,  a  commander,  in  whose  army  the  office  of  centuri¬ 
on47  is  bought48,  and  has  been  bought  ?  It  is  difficult  to  re¬ 
member49  what  one  has  heard50,  unless  he  makes  use  of  it. 

1  cur.  2num.  3 quam  primum.  4quid.  5agere.  6  quantus.  7  deside¬ 
rare.  8  non  ignorare  (to  know  well).  9  quam.  10  facere.  11  accipere. 
12  agi.  13  ut.  14  quia  (comp.  §241).  15  quantus.  16  adhibere  alicui. 

17  (verbal  adjective).  18niti.  19  ut.  20  consequi.  21  dare.  *  {in  regard  to 
is  omitted  in  Lat.).  22  administrare.  23  similiter.  24  ut.  25  certare  (im- 
perf.  subj.,  for  they  did  not  contend  with  one  another).  26  gubernare. 
27  potissimum.  28  moderari.  29  oratio.  30  ingenium.  31  (2d  person). 
32  familiariter  (on  —  terms).  33  minor.  34  quod.  35  spoliare.  36  honestus. 
37  ut.  38  diu.  39  nisi.  40  expedire.  41  ipse.  42  facere.  43  potestas.  44  quasi 
(as  it  were).  45  num.  46 aliquo  in  numero  putare  (to  consider  in  any  re¬ 
spect).  47  centuriatus  (office  of  centurion).  48  venire.  49  memoria  tene¬ 
re.  50  accipere. 


Conjunctions  which  i njl uence  the  Modes  of 

Verbs. 

(270.  i.)  Conjunctions  connect  two  events  with  each  oth¬ 
er,  and  hence  the  verb  is  intimately  connected  with  them. 

Every  conjunction,  whatever  it  be,  is  followed  by  the  sub¬ 
junctive,  when  the  sentence  denotes  what  is  general ,  uncer - 
tain ,  doubtful ,  or  when  a  property  or  quality  of  a  subject,  is 
assumed  as  merely  possible.  Hence,  where  something  in¬ 
definite  is  predicated  of  the  subject,  no  Latin  conjunction  is 
followed  by  the  indicative,  but  by  the  subjunctive.  There¬ 
fore,  when  conjunctions,  which  at  other  times  have  the  indi¬ 
cative,  are  followed  by  the  subjunctive,  the  event  is  thereby 
considered  only  as  a  possible  one,  and  the  words  expressive  of 
doubt,  perhaps ,  one  would  believe,  and  the  auxiliary  verbs, 
may,  can  and  the  like,  must  be  supplied  in  the  mind.  It  can¬ 
not,  therefore,  be  said  with  truth,  that  a  conjunction  governs  a 


MODES. - CONJ  UNCTIONS. 


253 


§271.] 

definite  mode.  The  thought  contained  in  each  sentence  de¬ 
termines  the  mode.  Yet  some  conjunctions,  in  a  particular 
signification,  take  only  the  subjunctive. 

(270.  j.)  The  indicative  with  a  conjunction  indicates,  that 
the  speaker  definitely  attributes  to  the  subject  the  predicate 
contained  in  the  verb.  Therefore,  conjunctions,  which  sig¬ 
nify  because ,  and  denote  known,  certain  and  definite  causes, 
e.  g.  quia,  quoniam,  quod,  quando  and  others ;  moreover,  all 
restricting  conjunctions,  which  signify  although,  e.  g.  ctsi , 
quamquam,  and  all  particles  of  time,  e.  g.  postquam,  simul , 
ubi,  quum,  etc.  take  the  indicative. 

The  subjunctive,  on  the  contrary,  shows  that  the  predicate 
of  the  subject  is  merely  conceived  of,  or  is  yet  to  be  accom¬ 
plished.  Therefore,  conjunctions  signifying  that,  in  order 
that ,  take  the  subjunctive,  because  the  result  of  the  action  is 
uncertain,  inasmuch  as  purpose,  consequence ,  effect,  wish 
and  command  are  just  as  uncertain  as  the  future. 

But  since  some  conjunctions  have  different  significations, 
and  accordingly  admit  and  require  different  modes,  and  many 
also  do  not  fall  within  the  given  rules,  they  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes:  (1)  Such  as  are  followed  by  the  indica¬ 
tive;  (2)  Such  as  are  followed  by  the  subjunctive;  and  (3) 
Such  as,  according  to  their  different  significations,  and  ac- 
cording  to  the  idea  contained  in  the  sentence,  admit  both 
modes. 

I.  Co  nj  unctions  with  the  In  dicativ  e. 

271.  The  conjunctions  here  following  take  the  indicative 
in  every  sentence  which  expresses  a  definite  and  certain  opin¬ 
ion  or  thought.  All  the  instances  before  mentioned,  where 
the  subjunctive  is  used,  §  (270.  c.) — (270.  h.),  here  form  a 
necessary  exception.  These  conjunctions  are:  quamquam,  etsi, 
tametsi,  postquam,  ubi,  simul,  simulae,  ut,  quando,  quando- 
cumque,  (quandoquidem,  quandoque,  quatenus,  quia,  quoniam, 
quod,  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin,  sive ,  etiamsi. 

22  * 


254 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  272,  273. 


272.  (1)  Etsi,  cpuanquam,  tametsi,  (tamenet- 
si),  although.  When  the  speaker  expresses  and  states  some¬ 
thing  definite,  actual  and  certain,  or  declares  his  own  senti¬ 
ment,  the  indicative  alone  is  used  ;  e.  g.  Although  he  can , 
quanquam  potest;  although  this  can  be  censured  in  ma¬ 
ny  icays ,  etsi  potest;  although  Hannibal  saw ,  e  t  s  i  vi¬ 
debat;  although  nothing  was  more  to  be  desired  by  me,  t  a- 
m  e  t  s  i  f  u  i  t. 

The  subjunctive  follows  these  particles,  when  something  indefinite, 
general,  possible  or  doubtful  is  said,  or  in  the  construction  of  the  ora¬ 
tio  obliqua;  see  §  (270.  d.  5).  The  present  is  used  when  the  case  is 
merely  represented  as  possible,  either  without  reference  to  a  definite 
time,  or  with  a  reference  to  the  present  of  the  speaker ;  the  imperf. 
or  pluperf.  either  with  reference  to  the  past,  or  to  denote  something 
not  actual  but  supposed  ;  e.  g.  Although  they  hare  some  misfortunes, 
quanquam  sint  in  quibusdam  malis.  Epicurus  taught,  that  all 
feelings  of  pleasure,  although  they  were  judged  of  by  the  sensation  of 
the  body  (quanquam  j  u  d  i  centur),  nevertheless  belonged  to  the  bo¬ 
dy.  Some  do  not  venture  to  express  their  opinion,  a! though  it  may  be  (etsi 
s  i  t)  the  best  even.  Though  you  had  taken  nothing  else  from  Sulla  but 
the  consulship ,  yet  you  ought  to  have  been  content  with  that ,  (etsi  ab¬ 
stulissetis).  So  especially  quamquam  in  intermediate  clauses, 
when  something  is  only  conjectured  ;  e.  g.  Although  this  may  be  less 
wonderful ,  (quanquam  —  mirum  s  i  t)  to  others.  Comp.  §  §  (270.  c.) 
—(270.  h.) 

273.  (2)  Postquam,  posteaquam,  ubi(primu  m), 
simul,  simulae  (p  r  i  m  u  m),  s  i  m  u  1  a  t  q  u  e,  ut,  after 
that,  when,  as  soon  as,  as.  All  these  particles  of  time  take 
the  indicative  only,  when  events  that  have  really  occurred, 
and  not  such  as  are  merely  conceived,  are  spoken  of.  The 
most  usual  tense,  when  a  past  event,  or  rather  an  event  past 
prior  to  some  other  past,  is  denoted,  is  the  perfect.  In¬ 
stead  of  this,  however,  the  historic  present  is  often  used,  but 
not  the  imperfect.  The  pluperfect  is  generally  used,  only 
when  still  another  designation  of  time  precedes,  or  when  it 
forms  a  subordinate  clause,  or  when  the  principal  clause  has 
an  imperfect,  and  the  other  denotes  a  repeated  past  action ; 
e.  g.  As  soon  as  this  happened  (had  happened)  (quod  ubi 
accidit),  the  barbarians  fled.  When  (u  t)  Hannibal  had 
returned  (r  ed  i  i  t)  to  Carthage ,  he  teas  made  praetor ,  after 


§  *274.] 


MODES. - CONJUNCTIONS. 


255 


that  (postquam)  he  had  been  (fuerat)  king  in  his  ticen- 
ty-second  year.  After  (posteaquam)  the  same  had  come 
(v  e  n  i  t)  to  the  Alps,  the  inhabitants  prevented  his  passage. 
The  fifteenth  day  after  he  died  (postquam  mortuus 
erat),  I  received  the  account.  Every  animal,  as  soon  as  it 
is  born,  simul  ut  ortum  est.  As  soon  as  Metellus  had 
placed  his  foot  over  the  threshold  (simulae  pedem  —  ex¬ 
tulerat),  he  began  to  conquer  (superabat). 

The  conjunctions  ut,  ubi,  postquam ,  are  followed  by  the 
imperfect,  only  when  an  event  is  cotemporary  with  the  event 
of  the  principal  clause,  and  simul  and  its  compounds,  by  the 
future  and  the  future-perfect,  when  the  events  are  future ; 
e.  g.  When  (u  t)  all  seas  and  lands  were  open  (patebant), 
fortune  began  to  frown.  As  soon  as  there  shall  be  anything 
certain  (simul  quid  certi  erit).  As  soon  as  I  have  seen  him 
(simulatque  eum  videro).  When  (u  t)  Hortensius  was  be¬ 
ing  brought  back  (reducebatur)  to  his  house ,  Curio  met 
him. 

So,  postridie,  qua  m,  the  day  after ,  is  used  with  the  perfect  indi¬ 
cative  for  postquam,  e.  g.  The  day  after  I  left  you,  postridie,  quam  a 
vobis  discessi. 

It  is  further  to  be  remarked,  that  when  Cicero  would  make  the  pri¬ 
ority  of  one  past  action  to  another  prominent,  he  does  not  use  post - 
quam,  but  quum  with  the  pluperfect.  Postquam  is  therefore  employ¬ 
ed  but  seldom. 

These  particles  of  time  can  have  the  subjunctive,  only  under  the 
conditions  stated  above,  §  §  (270.  c.) — (270.  h.)  U  b  i  especially,  often 
takes  the  imperf.  or  pluperf.  subj.  to  denote  actions  frequently  repeat¬ 
ed  in  the  past;  e.  g.  whenever  the  tribunes  aided  the  lower  classes,  (ubi 
essent  auxilio). 

274.  (3)  Quando,  because,  since ;  quandocumque, 
whenever,  as  often  as ;  quandoquidem,  seeing  that ; 
q u  andoque,  whenever ,  because.  These  particles  take  the 
indicative  in  each  of  their  significations,  when  the  sentence 
contains  a  definite  assertion ;  e.  g.  Since,  therefore,  there  is 
in  every  virtue,  a  certain  anxiety,  quando  i  n  e  s  t ;  since  you 
have  given  me  a  noble  proof  of  your  judgment,  quandoquidem 
dedisti;  because  you  fought  contrary  to  our  commands 
against  the  enemy,  quandoque  pugnasti;  as  often  as 


256 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  275—277. 


(quandocumque)  any  opportunity  had  presented  itself  (o  fo¬ 
tui  er  at),  the  Romans  broke  forth  from  their  rampart 
(erumpebant). 

It  is  now  doubted,  whether,  in  the  classical  writers,  quando  has  the 
signification  of  because  and  since ,  inasmuch  as  in  all  those  places, 
where  it  occurs  in  this  sense,  the  reading  should  be  quoniam ,  as  is  ve¬ 
ry  often  the  case  in  Cicero.  Quando  has  only  the  interrogative  sense 
of  when  ?  and  in  direct  questions  takes  the  indicative,  but  in  indirect, 
the  subjunctive. 

The  subjunctive  is  used  with  these  particles,  when  one  of  the  cases 
mentioned  under  §§  (270.  c.) — (270.  h.)  occurs. 

275.  (4)  Quatenus,  how  far,  so  far  as,  since,  as  soon  as, 
when  there  is  a  definite  assertion,  takes  the  indicative  only, 
and  the  subjunctive,  only  when  the  cases  mentioned  under 
§§  (270.  c.) — (270.  h.)  require  it;  e.  g.  So  far  as  he  spake 
of  religious  scruples,  he  ivas  assented  to,  quatenus  dicebat. 
Since  long  life  is  denied  to  us,  quatenus  negatur;  as  soon 
as  I  found  an  arbiter  of  this  contention,  quatenus  inveni; 
but  in  indirect  discourse,  the  subjunctive  is  used  ;  e.  g.  Pli¬ 
ny  says,  that,  since  long  life  is  denied  to  us,  we  must  leave  be¬ 
hind  us  something  immortal,  quatenus  negetur. 

276.  (5)  Quia,  because ;  quoniam,  since .  These 
two  conjunctions  also  have  the  indicative,  at  least  in  Cicero, 
in  all  cases,  when  the  sentence  contains  a  definite  assertion 
and  the  reason  of  the  speaker  himself,  and  does  not  depend 
upon  another  sentence.  If  the  sentence  is  dependent,  the 
subjunctive  is  used  [comp.  §§  (270.  c.) — (270.  h.)]  as  it  is 
also  with  non  quia,  with  or  without  sed  quod  following,  be¬ 
cause  that  gives  only  a  conceived  reason,  and  not  the  true 
one,  and  therefore  requires  the  subjunctive  ;  e.  g.  j Because  we 
are  inclined  to  these  passions,  quia  sumus;  since,  on  the 
two  previous  days,  death  and  pain  were  treated  of,  quoniam 
dictum  est;  I  believe  that  Marcellus  was  brave  at  Clasti¬ 
dium,  not  because  he  was  angry,  non  quia  fuerit  iratus. 
The  subjunctive  is  here  used  to  denote  the  conceived  reason, 
and  not  the  true  one,  which  follows  in  the  indicative. 

277.  (6)  Quod,  that,  because ;  propterea  quod,  on 


MODES. - CONJUNCTIONS. 


257 


§  278.] 

this  account  that ,  because ;  praeterquam  quod,  besides 
that.  These  take  the  indicative,  when  the  speaker  expresses 
something  definite,  as  his  own  reason,  and  does  not  utter 
the  sentiment  or  words  of  another.  But  in  the  cases  men¬ 
tioned  under  §§(270.  c.) — (270.  h.),  the  Subj.  is  used,  and 
also  with  non  ( eo ,  ideo ,  idcirco,)  quod ,  followed  by  sed 
quod,  because  these  also  denote  only  an  imaginary,  and  not 
the  true  reason,  and  are  the  same  as,  non  (eo)  quo,  not  that, 
which  also  takes  the  subjunctive;  e.  g.  Because  Epicurus 
was  (f  u  i  t)  an  honest  man,  and  many  Epicureans  have  been 
(fuerun  t)  faithful  in  their  friendship,  and  stillare  (s  u  n  t). 
It  is  pleasing  to  me,  that  you  still  long  for  us  (quod  —  re¬ 
quiris).  You  write  to  me,  you  have  only  one  comfort ,  that 
you  possess  my  books  instead  of  me  (quod  —  teneas). 
Combatants  sigh,  not  that  they  feel  pain  (non  quod  d  o  1  e- 
a  n  t),  but  because  — ;  the  second  quod  after  sed  can  also  be 
omitted.  When  I  say,  Queritur  quod  humana  vita  brevis 
est,  I  also  admit  the  shortness  of  human  life,  as  a  truth ; 
but  when  I  say,  Queritur  quod  vita  humana  brevis  s  i  t,  I  only 
quote  the  complaint  of  another,  without  myself  admitting  this, 
as  a  truth.  In  sentences  containing  an  indefinite  general  state¬ 
ment,  the  subjunctive  is  also  always  used  after  est,  non  est, 
nihil  est,  quid  est,  which  can  be  translated,  there  is  a  reason, 
no  reason,  why ;  it  is  necessary ,  that ;  it  is  not  necessary , 
that ;  why  ?  e.  g.  Why  do  you  weep  ?  quid  est,  quod  fleas! 
You  need  not  weep,  non  est,  quod  fleas.  It  is  not  necessary 
for  you  to  hasten,  n on  (nihil)  est,  quod  festines.  Here 
the  subjunctive  expresses  the  idea  of  necessity  or  possibility , 
which  would  not  be  contained  in  the  indicative.  Comp,  also 
§  303.  Respecting  quod,  so  far  as,  as  far  as,  with  the 
subjunctive,  see  §  314. 

278.  (7)  S  i,  if ;  nisi,  n  i,  unless ,  if  not ;  sin,  but  if; 
si  q  u  i  d  e  m,  if  indeed ;  quod  si ,  if  then,  if  therefore,  but 
if;  s  i  v  e — s  i  v  e,  whether — or,  if  either — or  ;  s  i  f  o  r  t  e,  if 
perhaps ;  nisi  forte,  unless  perhaps  ;  etiamsi,  although , 

22* 


258 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  279,  280. 


even  if  When  the  sentences  with  these  particles  contain 
certain  and  definite  conditions  and  refer  to  something  actual, 
and  when  the  assertion  in  English  is  definite,  certain  and  po¬ 
sitive,  the  indicative  is  used;  e.  g.  If  nature  prescribes  this, 
si  praescribit;  if  then  this  is  so,  quod  si  ita  e  s  t ;  limbs 
are  amputated,  if  they  have  begun  to  be  without  blood,  and,  as 
it  were,  without  breath,  si  coeperunt;  if  then  nothing  is 
so  contrary  to  nature  as  baseness,  quod  si  nihil  e  s  t ;  ke  will 
desert  you,  unless  you  do  so,  nisi  ita  facies;  even  if  perhaps 
there  is  no  means  there,  etiam  si  res  forte  non  suppetit. 

279.  The  conjunction  nisi  forte,  when  it  implies  mockery 
or  irony  in  an  actual  matter  of  fact,  always  takes  the  indica¬ 
tive;  e.  g.  Unless  it  be  that  youth  should  long  for  boyhood, 
nisi  forte  adolescentes  pueritiam  debent  requirere.  Un¬ 
less  it  be,  that  thy  Athens  could  have  retained  an  ever-endur¬ 
ing  olive  tree,  nisi  forte  Athenae  tuae  potuerunt. 

280.  So  sive — sive  take  the  indicative  in  all  cases,  unless 
there  are  other  circumstances,  which  require  the  subjunctive  ; 
e.  g.  Whether  this  is  so,  or  in  that  manner,  hoc  sive  sic  est, 
sive  illo  modo ;  be  anxious  for  this,  whether  you  have  some 
hope,  or  despair,  sive  habes  aliquam  spem,  sive  desperas; 
whether  the  bed  is  soft  or  hard,  cubile  seu  molle  seu  durum 
est;  whether  they  remained  or  followed,  sive  manserunt 
sive  secuti  sunt. 


On  the  contrary,  the  subjunctive  is  used  according  to  the  conditions 
stated  §  §  (270.  c.) — 270.  h.)  ;  especially  therefore  with  what  is  only 
possible  and  conceived,  consequently  in  sentences  containing  general 
statements  (see  §  270.  g.),  or  when  the  reasons,  sentiments  and  words 
of  another  are  expressed  ;  e.  g.  Some  may  censure  this,  if  it  is  done  with 
too  Little  exertion,  si  remissius  agatur.  If  any  one  should  happen  to 
wonder,  si  quis  forte  miretur.  The  wise  man  does  not  refuse  to  die,  if 
that  be  better ,  si  ita  melius  sit.  tl  is  useless  to  learn  an  art,  unless  you 
practise  it,  nisi  exerceas,  not  exerces.  It  is  xcise  to  accommodate 
yourself  to  the  time,  if  you  are  compelled  by  necessity,  si  necessitate 
cogare  (cogaris).  Only  one  thing  must  be  observed,  that  the  burial 
relates  only  to  the  body,  whether  the  sou.1  dies,  or  continues  to  live,  sive 
occiderit  sive  v  i  g  e  a  t  (oratio  obliqua).  The  following  clauses  are 
different ;  If  we  are  angry,  denoting  anger  really  felt,  and  if  we  are 
angry,  denoting  only  supposed  anger.  The  former  is  expressed  by  si 
irascimur,  the  latter  by  si  irascamur. 


MODES. - CONJUNCTIONS. 


259 


§  280.] 

So  also  etiamsi ,  when  it  signifies,  even  if ,  supposing  also ,  although , 
takes  the  subjunctive;  e.  g.  Even  if  it  in  no  respect  concerns  them, 
etiamsi  eorum  nihil  intersit.  Some  believe,  that  this  conjunction 
takes  the  subjunctive  only,  and  that  it  should  be  so  written  in  all 
cases.  But  yet  there  must  properly  be  exceptions,  where  actual  facts 
are  spoken  of,  and  where  the  thought  is,  indeed,  this  is  really  so,  hut 
nevertheless  ;  e.  g.  Although  the  Cappadocians  are  our  friends ,  never¬ 
theless  they  do  not  dare ,  Cappadbces,  etiamsi  sunt.  Although  the 
truth  is  not  pleasing,  yet  it  is  grateful  to  me,  etiamsi  jucunda  non  est. 

Examples  on  §§  (270.  i.) — 280. 

(1)  Alexander  was  displeased1,  that2  a  city  was  in  his  way3. 
After4  Gracchus  had  returned  to  Rome,  he  commanded  that 
this  exploit5  should  be  painted6  in  the  temple  of  Freedom. 
When7  a  certain  Fabius  perceived8  Varus,  he  thrust9  his 
sword10  at  his  naked11  shoulder.  Since12  we  are  at  leisure13, 
we  will  discourse  at  length14  concerning  civil  law.  If  a  happy 
life  can  be  lost15,  it  cannot  be  happy.  It  is  certain,  that16 
there  is  nowhere*  a  place  for  virtue  and  friendship,  if  every¬ 
thing  is  to  be  referred17  to  pleasure.  Tanaquil  thinks18  of 
another  means19,  if  hope  should  fail20  her.  As  soon  as21 
Caesar  had  come  to  Brundusium,  he  made22  an  address  be¬ 
fore23  the  soldiers.  Say  this  in  the  court24,  or,  if  you  fear 
the  assembly25,  say  it  in  the  senate  ;  you  will  do  it,  unless  it 
is  a  disgraceful26  report.  Although27  I  am  sufficiently  mild28, 
yet  sometimes  I  am  wont  to  be  a  little  angry29.  As  soon 
as30  the  Dictator  had  seen31  this,  he  immediately32  sent  forth 
his  horsemen  against  the  enemy.  Why33  do  we  blame  this 
orator  ?  You  need34  not  envy  the  rich.  Although35  old  age36 
is  deprived  of  immoderate  feasts37,  yet  it  can  find  pleasure  in 
moderate38  entertainments39.  So  far  as40  I  know,  there  are 
no  holydays  this  month,  t 

1  aegre  ferre.  2 quod.  3 obstare  (to  be  in  the  way).  4 postquam.  5 res 
gesta.  6  depingere.  7ubi.  8  conspicere.  9appetere.  10  (ablative).  11  aper¬ 
tus.  12quoniam.  13  vacuus  esse.  14copiose.  15  amitti.  16  (acc.  with  inf.). 
*  neque  usquam.  17  referre.  18  moliri.  19  praesidium.  20  destituere.  21  ut 
(as  —  as).  22 concinnari  (to  make  an  address).  23apud.  24judicium. 
25  corona.  26  turpis.  27  etsi.  28  clemens.  29  subirasci  (to  be  a  little  angry). 
30 simul  (as  —  as).  31  conspicere.  32emittere.  33 quid  est,  quod.  34non 
(nihil)  est,  quod,  (there  is  no  need).  35quanquam.  3<Jsenectus.  37 epu¬ 
lae.  38  immoderatus.  39convivium.  40  quod  (so  —  as). 

(2)  The  slaughter1  was  small,  because2  the  enemy  were 
few.  If  there  should  be  a  mistake  in  this,  that3  the  ancient 
annals4  represent5  Cossus  in  the  ninth  year  after,  as  Consul, 
it  is  a  common  mistake.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  judge,  in 


260 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  281,282. 


law-suits,  always  to  follow  truth — the  duty  of  the  advocate6 
sometimes  also  to  defend  what  is  probable7,  even  if8  it  has 
little  truth.  Beneficence9  ought10  to  incline11  towards12  the 
unfortunate13,  unless  perhaps  they  deserve  misfortune14.  De¬ 
metrius  Phalerius  blamed15  Pericles,  because16  he  had  spent17 
so  much18  money  upon19  the  splendid20  Propylaea.  Aratus 
thought21  it  unjust22,  that23  the  possessions  of  fifty  years  should 
be  changed24,  because25,  in  so  long  a  period26,  many  things 
were  justly27  possessed28  by  inheritance29,  by  purchase30  and 
by  gifts31.  The  eleventh  day  after  I  left32  you,  I  wrote  this 
letter.  After  the  day  of  the  truce33  had  passed34,  the  Persian 
marched35  to  Caria,  because  most  of  his  possessions  were 
there.  There  is  no  reason,  that36  we  should  be  angry  with 
those  who  do  not  favor  us.  Why37  do  my  parents  write  to 
me  so  seldom  ?  Animals,  whether38  they  thrust39  with  their 
horns,  or  bite  with  their  teeth,  or  defend40  themselves  in  any 
other  manner,  all  have  something41  by  which  they  protect42 
themselves. 

‘caedes.  2  quia  (see  also  §  145,6).  3  quod.  4  annalis.  5  habere.  6  pa¬ 
tronus.  7  verisimile.  8  etiamsi.  9  benignitas.  10  debere,  “propensus 
esse.  12 in.  13 calamitosus.  14 Calamitas.  15  vituperare.  16 quod,  “con¬ 
jicere.  “tantus.  19  in.  20 praeclarus.  21  putare.  22 iniquus.  23(acc.  with 
inf.).  24  movere.  25  propterea  quod.  26spatium.  27  haud  injuria.  28  te¬ 
nere.  "hereditas.  30  emptio.  31  donum.  "discedere.  33indutiae. 
34  praeterire.  35  proficisci.  3Gnon  (nihil)  est,  quod  (there  —  that). 
37 quid  est,  quod.  3ssive.  "petere.  40tutari.  41  (omitted  in  Latin). 
42  tutus  reddere. 


II.  Conjunctions  with  the  Subjunctive. 

281.  The  following  conjunctions  take  the  subjunctive  in 
every  sentence,  whatever  be  its  connection  with  other  sen¬ 
tences.  These  conjunctions  are  :  ne,  quo ,  quominus,  utinam., 
o  si,  licet,  velut,  quasi,  perinde  [proinde)  ac  si  or  quasi,  utsi, 
tamquam,  quamvis,  quantumvis. 

(1 )  Ne,  that  not,  in  order  that  not,  not  to,  from,  and  with 
verbs  of  fearing,  that ;  e.  g.  I  request  you,  not  to  do  anything 
unwillingly  on  my  account,  ne  quid  facias;  you  fear  that 
you  will  lose  some  of  your  goods,  ne  quid  deperdas. 

Respecting  the  interrogative  ne,  see  interrogative  words. 

282.  (2)  duo,  in  order  that,  that  thereby,  in  order  that  the ; 


§§  283, 284.] 


MODES. - CONJUNCTIONS. 


261 


non  quo,  not  that ,  not  as  if ;  quominus,  that  not,  from ; 
e.  g.  Give  him  something,  in  order  that  he  may  be  the  more 
zealous,  quo  s  i  t  studiosior.  Not  that  I  have  practised  speak¬ 
ing,  non  quo  exercuerim.  Nothing  prevents  us  from  be¬ 
ing  able  to  do  this,  quominus  possimus. 

The  opposite  of  non  quo  is  non  quin  or  non  quo  non,  not  but  that, 
not  that  —  not,  not  as  if  —  not.  Comp.  §  287. 

(3)  U  tin  am  and  o  si,  O  that,  would  to  God  that ;  e.  g. 
O  that  this  also  were  in  my  power  !  utinam  esset! 

(4)  Licet,  though,  although ;  e.  g.  Although  my  body 
was  absent,  yet  my  spirit  was  present,  licet  abesset. 

283.  (5)  Velut  (si),  quasi,  utsi,  perinde  (pro¬ 
inde)  ac  si  or~  quasi  and  t  a  n  q  u  a  m  (si),  just  as  if  ; 
e.  g.  The  Greeks  call  rage,  melancholy,  as  if  the  mind  were 
excited  by  black  gall  alone,  quasi  moveatur. 

(6)  d  u  a  m  v  i  s,  quamvis  licet  and  quantumvis, 
however,  how  much  soever ;  e.  g.  However  wise  you  may  be, 
quamvis  sis;  however  acute  he  may  have  been,  quamvis 
fuerit. 

The  poets  and  writers  subsequent  to  the  classical  age,  use  quamvis 
for  quamquam ,  and  join  it  with  the  indicative.  This  usage  should 
not  be  imitated. 

III.  Conjunctions  which  are  sometimes  fo  l- 

lowed  by  the  Indicative  and  sometimes  by 

the  Subj  ujict  iv  e. 

284.  A  third  class  of  conjunctions  take  a  different  mode, 
either  according  to  their  different  significations,  or  according 
to  the  different  tenses,  with  which  they  are  connected  in  the 
sentence.  Yet,  what  was  stated  above  respecting  those  fol¬ 
lowed  by  the  indicative,  is  true  here  also,  viz.,  that  all  which 
take  the  indicative,  can,  under  the  circumstances  mentioned 
§§  (270.  c.) — (270.  h.),  take  the  subjunctive  also.  The  con¬ 
junctions  which  belong  here  are  :  ut, prout,  quin,  quum  (cum), 
dum,  modo,  dummodo,  donec,  quoad ,  antequam  and  priusquam. 


262  CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS.  [§§  285 - 287. 

285.  (1)  Ut,  uti.  This,  according  to  its  different  signifi¬ 
cations,  takes  a  different  mode  : 

(a)  U  t,  uti,  as,  how,  when;  prout,  as,  according  as, 
take  the  indicative,  when  the  statement  of  the  speaker  is  defi¬ 
nite,  and  they  mark  only  an  intermediate  clause,  or  when 
they  are  used  in  making  comparisons,  followed  by  sic,  ita, 
or  a  similar  word;  e.  g.  As  we  seek  (appetimus)  the 
blessings  of  nature ,  so  we  avoid  the  evils  of  nature.  The  pas¬ 
sions  are,  as  we  have  before  said  (diximus),  the  boisterous 
motions  of  the  soul.  As  he  loved  letters,  prout  litteras  ama¬ 
bat.  So  even  u  t  u  t,  however ;  e.  g.  However  things  may 
be  or  are,  ut  ut  se  res  h  a  b  e  n  t,  not  habeant;  and  u  t- 
cumque,  however ;  e.  g.  However  necessary  it  may  be, 
utcumque  necesse  est,  not  sit.  See  §  (270.  b.). 

But  when  the  word  ut  depends  upon  another  word,  e.  g.  Thou  dost  not 
know  how  (u  t)  this  has  happened,  see  §  ('270.  f.) ;  or  when  the  sen¬ 
tence  with  the  conjunction  ut  expresses  general  facts,  or  belongs  to 
the  discourse  of  another,  and  contains  his  sentiments  and  words  ;  or 
when  the  speaker  expresses  doubt  and  uncertainty ,  the  subjunctive  is 
used;  e.  g.  You  see  how  wild  beasts  are  carried  away  (ut  rapian¬ 
tur)  by  blind  impulse.  Pythagoras  said,  as  some  were  there  striving  for 

glory ,  others  were  influenced  by  a  desire  of  buying  or  selling,  so - , 

ut  illic  alii  peterent,  alii  ducerentur — . 

For  ut  signifying  when,  as  soon  as,  see  above  §  273.  2. 

286.  (b)  U  t,  uti,  that,  in  order  that,  in  order  to,  to,  al¬ 
though,  that  not ,  supposing  that,  always  takes  the  subjunc¬ 
tive  ;  e.  g.  To  pass  over  that,  ut  illa  praeteream;  that 
it  may  be  at  once  evident,  ut  facile  appareat;  supposing 
that  he  is  not  considered  a  scholar,  ut  non  putetur. 

287.  (2)  Quin.  This  also,  according  to  its  different  sig¬ 
nifications,  takes  a  different  mode  : 

(a)  Qui  n,  why  not?  indeed,  truly ,  takes  the  indicative. 
Here  it  always  stands  in  independent  sentences;  e.  g.  Why 
do  you  not  keep  silence  1  quin  t  a  c  e  s  1  Truly,  I  desire  myself 
to  depart  from  this  place,  quin  cupio. 

(b)  Quin,  that  not,  who  or  which  not,  that,  to,  without ; 
non  quin,  not  but  that, not  that  —  not,  always  takes  the  sub¬ 
junctive  ;  e.  g.  There  is  no  one  who  does  not  (but  that)  ap - 


MODES. — CONJUNCTIONS. 


263 


§§  288,  289.] 

prove  and  praise  this  frame  of  mind,  quin  probet  atque 
laudet.  I  doubt  not,  that  you  know ,  quin  scias.  Do  not 
hesitate  to  intrust  everything  to  him  alone,  quin  credatis. 
The  mother  of  Timoleon  never  saw  him  after  his  brother’s  death, 
without  calling  him  a  murderer,  quin  compellaret. 

288.  (3)  Quum  or  cum.  These  have  different  modes,  ac¬ 
cording  as  they  express  the  idea  of  cause  or  time.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  should  be  noticed  : 

(a)  When  quum  signifies  since,  as,  and  denotes  the  ground 
or  cause  from  which  something  as  a  consequence  or  effect 
proceeds,  it  takes  the  subjunctive  ;  e.  g.  Since  this  is  so,  quod 
(quae)  quum  ita  s  i  t  (s  i  n  t.)  Since  swarms  of  bees  are  (si  n  t) 
naturally  social,  they  build  cells.  Since  the  poets  have  shown 
(prae  se  t  u  1  e  r  i  n  t)  great  learning  and  wisdom ,  they  ought 
to  be  heard  and  read. 

But  when  quum  signifies  merely  by,  and  the  verb  is  render¬ 
ed  by  a  participial  noun,  or  by  in  this  that,  in  that,  that,  when, 
or  since,  followed  by  thereby  in  the  principal  clause,  where  it 
is  equivalent  to  quod,  or  ex  eo  quod,  and  generally  marks  an 
explanatory  subordinate  clause,  which  defines  more  accurate¬ 
ly  what  stands  in  the  principal  clause,  it  takes  the  indicative, 
and  when  the  actions  are  past,  the  indicative  of  the  perfect, 
except  when  there  is  an  imperfect  in  the  principal  clause  ; 
e.  g.  You  do  well  in  that  (that)  you  remember  these  (memo¬ 
ria  tenes).  The  senate  has  made  known  its  opinion,  in 
that,  (quum)  it  decreed  (d  e  c  r  e  v  i  t)  or  by  decreeing  a  re - 

ward  to  the  informer,  ( since  the  senate  has  decreed - it 

has  thereby - ).  The  announcement  was  made  by  this, 

that  the  arms  resounded,  or  by  the  resounding  of,  etc.,  quum 
arma  sonuerunt.  Epicurus  has  deprived  men  of  their 
belief  in  the  gods,  by  depriving  (quum  —  sustulit)  the 
gods  of  power  and  benevolence.  I  believed  (pu  tabam)  that 
injustice  was  done  to  me,  in  that  (when)  I  was  asked  (quum 
rogabatur).  Comp.  §  (251.  e.),  3. 

289.  (b)  When  quum  signifies  though,  although,  it  takes 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  290. 


264 

the  subjunctive  ;  e.  g.  Although  this  is  so,  yet  great  eloquence 
must  be  employed ,  quae  cum  ita  s  i  n  t,  tamen  — .  Although 
nature  shores  (d  e  c  I  a  r  e  t)  by  so  many  signs,  what  she  wishes. 

Q,  u  u  m,  although,  with  the  subjunctive,  often  introduces 
a  sentence,  which  is  followed  by  another  connected  with  it. 

The  first  sentence  contains  either  the  cause  of  the  follow¬ 
ing,  or  a  general,  comprehensive  thought ;  the  second,  a  limi¬ 
ted  one,  often  expressed  in  the  former,  but  made  more  promi¬ 
nent  in  the  latter.  Instead  of  uniting  both  sentences  with 
quum  —  turn  and  the  indicative,  the  first,  in  order  to  render 
the  discourse  periodic,  is  begun  with  quum  and  the  subjunc¬ 
tive;  then  follows  the  second  with  turn  and  the  indicative,  to 
which  the  strengthening  tamen  is  often  joined  ;  e.  g.  Although 
friendship  contains  so  many  and  so  great  advantages,  yet  it 
really  excels  all  in  this  — ,  quum  amicitia  contineat, 
tum  illa  praestat.  Although  there  are  so  many  subjects  im¬ 
perfectly  explained  in  philosophy ,  yet  this  is  very  difficult, 
q  u  u  m  multae  res  —  sint,  tum  haec  est  perdifficilis.  Al¬ 
though  Sisenna’ s  history  surpasses  all  former  ones,  yet  it 
shores  its  defects,  quum  vincat,  tum  indicat  tamen  — . 
The  common  quum  —  turn  with  two  indicatives,  by  its  single 
and  only  copulative  sentences,  has  nothing  of  the  periodic 
structure,  and  is  hence  least  of  all  adapted  to  the  beginning 
of  a  speech.  When  the  subjunctive  is  used,  both  sentences 
must  also  have  their  separate  verbs. 

290.  (c)  But  when  quum  signifies  when,  then  being  im¬ 
plied  in  the  corresponding  member  of  the  sentence,  or  as  of¬ 
ten  as,  where  an  action  is  repeated,  and  there  is  throughout 
a  reference  to  time  only,  the  indicative  is  used,  if  the  asser¬ 
tion  is  definite,  and  something  actual  is  spoken  of;  e.  g. 
When  (q  u  u  m)  we  are  writing  (scribimus),  (the  n)  we 
are  delighted.  When  I  have  laid  down  (posui)  the  book, 
all  that  approbation  vanishes.  When  Dionysius  had  shut 
(clauserat)  the  door  of  his  chamber,  he  removed  (d  e  tor¬ 
que  b  a  t)  a  little  bridge.  So  when  some  definite  time  is 


MODES. — CONJUNCTIONS. 


265 


§§  291,292.] 

denoted,  followed  by  since;  e.  g.  It  is  already  some  years , 
since  I  chose  you.  two ,  quum  vos  duo  delegi.  In  indirect 
narrative  discourse,  the  subjunctive  is  used  even  here;  e.  g„ 
It  is  therefore  evident ,  that  grief  begins ,  when  we  imagine  it , 
—  quum  nobis  visum  s  i  t.  Or  when  it  is  said,  When  at 
some  time  you  consider  (consideres)  you  may  indeed  find 
(re  peri  as). 

In  the  sentences  just  mentioned,  where  the  time  since  which  any¬ 
thing  was  done,  is  definitely  stated,  e.  g.  It  is  some  (two)  years  since , 
the  next  verb  is  put  only  in  the  perfect  indicative,  as  the  preceding 
dclegi ,  not  deligebam  ;  but  in  the  present,  where  something  happens 
since  ;  e.  g.  It  is  now  nearly  four  hundred  years,  since  this  was  ap¬ 
proved,  quum  hoc  probatur.  The  use  of  quod  for  quum  is  subse¬ 
quent  to  the  classical  period. 

291.  (d)  When  quum  signifies  when ,  and  with  a  completed 
action,  after ,  after  that ,  then  with  a  cotemporary  action,  it 
takes  an  imperfect,  and  with  a  prior,  a  pluperfect. 

(a)  Here  the  indicative  is  used,  if  the  time  of  the  action 
corresponds  wholly  with  that  of  the  principal  clause,  where 
we  supply  in  thought  at  the  time  when,  and  where,  in  the 
principal  clause,  the  imperfect  or  pluperfect  is  mostly  em¬ 
ployed  ;  e.  g.  When  1  toas  writing  (quum  scribebam) 
this  letter ,  everything  ivas  (e  r  a  n  t)  in  expectation.  The  De¬ 
cii  sato  (videbant)  the  gleaming  swords  of  the  enemy ,  when 
they  were  rushing  upon  (quum  irruebant)  their  troops. 
In  both  these  sentences  the  actions  are  wholly  cotempora¬ 
ry.  That  state  did  not  then  exist  (e  r  at),  when  the  national 
custom  had  passed  away  (occiderat).  Here  the  princi¬ 
pal  clause  is  vividly  represented  as  continuing  in  past  time, 
and  therefore  stands  in  the  imperfect.  You  had  raised  { at¬ 
tuleras)  not  a  little  expectation,  when  you  had  written 
(quum  scripseras).  In  such  a  case,  the  subjunctive  is 
seldom  used. 

292.  ((9)  The  subjunctive  is  used,  when  the  principal 
clause  is  in  the  perfect  or  historical  present,  and  consequent¬ 
ly  the  introductory  clause  contains  an  event,  during  or  after 
which,  another  took  place ;  e.  g.  When  you  were  (esses) 

23 


266 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  293. 


at  Athens ,  ?/oif  toere  (fuisti)  often  in  the  schools  of  the  phi¬ 
losophers.  When  Marius  was  being  cut  (secaretur ),  he 
forbid  it  (vetuit).  After  Dionysius  had  supped  (cena¬ 
visset),  he  said  (d  i  x  i  t).  In  many  such  sentences,  there 
is  not  merely  the  relation  of  time,  but  also  an  idea  of  the 
ground  or  cause  by  which  the  principal  event,  as  the  effect, 
took  place.  Hence  the  subjunctive.  Often  with  the  imper¬ 
fect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive,  quum  denotes  a  frequently  re¬ 
peated  action,  and  may  be  translated  as  often  as ,  whenever ; 
e.  g.  As  often  as  or  whenever  it  was  necessary  (esset)  to 
raise  a  loan ,  he  always  interposed  (interposuit);  when¬ 
ever  he  had  come  (venisset)  into  a  circle - he  never  de¬ 
parted  (discessi  t) - . 

Remark.  Quum  with  the  indicative  of  the  perfect,  generally  oc¬ 
curs  only  in  four  cases  :  (1)  When  the  sentence  with  when  is  properly 
the  principal  sentence  ;  e.  g.  Scarcely  had  the  war  terminated ,  when  the 
Carthaginians  fell  upon  the  Spaniards ,  quum  impetum  fecerunt, 
not  fac  iebant,  norfacerent.  The  first  sentence  usually  begins 
with  scarcely ,  already,  just,  only  (tantum  quod,  commodum).  Comp. 
§  239.  (2)  When  the  sentence  with  quum  points  out  still  more  defi¬ 
nitely  a  time  already  specified,  and  is  placed  after  the  principal  clause 
without  another  subsequent  clause  following;  e.  g.  At  the  dose  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  Conon  was  commander,  when  (i.e.  at  the  time 
when)  the  Athenians  were  conquered  atJEgosPotamos ,  quum  —  devic¬ 
ti  sunt.  (3)  When  some  accompanying  circumstance  is  stated,  so 
that  the  sentence  might  be  continued  equally  well  with  and  or  but, 
since  it  also  contains  a  principal  clause  ;  e.  g.  The  Lacedemonians  never 
recovered  (refecerun  t)  after  this  battle,  when  (but,  although,  and)  in 
the  mean  time  Agesilaus  did  not  cease  to  succor  his  country ,  quum 
non  destitu H.  (4)  When  quum  signifies  by  this  that,  in  this  that. 
Comp.  §  288.  (5)  With  quumprim  u  m,  as  soon  as,  where  the  prin¬ 
cipal  event  is  considered  as  occurring  immediately  after  the  first,  as 
is  the  case  with  postquam,  ut ,  ubi ,  simulae  ;  e.  g.  As  soon  as  I  had 
come  to  Rome  (quum  primum  Romam  ven  i),  1  hastened  to  my  brother. 

293.  (4)  Dum  also,  according  to  its  different  significations, 
takes  a  different  mode  : 

(a)  Dum,  while ,  as  long  as,  takes  the  indicative,  when 
the  speaker  states  something  definitely  and  certainly;  e.  g. 
While  these  things  are  going  on  (dum  geruntur) 
Rome,  the  messengers  came  from  Ardea.  As  long  as  the  Par- 
thians  seemed  (dum  videbantur)  to  threaten,  I  had  re¬ 
solved  to  remain  in  the  province.  As  long  as  ambition  held 


§§294,  295.] 


MODES. - CONJUNCTIONS. 


267 


me  in  chains  (tenebat),  I  strove  for  the  favor  of  the  peo¬ 
ple.  But  when  a  relation  of  cause  exists  between  the  clause 
with  dum  and  the  principal  clause,  the  subjunctive  is  used  ; 
e.  g.  The  enemy  unmoved ,  while  (since)  their  line  was  extend¬ 
ed  (porrigeretur)  through  the  woods  — .  So  also  in  the 
oratio  obliqua  §  (270.  h.)  the  subjunctive  should  be  used. 

294.  It  is  to  be  noticed  here,  that  dum  in  the  sense  of 
while  takes,  in  almost  all  cases,  only  the  present,  when  an¬ 
other  action  occurs,  which  does  not  wholly  correspond  in 
time  with  this  continuing  action,  and  therefore  denotes  only 
like  time,  not  a  like  duration  of  time;  e.  g.  While  each  one 
murmurs  (fremunt)  for  himself,  the  voice  of  Appius  was 
heard  (audiebatur).  While  Ardea  is  besieged  (oppug¬ 
natu  r),  the  conversation ,  in  the  tent  of  Tarquin ,  turned  (i  n- 
c  I  d  i  t)  upon  their  wives.  But  when  another  action  wholly 
corresponds  with  it  in  time,  and  dum  signifies  as  long  as,  the 
Latins  admit  the  imperfect  also;  e.  g.  As  long  as  these  things 
were  going  on  (agebantur)  at  Veii,  the  citadel  of  Rome 
was  (fuit)  in  great  fear ,  where  Livy  could  have  said  erat , 
instead  of 'fuit. 

295.  (b)  Dum,  till,  until,  is  used  chiefly  with  only  two 
tenses,  the  present  and  the  perfect ;  with  the  perfect,  when  the 
actions  are  past ;  but  with  the  present,  when  they  are  future. 
When  the  perfect  occurs,  the  indicative  only  is  used,  because, 
then,  the  event  has  actually  taken  place ;  when  the  present  oc¬ 
curs,  then  too,  in  stating  a  definite  and  certain  fact,  the  indica¬ 
tive  is  used ;  but  the  subjunctive,  which  is  the  most  usual,  is  em¬ 
ployed,  when  the  speaker  considers  the  occurrence  of  the  ac¬ 
tion  referred  to,  as  only  possible,  when  he  intimates,  that  its 
occurrence  must  be  waited  for,  or  expresses  a  wish  and  pur¬ 
pose,  or  when  the  sentence  contains  only  a  general  precept ; 
see  §  (270.  g.) ;  e.  g.  Till  they  corne  (veniunt),  Cassius 
ivill  conquer  Dolabella.  W^ait,  till  I  write  (scriba  m)  to 
you.  We  must  separate  angry  men  from  those  whom  they 
would  assault,  till  they  recover  themselves  (colligant). 


268 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  296,  297. 


The  money  remained  here,  until  the  judges  were  rejected,  dam 
judices  rejecti  sunt.  The  imperfect  or  pluperfect  is 
used  only  in  narration  (oratio  obliqua),  and  then,  in  the  sub¬ 
junctive  ;  e.  g.  Fabius  sent  horsemen  to  detain  the  whole  ar¬ 
my,  till  he  himself  came  up,  dum  consequeretur  ipse. 

With  expectarc,  to  icait,  that  which  is  still  to  be  waited  for,  is  al¬ 
most  always  put  in  the  subjunctive  present;  for  the  result  is  uncer¬ 
tain,  whether,  or  whether  not  ;  the  present  is  then  used  instead  of  the 
future  ;  e.  g.  Perhaps  thou  art  waiting,  till  he  shall  saij,  dmn  d  i  c  a  t. 

296.  (c)  Dum,  modo,  modo  ut,  dummodo,  if  only , 
provided  that,  provided ;  dum  n  e,  modo  ne,  d  u  m  m  fi¬ 
do  n  e,  if  only  not,  provided  that  not,  always  take  the  sub¬ 
junctive,  since  they  contain  a  wish;  e.  g.  Let  them  hate  me, 
provided  they  are  in  fear,  dum  metuant;  these  have  never 
declined  authority,  provided  they  could  live  in  ease,  dum  otio¬ 
si  essent;  I  do  not  grieve,  if  I  seem  to  any  one  to  have 
been  too  indolent  hitherto,  provided  I  do  not  seem  so  to  you , 
dum  ne  tibi  videar. 

297.  (5)  Donec  and  quoad  have  the  two  significations  of 
as  long  as,  and  until.  The  rules  respecting  the  mode  that 
follows  dum,  when  it  has  these  significations,  apply  also  to 
these  two  conjunctions;  e.  g.  As  long  as  the  enemy  retired 
(abibant)  armed  and  in  close  ranks,  the  infantry  were  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  pursuit.  ^4s  long  as  the  master  is  absent  (d  o- 
n  ec — a  best),  the  slaves  rule.  Julius  Caesar  lay  there  life¬ 
less  a  long  time,  till  (donee)  three  slaves  conveyed  (retule¬ 
runt)  him  to  his  house.  Dibulus  did  not  desert  the  city,  as 
long  as  (quoad)  the  enemy  was  (f  u  i  t)  on  this  side  of  the 
Euphrates.  Fabius  resisted  Flaminius,  as  long  as  he  could , 
quoad  potuit.  One  lives  happy  in  advanced  old  age,  as 
long  as  he  can  (possis)  perform  his  business,  (this  is  a 
general  truth).  If  the  patient  again  recover  his  strength, he 
must,  till  sufficient  strength  return  to  his  body  — ,  donee  sa¬ 
tis  virium  corpori  redeat,  (general,  as  before).  The  stream 
on  the  left  is  called  the  Rhine ,  till  it  empties,  donec  effluit. 
It  is  better  for  you  to  wait  there,  till  (quoad)  you  can  (p  os- 


MODES. - CONJ  UNCTIONS. 


269 


§  298.] 

s  i  s)  know  what  is  to  he  done.  Blockade  the  city ,  till  (d  o- 
n  e  c)  it  is  delivered  (tradatur)  to  you.  In  the  last  two, 
there  is  uncertainty  respecting  the  result. 

It  is  evident,  that  here  also,  in  indefinite  and  narrative  dis¬ 
course,  the  subjunctive  is  always  employed,  as  with  all  con¬ 
junctions,  which  would  otherwise  require  the  indicative. 
Quamdiu  always  takes  the  indicative,  except  in  indi¬ 
rect  or  narrative  discourse.  Comp.  §§  (270.  c.) — (270. 
h.). 

For  quoad,  how  far,  see  among  the  interrogatives. 

298.  (6)  Antequam,  anteaquam,  and  prius¬ 
quam,  before,  before  that.  These  conjunctions  are  often 
separated,  ante,  antea  and  prius  being  put  in  the  first  clause; 
e.  g.  Nec  ante  finitum  est,  quam  tribunus  militum. 

With  a  perfect  and  future  perfect,  the  indicative  is  the 
prevailing  mode  :  e.  g.  We  use  our  limbs,  before  we  have 
learned  (didicimus)  for  what  advantages  we  have  them. 
I  will  answer  you,  but  not  before  you  yourself  shall  have 
answered  me,  sed  non  ante,  quam  mihi  tu  ipse  respon¬ 
deris. 

With  an  imperfect  and  pluperfect,  the  subjunctive  is  the 
prevailing  mode;  e.  g.  Before  Caesar  undertook  (conare¬ 
tur)  anything  against  Dumnorix,  he  sent  for  his  brother. 
Great  talents  (indoles)  for  virtue  are  often  lost,  before 
they  can  have  been  able  to  benefit  the  state,  prodesse  potuis¬ 
set. 

With  the  present,  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  are  used. 
The  indicative,  when  a  definite  case  is  stated  ;  e.  g.  Before  I 
attempt  (c  o  n  o  r)  to  touch  that,  I  will  mention  something 
else. 

The  subjunctive  is  used  in  all  sentences  containing  a  gen¬ 
eral  statement.  Here,  consequently,  the  writer  does  not 
speak  of  events  that  are  to  be  definitely  expected,  but  only  of 
what  is  habitual  or  customary.  The  subjunctive  is  also  used, 
when  that  which  is  connected  with  it,  is  represented  as  still 

23* 


270 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  298. 


uncertain  and  future;  e.  g.  In  all  business,  cartful  prepara¬ 
tion  is  necessary,  before  you  undertake  (aggrediar  e)  any¬ 
thing.  Before  you  come  (v  e  n  i  as)  to  the  laws  of  the  people, 
explain  the  power  of  that  heavenly  law.  Many  do  not  eat  be¬ 
fore  they  go  (e  a  n  t)  to  bed. 

/The  rules  respecting  priusquam ,  apply  also  to  p  r  i  d  i  e 
quam,  the  day  before ;  e.  g.  The  day  before  the  messengers 
departed,  pridie  quam  —  proficiscerentur. 

Examples  on  §§  281 — 298. 

(1)  Although1  the  disorder2  of  all  things  is  such3,  that4 
there  is  no  one,  who*  would  not  prefer5  to  be  anywhere6  than 
where  he  is,  yet  there  is  no  doubt,  but  that7  to  be  at  Rome 
now  is  most  melancholy8.  There  is  no  one  who  does  not 
think9,  how  fearful10  is  an  irritated  armed  conqueror.  If  we 
are  pleased,  when11  we  write,  who  is  so  envious,  as  to12 
draw13  us  away  from  it  1  When  a  Lacedemonian  woman 
had  sent  her  son  to  battle,  and  heard,  that14  he  had  been  kill¬ 
ed,  she  said  :  I  bore15  him  for  this  purpose16,  that  he  might 
be  one  who  would  not  hesitate17  to  die18  for  his  country. 
Truly19,  one  dies  contentedly20,  when  he  can  comfort  his 
sinking21  life  by  his  own22  praises.  It  is  not  yet  a  hundred 
and  twenty  years,  since  a  law  was  made23  by  Lucius  Piso  re¬ 
specting24  extortion25,  whereas  before,  there  had  been  none. 
If  a  bodily  pain  or  infirmity26  of  health  has  prevented27  you 
from28  being  able  to  come  to  the  sports,  I  write  this  for  your 
happiness.  Nothing  is  so  difficult  but  that29  it  can  be  dis¬ 
covered  by  searching.  Since  things  are  so,  we  can  rejoice. 
Although30  you  excel31  ever  so  much32,  yet  you  could  not 
promote33  all  your  friends34  to  the  highest35  offices.  Let  us 
enjoy  human  life,  till36  the  time  comes,  when  joy  itself  flies. 
Since  no  one,  although37  he  is  rich  and  honored,  can  do  with¬ 
out38  another,  let  no  one  reject39  another  haughtily,  and  iet  him 
not  refuse  to40  accept  the  assistance  of  a  man,  however41  poor 
he  may  be.  Wait,  till  your  father  himself  comes  to  you. 
The  eightieth  year  admonishes  the  gray-headed  to42  collect 
his  luggage43,  before  he  departs44  from  life.  As  long  as45  a 
good  name46  is  untarnished47,  it  easily  compensates48  for  pov¬ 
erty49.  I  entreat  you,  not  that50  I  doubt51  respecting  your 
consistency52,  but  because  it  is  my  custom  so  to  entreat. 

1  etsi.  2  perturbatio.  3is.  4ut.  *  quin  (who  not).  5malle.  6ublvis. 


MODES. - CONJUNCTIONS. 


271 


§298.] 

7  quin  (but  that).  8miser.  9cogitare.  10metuendus.  nquum.  12  ut  (as 
to).  ,3abducere.  14  (acc.  with  inf.).  15 gignere.  16  idcirco.  17  dubitare. 

18  mortem  accumbere.  19  profecto.  20  aequus  animus.  21  occidere.  22  su¬ 
us.  23  ferre.  24  de.  25  pecuniae  repetundae.  26  infirmitas.  27  tenere. 
28quoimnus.  29  quin.  "licet.  31excellere.  32  quamvis  (ever  so  much), 
"perducere.  34 (omitted  in  Lat.).  33 amplus.  3udum.  37licet.  "carere, 
"repudiare.  40  quominus.  41  quamvis.  42ut.  43sarcinae.  44decedere.  - 
45dum.  46 existimatio  (good  name).  47  integer.  48 consolari  aliquid  (to 
compensate  for  something).  49 egestas.  50nonquo.  51  dubitare  de  ali¬ 
qua  re.  52  constantia. 

(2)  Do  we  not1  see,  how2  boys  rejoice  to  know  something, 
and  how  they  find  pleasure3  in  sports  and  processions4 1 
When  we  are  free5  from  necessary  business  and  cares,  we 
desire6  to  see,  hear  and  learn  something;  and  we  grieve,  if 
we  are  prevented  from7  doing*  this.  Only  a  few  feared, 
that8  their  freedom  would  be  taken  away9.  These  cities  are 
situated  far10  from  the  sea,  indeed11,  they  lie12  at  the  foot  of 
the  Apennines,  the  most  healthful13  of  mountains.  Darius  did 
not  doubt,  that14  everything  which  Bessus  said,  was  true. 
When  flatterers  praise  any  one,  they  often  fear,  that15  they  do 
not  find  the  best16  words,  and  that17  they  may  omit  things18 
which  might  be  pleasing  to  the  other  to  hear.  When  Timo¬ 
leon  had  killed  his  brother,  his  mother  never  looked  upon 
him,  without19  calling  him  a  fratricide20.  Why  do  we  often 
wish  a  more  delicate21  hearing,  since22  this  certainly  deprives23 
us  of  a  portion  of  sleep  ?  What  is  disgraceful,  however  much24 
it  be  concealed25,  can  in  no  way  be  honorable26.  Men  fond  of 
authority27,  disregard28  all  divine  and  human  laws,  provided29 
they  obtain  power,  and  provided  what  they  have  wished,  be 
not  taken  from  them.  There  is  no  one  so  rude,  as  not  to30 
know,  that31  everything  which  he  sees,  is  governed  by  a  wise 
God,  and32  that  it  is  not  possible33  for34  man  to  do  this.  Kings 
may  keep35  their  empires,  the  rich  their  riches,  provided36  they 
forbear37  to  envy  me.  Hercules  himself  was  afflicted38  with 
pain,  when  he  was  seeking  immortality  by  death  itself.  Sup¬ 
posing  that39  old  age  takes40  away  other  things41,  it  certainly 
brings42  wisdom.  He  had  said  this,  when  a  servant43  an¬ 
nounced  that  Caesar  was  coming.  It  was  not  yet  day44,  when 
it  was  known45  at  Ameria,  that  Roscius  was  killed.  In  that46 
he  stood47  by  him,  he  showed  that  he  was  his  friend. 

1  nonne.  2ut.  3  teneri  (to  find  pleasure  in).  4potnpa.  5  vacuus. 
6avere.  7  quominus.  *posse.  8ne.  9 adimere.  10 procul.  nquin.  ^sub¬ 
jacere  (to  lie  at  the  foot  of).  13  saluber.  14  quin.  15  ut  (that  not).  16  ap¬ 
tus.  17  ne.  18  res.  19  quin.  20  fratricida.  21  subtilis.  22quutn.  23  adimere. 

24  quamvis.  23  occultare.  26 honestus.  27  imperiosus  (men  —  authority). 


272 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


L§  298. 


28negligere.  29  dum.  30  quin  (as  —  to).  31  (acc.  with  inf.)  32  neque  (and 
not).  33  fieri  posse.  34  ut.  35  sibi  habere.  3Gdumrnbdo.  37  abstinere. 
38 frangere  (imperf.).  39  ut  (supposing  that).  40auferre.  41  caetera.  42af- 
ferre.  43puer.  44 lucere  (to  be  day).  45scire.  40  quum  (in  that).  47  ad¬ 
esse. 

(3)  Vespasian  lived  in  a  small  city,  till1  a  province  with 
an  army  was  offered2  to  him,  while  living3  in  retirement.  Al¬ 
exander  was  displeased4  that5  a  city  should  stand  in  the  way6 
of7  his  entering8  Egypt  without  anxiety9.  Caesar  believed 
that  it  was  not  best  to  wait  till10  the  forces  of  the  enemy  in¬ 
creased  and  the  horsemen  returned.  As  long  as11  the  laws 
of  Lycurgus  had  influence12,  the  Lacedemonian  people  were 
brave.  The  state  was  not  then  in  our  power13,  when  the  laws 
had  no  influence,  when  courts  were  prostrate14,  and  the  cus¬ 
toms15  of  the  country  destroyed16.  While  I  was  writing  this, 
all  were  in  most  joyful  expectation.  As17  you  have  hitherto 
heard  me  attentively,  hear  the  rest  also18.  Caesar  left  the 
camp,  before  they  could  come  to  his  assistance  from  the  city. 
I  no  longer19  ask  you  to20  return  home,  nay21,  I  myself  wish 
to  fly  hence,  and  to  go  somewhere  else22.  The  soldiers  of 
Caesar  did  not  cease23  to  pursue  the  enemy,  until  they  ap¬ 
proached  the  gates  of  the  city.  Although24  the  weather25  and 
age26  may  have  wasted27  this  oak,  yet  there  will  still  be  in 
these  places  an  oak,  which  they  will  call  (sub.)  the  oak  of 
Marius.  Since28  we  are  at  leisure29,  we  wish  to  speak  at 
length30  concerning  civil  law.  The  whole  army  of  Varus  re¬ 
treated31  to  the  camp  before  a  weapon32  could  be  thrown,  or 
our  men33  come  nearer34.  Whoever  determines35  to  rob36,  is 
a  robber,  before  he  defiles37  his  hands. 

1  quoad.  2  offerre.  3  latens  (while  living  in  retirement).  4  aegre  ferre. 
5  quod.  6  obstare  (to  stand  —  way).  7  quominus.  8  intrare  9  securus. 
10dum.  11  dum  (as  —  as).  12  vigere  (to  have  influence).  13noster(in  — 
power).  14 jacere.  15  mos.  16 occidere.  17  uti.  18  item.  19 jam.  20  ut. 
21  quin.  22 alio.  23 desistere.  24 quum.  25  tempestas.  26  vetustas,  ^con¬ 
sumere.  28  quoniam.  29  vacuus  esse.  30  copiose.  31  se  recipere.  32  telum. 
33 nostri  (our  men).  34prope.  35 constituere.  38 latrocinari.  37inquinare. 

(4)  Many  wish  to  be  considered  good  men,  although1  they 
are  not,  and  are  not  considered  such.  Although2  ambition 
is  a  vice,  yet  it  is  often  the  cause  of  virtues.  As  you  know, 
Germany  occupies3  only  a  small  part4  of  Europe.  No  one 
ever  reproached5  Cato  the  elder6,  although7  he  had  many  ene¬ 
mies,  no  one  Marius,  although  many  envied  him,  that8  they 
had  come  from  the  free  towns.  The  laws  of  Caesar  must  be 
retained9,  not  that10  I  approve11  them,  but  because  a  regard12 


RELATIVE  WORDS. 


273 


§299.] 

must  be  had13  to  quiet14  and  peace.  I  had  already  sealed15  a 
letter,  when  the  messenger16  suddenly  delivered17  to  me  your 
letter,  from'8  which  I  do  not  doubt,  that19  you  waited  for 
Pompey  till  he  returned  from  Ariminum,  and  that  you  have 
already  set  out  for  Epirus.  When  your  freed-man  had  come 
to  me  and  said,  that20  he  was  about  to  start  for  you  immedi¬ 
ately,  I  gave  him  this  letter.  Before  the  messengers  returned 
from  Delphi,  new  military  tribunes21  entered22  upon  their 
office23.  While  these  things  were  going  on  at  Rome,  conven¬ 
tions24  were  held25  in  Etruria  at  the  temple  of  Voltumna. 
There  was  a26  time,  when  men  wandered27  about  in  the  fields 
like28  beasts,  and  supported29  their  life  by  wild  food.  The 
military  tribunes,  Titinius  and  Genucius,  who  had  marched 
against  the  Falisci  and  the  Capenates,  while30  they  were  car¬ 
rying  on  the  war  with  more  ardor31  than  wisdom32,  fell33  into 
an  ambush34.  When35  Gyges  had  turned36  the  bezil37  of  the 
ring  he  had  found38,  to  the  palm39  of  his  hand,  he  was  seen  by 
no  one.  A  careful40  physician,  before  he  endeavors41  to  pre¬ 
scribe  medicine  for  the  patient,  must42  ascertain43  his  disease. 
In  that7  you  were  silent,  you  admitted44,  that  that  was  true. 
As  soon  as45  Plancus  came  to  the  market,  he  attached46  him¬ 
self  to  the  friendship  of  Cicero.  Memmius  had  set  out  for 
Mitylene,  the  day  before47  I  carne  to  Athens. 

1  ut.  2licet.  3tenere.  4locus.  5  objicere.  6senex.  7quum.  squod. 
9 servandum  esse.  10 quo.  11  probare.  12 ratio.  13 habere.  14 otium  (in 
genitive).  15  obsignare.  16  tabellarius.  17reddere.  13ex.  19quin.  20(acc. 
with  inf.).  21  tribunus  militum.  22inire.  23 magistratus.  24concilium. 
25 habere.  26 quidam.  27  vagari.  28modo.  29agere.  30dum.  31  animus. 
32 consilium.  33 praecipitare.  34 insidiae.  35 quum.  36 convertere,  ^pa¬ 
la.  33  (participle).  39  palma  (palm  of  hand).  40  diligens.  41  conari.  42  (ver¬ 
bal  adjective).  43  cognoscere.  44  concedere.  45  quum  primum.  49  se  ad 
amicitiam  conferre.  47  pridie. 

R  elative  W or ds. 

299.  Qui,  quae,  quod,  unde,  ubi  and  the  like.  Relative 
words  take,  in  Latin,  sometimes  the  indicative,  sometimes  the 
subjunctive. 

(1)  The  indicative  is  used,  when  the  relative  sentence  di¬ 
rectly  asserts  a  fact ,  and  is  only  a  more  definite  explanation 
of  the  subject  or  object  of  the  preceding  sentence ;  e.  g.  He 
has  found  something  which  seemed  useful,  visum  est.  They 


274 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  300—302. 


do  not  see  the  -penalty  of  the  laws,  which  they  so  often  trans¬ 
gress,  perrumpunt.  Themistocles  said  after  the  victory 
of  that  war,  which  was  carried  on  with  the  Persians,  fuit 
(gestum  est). 

300.  (2)  But  the  subjunctive  is  used,  when  relative  sen¬ 
tences  belong  to  the  narrative  discourse  of  another,  and,  there¬ 
fore,  when  the  words  and  thoughts  of  another  are  related  ;  e.  g. 
Panactus  thinks  that  those  duties  are  conformable  to  nature, 
which  are  derived  (ducantur)  from  happiness.  I  thought 
that  I  must  remain  where  I  was,  essem. 

301.  (3)  The  subjunctive  is  further  used,  when  one  speaks 
with  doubt  and  uncertainty ,  where  the  English  sometimes 
employs  the  auxiliary  verbs  may,  can,  might  and  the  like,  or 
the  particle  of  doubt,  perhaps,  or  when  the  purpose  for  which 
something  is  to  be  done,  is  denoted  ;  e.  g.  If  everything  must 
be  done,  which  friends  (may)  ivish  — ,  velint.  You  have  here 
nothing,  which  you  can  refer  (referas)fo  the  body.  Caesar 
sent  trusty  persons  to  reconnoitre,  qui  explorarent.  For 
qui  expressing  purpose,  result,  and  quality ,  see  §  308  et  seq. 

302.  (4)  The  subjunctive  is  often  used  also,  when  such 
relative  clauses  are  introduced  into  a  sentence  already  con¬ 
taining  a  subjunctive  or  the  accusative  and  infinitive, — 
clauses  denoting  only  something  represented  and  conceived, 
and  not  anything  actual ;  e.  g.  Do  we  not  see,  that  these  set 
over  against  the  greatest  anxieties,  that  pleasure  which  they 
derive  (quam  capiant)  from  learning  ?  At  least  a  duty 
which  is  derived  (quod  ducatur)  from  society,  must  be  the 
greatest. 

By  this  use  of  the  subjunctive,  the  parts  of  a  sentence  are  repre¬ 
sented  as  more  intimately  connected  with  the  whole.  Yet  we  very 
often  find  that  such  sentences  are  introduced  with  the  definite  indica¬ 
tive,  and  that  they  are  considered  independent  of  the  infinitive,  be¬ 
cause  they  designate  something  that  actually  happens,  or  has  hap¬ 
pened  ;  e.  g.  Who  does  not  know,  that  if  several  icish  (velint)  to 
emerge  from  the  deep,  those  witl  be  nearer  breathing,  icho  approach  (a  p- 
propinquant)  nearer  the  surface  of  the  icaterf  Here,  generally, 
it  seems  to  be  the  aim  of  the  writer  to  indicate,  that  what  is  asserted 
in  the  relative  clause,  is  not  merely  a  view  of  the  speaker,  but  pos- 


RELATIVE  WORDS. 


275 


§  303.] 

sesses  a  historic  certainty  independent  of  this.  If,  moreover,  in  such 
clauses  the  present  and  not  a  past  tense  is  used,  the  indicative  ap¬ 
pears,  because  the  words  are  retained  in  the  same  form,  in  which  they 
would  be  spoken  in  direct  discourse  (oratio  recta).  Respecting  such 
passages,  however,  the  learned  often  differ. 

303.  (5)  A  relative  clause  after  esse  or  decsse,  is  often  the 
periphrastic  predicate  of  a  subject  really  existing,  or  of  one 
considered  as  only  general  or  independent.  Then  the  Latin 
says,  Est  qui,  sunt  qui.  Instead  of  saying,  Some  say ,  the 
idea  is  expressed  by  a  periphrasis  :  There  arc  some,  who  say. 
Here  the  first  clause  is  incomplete;  the  predicate  is  wanting, 
which  is  supplied  by  the  clause,  who  say.  But  the  use  of 
the  mode  is  different,  according  as  the  subject  is  represented 
as  definite  or  indefinite.  The  following  principles  are  to  be 
noticed : 

(a)  When  the  subject  is  not  specified  directly  and  really, 
but  is  only  generally  stated,  and  it  is  merely  said,  There 
are  persons,  who;  there  arc  philosophers,  who  ;  there  are  had 
men,  who  — ,  etc.,  in  such  sentences,  the  predicate  clause 
states  something  only  as  possible  or  merely  conceived,  and 
hence  the  subjunctive  is  always  used.  An  ideal  subject  re¬ 
quires  here  only  an  ideal  predicate,  which  is  denoted  by  the 
subjunctive.  Hence,  There  are  persons,  who  say,  sunt,  qui 
d  i  c  a  n  t ;  there  are  philosophers, who  think,  qui  censeant; 
there  have  been  philosophers,  ivho  thought,  qui  censerent; 
there  are  none,  ivho  arc  preferred  to  you,  qui  praeferantur; 
what  secret  corner  is  there,  in  which  the  fear  of  death  docs  not 
enter  (intret)  ?  there  is  something  which  pertains  (perti¬ 
neat)  to  all  men. 

In  all  these  and  similar  phrases,  the  subject  is  not  really  definite, 
but  is  described  only  generally,  so  that  the  sentences  are  abridged 
ones,  instead  of  They  are  of  such  a  character,  that ,  sunt  ejus¬ 
modi  or  tales,  u  t, — and,  in  consequence  of  this  ut  (which  is  con¬ 
tained  in  qui),  a  subjunctive  is  necessary.  Therefore  such  clauses 
containing  a  subjunctive,  show  the  nature  or  quality  of  the  indefinite 
subject. 

In  like  manner,  the  subject  is  general  and  indefinite  in  the 
phrases,  quis  est,  quid  est,  quotusquisque  est  (how  few  are 


276 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  304. 


there),  nemo  or  nullus  est ,  nihil  est ,  aliquid  est,  quidquid  est. 
Where  these  occur,  the  relative  clause,  containing  the  pre¬ 
dicate,  must  be  expressed  by  a  subjunctive;  e.  g.  Who  is 
there,  or  there  is  no  one,  that  denies  this,  quis  est,  or  nemo 
est,  qui  hoc  neget.  How  few  are  there,  who  have  under¬ 
stood  this,  quotusquisque  est,  qui  hoc  intellexerit! 
There  is  nothing  which  makes  (quod  faciat)  men  so  unhappy. 

The  phrase,  est  quod,  is  a  periphrasis ;  e.  g.  There  is  some 
difference,  est  quod  d i  ff e r  a  t.  Est  quod  gaudea s,  there 
is  something  on  account  of  which  you  can  rejoice ,  i.  e.  you 
can  rejoice  on  account  of  something,  you  have  cause  to  rejoice. 
Moreover,  quid  est,  quod  (quarn  ob  rem),  also  signifies 
merely  why  ?  e.  g.  Why  do  you  complain  ?  Have  you  any 
cause  to  complain  ?  quid  est,  quod  querarel  Also  non  or 
nihil  est,  quod,  signifies  it  is  not  necessary  that ,  or  there  is 
no  cause  that;  e.  g.  It  is  not  necessary  that  you  should  he 
ashamed,  you  need,  not  be,  etc.,  non  (nihil)  est,  quod  te  pu¬ 
deat.  Comp.  §  277. 

Quid  est.,  quod,  with  the  subjunctive,  has  rather  the  interrogative 
sense,  Is  it  necessary  ?  i.  e.  it  is  not  necessary  ;  e.  g.  Why  should,  you, 
why  need  you  rejoice  ?  i.  e.  you  need  not,  Quid  e  s  t.,  quod  ga  u- 
deas?  on  the  contrary,  with  the  indicative,  it  has  the  interrogative 
sense  of  why?  in  which  case  there  is  a  wish  to  ascertain  the  cause  of 
something  ;  e.  g.  Why  do  you  rejoice  ?  quid  est,  quod  gaudes?  or  the 
sense  of  what  is  that  which  ?  e.  g.  quid  est,  quod  confirmabat? 
what  was  he  asserting  ?  Comp.  §  306. 

Finally,  when  both  clauses  are  negative,  the  contracted 
quin  is  used  for  qui  non  (but  only  for  the  nominative),  and  is 
also  followed  by  the  subjunctive ;  e.  g.  There  is  no  one  who 
will  not  prefer,  nemo  est,  quin  malit.  There  is  nothing 
which  does  not  (but  that)  perish,  nihil  est,  quin  intereat. 
Yet  the  uncontracted  qui,  quae,  quod  non,  is  not  inadmissible, 
especially  when  non  is  designed  to  negative  a  single  word  of 
the  sentence. 

304.  (b)  But  when  the  subject  is  still  more  nearly  and  al¬ 
most  precisely  defined  by  the  addition  of  a  numeral  adjective, 
e.  g.  alii,  quidam,  multi,  nonnulli,  pauci,  the  predicate  intro- 


RELATIVE  WORDS. 


277 


§§  305,  306.1 

duced  by  qui  is  often  considered  as  a  real  occurrence,  and  is 
put  in  the  indicative,  although  in  many  places  the  subjunc¬ 
tive  also  is  used,  when  the  turn  of  thought  requires  it;  e.  g. 
There  are  certain  (quaedam)  animals ,  which  (in  qui¬ 
bus)  possess  (i  n  e  s  t)  something  like  virtue.  There  are  some 
(nonnullae)  schools,  which,  by  their  ideas  of  the  highest 
good  and  evil,  destroy  (pervertunt)  every  duty ;  where,, 
however,  many  manuscripts  and  editions  read  pervertant; 
in  the  latter  case,  which  (quae)  is  equivalent  to  such  that 
(tales  u  t),  and  therefore  takes  the  subjunctive,  according  to 
§  308. 

305.  (c)  When,  in  addition  to  the  principal  predicate,  de¬ 
noted  by  the  clause  with  qui,  the  subject  is  made  still  more 
definite  by  introducing  a  second  predicate  before  and  in  the 
sentence,  then  the  subject,  at  first  indefinitely  defined,  be¬ 
comes  definite,  and  hence  the  predicate  with  qui  can  stand 
definitely  in  the  indicative,  although,  even  here,  the  sub¬ 
junctive  is  also  admissible.  Hence,  when  such  a  more  defi¬ 
nite  explanatory  clause  is  introduced  between  qui  and  its 
predicate,  an  indicative  can  follow  the  indefinitely  described 
sunt,  qui  ;  e.  g.  There  are,  and  have  been  many,  who,  seeking 
for  the  quiet  of  which  I  speak,  have  withdrawn  from  public 
business,  and  have  retired  to  private  life,  qui  eam,  quam  dico, 
tranquillitatem  expetentes  a  negotiis  publicis  se  remove¬ 
runt,  ad  otiumque  profugerunt  (where,  to  be  sure, 
many  manuscripts  and  editions  read  removerint  and 
profugerint).  As  there  are  persons,  loho,  as  I  have  said 
above,  prefer  the  business  of  war  to  that  of  the  state,  qui, 
quemadmodum  supra  dixi,  urbanis  rebus  bellicas  antepo¬ 
nunt  (where  also  other  manuscripts  read  anteponant). 

306.  On  the  contrary,  when  the  first  clause  with  esse  is 
already  complete  in  itself,  having  its  own  subject  and  predi¬ 
cate,  the  relative  clause  with  qui  merely  states  a  fact,  which 
serves  to  define  the  subject  more  fully,  and  therefore  is  put 
only  in  the  indicative ;  here  the  first  clause  is  merely  the  pre- 

24 


278 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  307,  308. 


dicate  of  the  relative  clause  ;  e.  g.  Those  things  which  were 
said ,  are  unimportant ,  sunt  levia  (ea),  quae  dicebantur. 
There  are  wicked  men ,  who  boast  (gloriantur)  of  their  evil 
deeds.  What  kind  of  a  man  is  he,  whom  we  call  (dicimus) 
prudent  ?  What  sound  is  that,  which  fils  (complet)  my 
ears  ? 

So  the  indicative  must  naturally  be  used,  where  there  is  a 
reference  to  some  definite  person  or  thing ;  e.  g.  This  is  the 
philosopher,  who  teaches,  docet,  not  doceat.  The  follow¬ 
ing  sentence  is  different :  There  is  a  philosopher  who  teaches  ; 
this  is  expressed  by  doceat.  So  there  is  a  difference  be¬ 
tween,  Quis  est,  qui  hoc  neget?  and,  Q,uis  est,  qui  hoc 
negat?  The  former  signifies,  nemo  hoc  negat;  the  latter 
inquires,  either  for  the  name  or  the  nature  of  the  man  who 
denies  something. 

307.  (6)  Further ;  the  subjunctive  is  used  with  qui  after 
the  verbs  reperire,  invenire,  nancisci  {to  find,  to 
meet  with),  and  habere  {to  have,  to  know),  when  the  pre¬ 
dicate  of  their  subject  or  object  is  stated.  But  here  also  the 
subject  and  object  must  be  only  generally  and  indefinitely  de¬ 
scribed  ;  e.  g.  No  crime  can  be  found  or  mentioned,  which  is 
worthy  of  { sit)  greater  punishment.  You  will  find  no  state, 
which  has  been  (fuerit)  more  faithful  to  the  Romans,  than 
this.  I  can  find  no  one,  who  believes  (arbitretur ),  that 
this  is  unjust.  We  seldom  meet  with  a  man,  with  whose  char¬ 
acter  we  agree  (congruamus).  I  know  nothing  which  I 
can  compare,  nihil  habeo,  quod  possim  comparare.  I  have 
nothing  to  write,  nihil  habeo,  quod  scribam,  and  I  know 
not  what  to  write ,  non  habeo,  quid  scribam.  I  have  no 
reason  to  accuse  old  age,  non  habeo,  quid  incusem  senec¬ 
tutem. 

308.  (7)  The  subjunctive  is  used  with  qui  and  other  rela¬ 
tive  words,  when  they  are  equivalent  to  the  conjunction  ut 
and  a  pronoun  of  any  person  {ego,  tu,  is).  The  relative  may 
denote  the  consequence,  and  may  contain  the  idea  of  so  that , 
as  to,  (where  often  the  words  tam,  talis,  is,  stand  in  connec- 


§309.] 


RELATIVE  WORDS. 


279 


tion),  or  it  may  denote  the  purpose,  and  signify  that ,  in  order 
that ,  as  is  particularly  the  case  with  q  u  o ,for  the  sake  of,  in 
order  that ;  non  quo,  not  that ;  e.  g.  He  seeks  a  physician , 
in  order  that  he  may  have  his  wound  dressed  by  him,  a  quo 
(for  ut  ab  eo)  obligetur;  that  philosopher  explains  this 
clearly ,  so  that  I  understand  it,  quod  (for  ut  id)  i  n  t  e  1 1 1- 
g  a  in  ;  wisdom  is  to  be  employed,  in  order  that  she  may  make 
herself  our  most  certain  guide  to  pleasure,  quae  (ut  ea)  se 
praebeat;  wisdom  alone  is  of  such  a  nature,  as  to  banish 
sadness  from  the  mind,  quae  (ut  ea)  moestitiam  pellat  ex 
animis  ;  he  does  everything  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  his  ob¬ 
ject,  quo  assequatur;  give  him  something,  in  order  that 
he  may  be  the  more  obliging,  quo  officiosior  sit;  Arta¬ 
xerxes  gave  Themistocles  the  city  Lampsacus ,  that  he  might 
obtain  his  wine  from  thence ,  unde  (for  ut  inde)  vinum  su¬ 
meret. 

The  pronoun  qui  refers,  as  the  examples  show,  to  the  most 
important  word,  whether  subject  or  object,  of  the  principal 
clause.  This  word  must  therefore  belong  to  both  clauses,  be¬ 
ing  expressed  in  the  latter  by  the  pronoun.  If  this  is  not  the 
case,  qui  cannot  be  used  instead  of  ut ;  e.  g.  I  have  done 
everything,  that  he  might  be  assisted,  u  t  i  1 1  e,  not  qui;  I 
brought  it  to  this,  that  he  was  pardoned,  ut  ei,  not  c  u  i. 
Hence  qui  is  never  used  for  ut  is,  when  is  signifies  that  one , 
that ,  those ,  followed  by  qui ;  e.  g.  It  is  ordained  by  law,  that 
the  goods  of  those,  who,  u  t  eorum  bona,  qui,  not  quo- 
r  u  m  bona, — therefore  only  is  is  used,  when  something 
named  is  referred  to.  Comp.  §  310. 

Qui  is  most  frequently  used  in  the  following  cases : 

309.  (a)  After  the  adjectives  dignus  ( worthy  of),  indig¬ 
nus  (unworthy),  aptus  and  idoneus  (ft,  suitable)  ; 
e.  g.  Pleasure  is  not  worthy  the  consideration  of  a  wise  man, 
ad  quam  (for  ut  ad  earn)  sapiens  respici  at;  truly, thou 
art  worthy  to  be  esteemed  by  all,  q  u  i  (ut  tu)  diligaris; 
Pollio  is  worthy  of  thy  esteem,  quem  (ut  eum)  diligas; 


280 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§310,  311. 


Perhaps  we  are  not  unworthy  to  impose  the  penalty  upon  our¬ 
selves,  qui  (ut  nos)  irrogemus;  the  case  is  worthy  of 
your  long  and  repeated  consideration ,  quam  (ut  eam)  con¬ 
sideres  ;  I  am  not  unworthy  that  you  should  communicate 
to  me  your  wisdom,  ne  ego  quidem  indignus,  cu  i  (ut  mihi) 
copiam  scientiae  tuae  facias;  we  consider  understanding 
alone  ft  to  be  trusted,  c  u  i  (ut  ei)  credatur. 

With  the  adjectives  dignus  and  indignus ,  the  Latins  use  qui,  quae , 
quod,  almost  exclusively,  instead  of  vt,  and  prefer  ut ,  only  when  qui 
stands  near  it ;  e.  g.  These  arc  the  men  whom  you  have  thought  worthy 
of  being  considered  as  your  allies ,  hi  sunt,  quos,  ut  socios  haberes,  dig¬ 
nos  duxisti,  not  quos ,  quos  twice.  In  English,  we  often  use  the  in¬ 
finitive,  which  in  Latin  is  admissible  only  in  the  poets  ;  e.  g.  Thou  art 
icorthy  to  be  honored,  qui  colare  or  quem  colamus,  not  coli. 

310.  (b)  Qui  is  used  after  the  words  tam,  tantus, 
talis,  ejusmodi,  is  {of  such  a  nature,  such,  so) ;  e.  g. 
No  one  was  so  shameless  as  to  demand  money,  qui  (ut  is) 
posceret;  there  is  no  place  so  remote,  that  the  desire  of  our 
men  has  not  reached  it ,  quo(uteo)  non  pervaserit;  all 
things  are  not  of  such  a  nature  (e  a  e),  that  their  issue  can  be 
foreseen,  quarum  (ut  earum)  exitus  provideri  possit;  I 
am  such,  that  I  have  never  done  anything  more  for  my  own  sake, 
than  for  my  fellow-citizens,  is,  qui  (ut  ego)  fecerim; 
we  arc  not  of  such  a  character,  that  even  our  enemies  cannot 
censure  us,  ii,  quos  (ut  nos)  vituperare  ne  inimici  quidem 
possint;  we  are  not  of  such  a  nature,  that  our  mind  wavers , 
ii,  quorum  (ut  noster)  vagetur  animus;  you  are  not 
such  a  man,  that  nothing  but  the  civil  law  delights  you ,  is, 
quem  (ut  te)  delectet;  use  no  word  by  which  any  one  can 
be  offended,  ne  utere  verbo,  unde  aliquis  possit  offendi, 
for  tali  verbo,  ut  inde. 

But  qui  with  the  subjunctive  is  used  after  is,  ea,  id,  only  when  is 
expresses  quality,  and  signifies,  of  that  character,  such,  etc.,  where 
that  would  be  expected  to  follow.  On  the  contrary,  when  it  signifies 
this ,  that ,  or  such,  followed  by  winch  or  as,  then,  unless  other  circum¬ 
stances  require  the  subjunctive,  the  indicative  is  used  ;  e.g.  They  are 
icicked  men,  who  collect  money  contrary  to  the  laic,  ii,  qui  cogunt; 
We  arc  such  as  ice  ought  to  be,  ii,  qui  esse  debemus. 

311.  (c)  Qui  is  used  after  the  verbs  mittere,  praemittere, 


RELATIVE  WORDS. 


281 


$$  312, 313.] 

remittere  and  deligere  (to  choose),  where  it  has  the  sense  of 
ut  denoting  purpose.  We  use  here  either  in  order  that ,  that, 
to,  or  who ,  which,  with  the  auxiliary  should,  which  here  de¬ 
notes  purpose ;  e.  g.  Caesar  sent  Crassus  to  obtain  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  that  state  for  him ,  qui  (ut  is)  obtineat;  I 
wished  to  send  Marius  back  to  you,  in  order  that  you  might 
send  him  to  me,  quem  (ut  eum)  ad  me  mitteres;  Cae¬ 
sar  chose  the  best,  that  he  might  avail  himself  of  their  ad¬ 
vice,  quorum  (ut  eorum)  consilio  uteretur.  And  so 
almost  always  with  these  verbs. 

3  12.  (d)  Qui  is  used  after  quam  preceded  by  a  compara¬ 
tive,  where  the  ut  contained  in  qui  expresses  the  result ;  e.  g. 
The  loss  (damna)  of  a  good  name  and  credibility  is  greater 
than  can  be  estimated,  quam  quae  (ut  ea)  aestimari  pos¬ 
sint;  I  am  too  great  to  be  injured  by  fortune,  major  sum, 
quam  cui  (for  ut  mihi)  fortuna  nocere  possit. 

313.  (8)  The  subjunctive  is  used,  further,  with  qui  and 
other  relative  words  for  qaum  ( because ,  in  that,  since,  when, 
although),  including  also  the  force  of  a  pronoun  of  any  person, 
(ego,  tu,  is) ;  e.  g.  Some  act  foolishly,  in  that  they  ask  for 
truth  in  this  experiment ,  q  u  i  (quum  ii)  e  x  i  g  a  n  t ;  we  must 
not  wait  for  the  remedy  of  time,  since  we  can  realize  it  by  reason, 
quam  (quum  eam)  repraesentare  possimus;  why  shall 
I  invite  you,  when  I  know  that  my  invitation  is  rejected  by 
you,  a  quo  (quum  ate)  sciam  meam  invitationem  repel¬ 
li  ?  Messana  itself,  although  it  is  a  beautiful  city,  is  never¬ 
theless  — ,  quae  (quum  or  licet  ea)  ornata  sit. 

Qui  has  the  signification  of  since,  in  that,  that,  especially 
after  an  exclamation  expressing  praise  or  blame,  when  the 
reason  of  the  praise  or  blame  is  given  by  it ;  e.  g.  O  unhappy 
man,  in  that  he  thought  a  slave  more  faithful  than  his  wife  ! 
O  miserum,  qui  —  putaret.  Here  no  external  sign,  nor 
external  quality  of  the  person  unhappy,  is  specified,  but  sim¬ 
ply  the  reason  of  his  unhappy  inward  condition. 

Here  belong  quippe  qui,  utpote  qui  and  utqui, 

24* 


282 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  314. 


since  he,  because  he  ;  e.  g.  The  jlattercr  is  not  easily  recog¬ 
nized ,  since,  even  when  he  is  quarreling,  he  often  Jlatters,  and 
under  the  pretence  of  disputing ,  he  compliments ,  quippe  qui 
adversando  saepe  assentetur,  et  litigare  se  simulans 
blandiatur;  Titurius  now  for  the  first  time  began  to  be 
anxious,  since  before,  he  had  foreseen  nothing,  ut  qui  nihil  ante 
praevidisset. 

But  when  quippe  qui,  utpote  qui  and  ut  qui,  form  merely  a 
relative  clause,  referring  to  ille,  or  is  (he),  ego,  tu,  or  when 
quippe  and  qui  have  each  their  own  verb,  and  each  forms  a 
sentence,  the  indicative  is  used  ;  e.  g.  Since  he,  who  lives  with¬ 
out  friendship,  is  more  like  a  wild  beast,  than  a  hitman  being, 
quippe,  qui  amicitiae  expers  vivit,  ferae  propior  est,  quam 
homini ;  here  the  clause  with  qui  does  not  denote  a  cause, 
but  is  merely  explanatory,  and  therefore  takes  the  indicative; 
we  do  not  fear  this,  inasmuch  as  we  are  accustomed  to  fear 
nothing,  utpote  qui  nihil  metuere  solemus,  not  solea¬ 
mus;  I  did  not  trust  him,  because  he  had  once  shamefully 
deceived  me,  ut  qui  me  —  deceperat;  in  these  two  exam¬ 
ples,  the  relative  clause  contains  indeed  a  reason,  but  the 
writer  wishes  to  make  prominent,  not  this  idea  of  cause,  but 
the  reality  of  his  assertion  ;  the  facts,  therefore,'  we  are  ac¬ 
customed  and  he  had  deceived,  he  expresses  positively  and  de¬ 
cidedly  by  the  indicative. 

314.  (9)  The  subjunctive  is  used  with  qui,  when  it  ex¬ 
presses  the  cause  of  what  precedes,  and  therefore  stands  for 
quod  and  may  be  rendered  by  that  or  because ;  e.  g.  I  thank 
my  country ,  that  it  has  punished  me,  quae  (quod  ea)  m  u  1- 
t  a  v  e  r  i  t ;  accuse  nature,  that  she  has  concealed  truth ,  quae 
—  abstruserit. 

(10)  The  subjunctive  is  used  also  with  the  absolute  neuter 
accusative  quod,  signifying  as  far  as,  so  far  as  ;  e.  g.  As 
far  as  I  know,  quod  sciam;  as  far  as  I  remember , 
quod  meminerim;  as  far  as  it  can  be  to  your  advantage , 
quod  tuo  commodo  fiat  (fieri  possit). 


§  314.] 


RELATIVE  WORDS. 


4 


283 


Examples  on  §§  299 — 314. 

(1)  There  is  no  one  who  does  not  know  how  terrible1  is 
an  angry  conqueror,  when  armed.  If  we  are  pleased  when2 
we  write,  who  is  so  envious3,  as  to4  prevent5  us  from  it?  but 
if  we  are  burdened6,  who  is7  to  prescribe8  bounds9  to  another’s 
assiduity  ?  I  am  accustomed  to  call  to  me  chosen10  men,  in 
order  that11  I  may  look  upon12  them,  when  I  rehearse13,  may 
trust  them,  and  respect14  and  fear  them.  There  is  no  one 
who15  does  not  prefer  money  to  wisdom.  Thou  wilt  find  no 
one  more  worthy  of16  thy  esteem17,  than  young18  Marius. 
There  is  no  pain  which  length  of  time19  does  not  mitigate20 
and  diminish21.  There  are  some2'2  who  make  friendship  bur¬ 
densome23.  One  cannot  easily  be  found,  to  whom  this  trou¬ 
blesome  business  can  be  intrusted24.  Alexander  said  at  the 
tomb25  of  Achilles,  O  fortunate  youth,  in  that  thou  hast  found 
Homer,  as  the  panegyrist26  of  thy  valor.  There  are  many 
reasons  why27  the  ancient  orators  noted  down28  their  dis¬ 
courses,  and  afterwards,  at29  their  leisure,  perfected30  them. 
There  is  certainly  no  one  who  denies,  that31  immortality  has 
been  given  to  the  soul.  It  is  these  who  reproach32  us33  with 
too  great  severity34,  and  bring  our  instructions  into  disre¬ 
pute35.  I  think36  I  have  erred37,  in  that  I  have  deserted38 
you.  O  the  great  power  of  truth,  because  it  easily  defends 
itself!  Words  have  been  invented39  to40  make  known41  our 
intentions.  The  consul  Caninius  was  so  remarkably42  vigi¬ 
lant43,  that  he  did  not  sleep  during  his  whole  consulship. 
The  men  who  subdue  their  passions,  have  always  been  found 
fewer,  than  those,  who  subdue  the  armies  of  the  enemy. 
I  have  selected44  two,  that45  I  may  honor  them  particularly46, 
and  be  most  friendly47  to  them. 

‘metuendus.  2quum.  3  invidus.  4  qui  (as  to).  5abducere.  6laborare. 
7  quis  est,  qui.  8  statuere.  9  modus.  10  electus.  11  qui  (in  order  that — 
them).  12  intueri.  13  recitare.  14  observare.  15  quin  (who  not).  16  qui. 
17  diligere.  18  adolescens.  19  longinquitas.  20  mollire.  21  minuere.  22qui- 
darn.  23  molestus.  24  committere.  25  tumulus.  26  praeco.  27  propter  (with 
the  relative).  28  litteris  consignare.  29  per.  30  componere.  31  (acc.  with 
inf.).  32  objicSre.  33  (dative).  34  (accusative).  35  infamare  (to  bring 
into  disrepute).  36  mihi  videor.  37  peccare  (inf.).  38  discedere.  39repe- 
rire.  40  qui.  41  indicare.  42  mirificus.  43  vigilantia.  44  deligere.  45  qui 
(that  them).  46  praecipue.  47  amicissimus. 

(2)  There  is  a  God  who  rules1  the  whole  world  and  takes 
care  of  it.  Another  will  not  easily  be  found,  who  can  give 
better  advice,  than  you.  Dumnorix,  as  he2  was  very  popu- 


284 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  315. 


lar3  among  the  JEdui  collected4  a  great  number  of  men.  Who 
is  there,  who  does  not  know  what  pleasure  is  ?  Although*  the 
weather5  and  ageG  have  wasted  this  oak,  yet  there  will  be  an 
oak  in  these  places,  which  they  will  call  the  oak  of  Marius7. 
Thou  wilt  find  no  one  who  will  deny8,  that9  Demosthenes  was 
the  greatest  orator.  It  was  that  Lucius  Brutus,  who  freed  the 
state  from  tyranny.  No  one  is  happy,  who  so10  lives,  that11 
he  can  be  put  to  death  with  impunity12.  Who  has  been 
found,  except  Clodius,  that  has  censured  the  consulship  of 
Cicero  1  Many  have  been  found,  who  were  ready  to  spend13 
not  only  their  money,  but  also  their  life  for  their  country. 
Many  men  are  not  worthy,  that14  we  should  devote15  to  them 
a  portion  of  our  life.  We  sleep  whole  nights,  and  there  is 
scarcely  any  one16  in  which  we  do  not  dream17.  Marius 
violated18  fidelity  and  justice,  in  that19,  by  false  accusations20, 
he  made21  Metellus,  a  most  upright22  citizen,  odious.  There 
are  many  very  excellent23  men,  who  come  to  these  places24 
for  the  sake25  of  their  health.  Who  is  so  unreasonable  as  to26 
censure  these  regulations27  of  Solon  1  No  one  is  so  fortu¬ 
nate,  that  another  does  not  equal28  him.  Those  whom  you 
have  recommended  to  me,  are  worthy  of29  your  recommenda¬ 
tion30  to  others.  No  one  is  so  afflicted,  that31  we  cannot 
comfort  him.  Why32  shall  I  invite  you,  since31  others  have 
invited  you  in  vain  1  O  a  voice,  worthy  of29  being  heard33  by 
all  people34.  O  a  voice,  which  must35  be  sent  to  the  assem¬ 
bly  of  the  dead,  in  order  that  princes  and  kings  may  swear 
by36  its37  words. 

degere.  2qui(ashe).  3  gratiosus.  4  cogere.  *  quum.  6  tempestas. 
6  vetustas.  7  Marianus.  8  (present).  9  (acc.  with  inf.).  10 ea  lege.  11  ut. 
12impune.  13  profundere.  14qui.  15  impendere.  16 neque  ullus  (nor  any 
one).  17  somniare.  18  discedere.  19  qui.  20  crimen.  21  in  invidiam  addu¬ 
cere  (to  make  odious).  22bonus.  23optimus.  24  loca.  25 causa  (for  the 
sake  of).  26  qui.  27  institutum.  28  aequi  parare.  29  qui.  30  (verb.).  31  qui. 
32quid.33  (active).  34  (nominative).  35  (verbal adjective).  36in.  37qui. 

INTERROGATI  VES,  AND  THEIR  CONNECTION  WITH 

THE  VERB. 

315.  Questions  are  asked,  in  English,  either  by  interroga- 
tives,  which  may  be  adjectives,  pronouns  or  particles ;  or 
they  are  asked  by  placing  the  sentence  in  an  interrogative 
form ;  e.  g.  How  many  books  has  Cicero  written  ?  How 
great  were  the  pyramids  1  Who  painted  this  figure  1  Where 


§§  316,  317.] 


QUESTIONS. 


285 


was  Cicero  born  ?  Will  you  set  out  in  the  morning  ?  Hast 
thou  read  Cicero? 

But,  in  Latin,  questions  are  indicated  almost  wholly  by  in¬ 
terrogative  words,  seldom  without.  Such  interrogative  words 
are,  quis,  quid,  quisnam,  qualis,  uter ,  quam ,  quantus,  quan¬ 
tum,  quot,  quidni,  quare,  cur,  quoad,  quando,  ubi,  quo,  unde, 
quemadmodum,  quomodo,  qui,  ut,  num,  ne,  utrum,  nonne,  an, 
anne,  annon,  ecquis,  numquis ,  etc. 

These  questions  are  of  two  kinds,  either  independent  and 
direct,  or  dependent  and  indirect. 

INDEPENDENT  OR  DIRECT  QUESTIONS. 

316.  Independent  or  direct  questions  are  such  as  are  con¬ 
sidered  and  represented  as  independent  of  any  preceding  word. 
They  contain  the  very  words  which  are  or  were  addressed 
to  some  person.  They  are  of  such  a  nature,  also,  that  an 
answer  is  generally  expected  after  them,  except  in  the  case 
of  a  mere  oratorical  question,  and  especially  in  the  case  of 
an  exclamation.  Such  a  question  can  be  stated  either  defi¬ 
nitely,  e.  g.  Who  is  this  man  ?  or  doubtfully  (indefinitely), 
e.  g.  Who  can  this  man  be?  The  indicative  is  used,  in 
Latin,  when  the  question  is  definite ;  but  the  subjunctive,  when 
it  implies  doubt ;  e.  g.  Why  dost  thou  torment  me  ?  cur  me 
excrucias?  Whence  comes  it,  that  it  snows  in  winter  ? 
unde  fi  t,  ut  hieme  ningat  ?  Whither  goest  thou  ?  quo  per¬ 
gis?  Who  can  deny  this  ?  quis  hoc  neget? 

317.  In  English,  as  before  stated,  these  questions  do  not 
always  have  an  interrogative  word  before  them,  but  they  are 
often  indicated  merely  by  an  interrogative  position ;  e.  g. 
Does  this  journey  seem  perilous  to  you?  Do  you  praise  these? 
Do  you  long  for  something  more?  But  the  Latin  generally 
employs  one  of  its  interrogative  particles,  viz.  num  or  ne. 
Hence  the  above  examples  are  expressed :  Num  periculo¬ 
sum  hoc  iter  tibi  videtur  ?  Hosne  laudas  ?  or  laudaswe  hos  ? 
Num  quid  amplius  desideras  ?  Questions  are  rarely  found 


286 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§318,  319. 


without  an  interrogative  word;  e.  g.  Can  anything  be  better  ? 
potest  quidquam  esse  melius?  fornum  potest 
quidquam — ?  When  the  interrogative  is  omitted,  then,  as 
in  the  example,  the  principal  word  in  the  interrogative  clause 
is  placed  first,  and  it  is  made  emphatic  in  asking  the  ques¬ 
tion  :  Dubium  est  (is  it  doubtful ),  ad  quern  hoc  maleficium 
pertineat  ? 

318.  The  interrogative  ne  is  never  placed,  either  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  a  question,  or  before  the  single  word  on  which  the 
force  of  the  question  rests,  but  is  always  appended  to  that 
word  ;  e.  g.  Do  I  seem  to  you  to  understand  the  force  of  words 
sufficiently  ?  s  a  t  i  s  n  e  videor  vim  verboru  m  tenere  ?  Are  there 
three  kinds  of  blessings,  or  more  ?  t  r  i  a  n  e  sunt  genera  bono¬ 
rum,  an  plura  ?  Does  sorrow  befall  man  alone,  or  beasts  also  ? 
in  hominemne  solum  cadit  aegritudo,  an  etiam  in  belluas  ? 
Wilt  thou,  O  wiseman,  laugh  ?  tune,  sapiens,  ridebis  ?  Is 
this  never  useful?  nunquamne  hoc  est  utile?  Does  he 
err  himself,  or  does  he  wish  others  to  err  ?  i  p  s  e  n  e  errat,  an 
alios  vult  errare  ? 

When  this  ne  relates  to  hie ,  liaec,  hoc  and  sic,  it  is  often 
written  hicclne,  haeccine,  hocclne  and  siccine ;  e.  g.  Hast  thou 
seen  this  man  ?  h  u  n  c  c  i  n  e  hominem  vidisti  ?  Have  these , 
thus  made  an  assault  upon  the  enemy  ?  s  i  c  c  i  n  e  hi  in  hostem 
impetum  fecerunt? 

DEPENDENT  OR  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS. 

319.  When  questions  are  made  dependent  on  any  word, 
and  have  thereby  lost  the  external  form  of  questions,  since 
they  no  longer  ask  directly,  and  require  no  answer,  they  are 
called  dependent  or  indirect,  also  oblique.  The  following  are 
direct  questions  :  Docs  this  journey  seem  perilous  to  you  1 
Why  dost  thou  torment  me  ?  How  const  thou  predict  every¬ 
thing  ?  By  placing  substantives,  adjectives  and  verbs  before 
the  above  sentences,  indirect  questions  may  be  formed,  when 
such  questions  depend  upon  these  preceding  words;  thus, 


§§  320,  321.] 


QUESTIONS. 


287 


The  inquiry  is,  whether  this  journey  seems  perilous  to  you ; 
I  know  not,  why  thou  dost  torment  me ;  no  one  knows,  how 
thou  canst  predict  all  things.  It  is  evident,  that  these  ques¬ 
tions  have  lost  their  interrogative  nature,  and  by  their  depen¬ 
dence  upon  the  preceding  clause,  have  passed  over  to  narra¬ 
tive  discourse. 

320.  When  the  second  clause  is  made  to  depend  upon  the 
first,  the  best  Latin  writers  always  use  the  subjunctive,  to  in¬ 
dicate  dependence.  Comp.  §  (270.  f.)  Hence  the  above  ex¬ 
amples  are  expressed  :  Quaeritur,  n  u  m  periculosum  hoc  iter 
tibi  videatur;  nescio,  c  u  r  me  excrucies;  nemo  scit, 
quomodo  omnia  praedicere  possis.  So,  I  know  not 
what  hook  you  are  reading,  have  read,  and  will  read,  nescio, 
quem  librum  legas,  legeris,  lecturus  sis.  Tell  me 
ichether  your  father  is  at  home,  has  been,  will  he,  dic  mihi, 
n  u  m  pater  tuus  domi  sit,  fuerit,  futurus  sit. 

321.  An  indirect  question,  therefore,  always  depends  upon 
something,  either  preceding  or  following.  But  it  is  not  to  be 
inferred  from  this,  that  every  question  which  is  preceded  by 
something,  or  has  something  belonging  to  it,  is  an  indirect 
question ;  e.  g.  The  question  is,  Have  you  had  intercourse 
with  this  man  ?  Say,  do  these  things  alarm  you  ?  In  both 
of  these  examples,  the  principal  sentences  form  the  questions, 
and  are  independent  of  the  preceding  words. 

The  conjunctions  num,  nc ,  utrum,  in  indirect  questions 
where  they  have  the  sense  of  whether,  always  take  the  sub¬ 
junctive,  but  in  direct  questions,  the  indicative;  so  also 
nonne,  whether  not;  e.  g.  Is  this  the  only  proof?  num  est  7 
I  do  not  know  whether  this  is  the  only  proof,  num  s  i  t.  Were 
you  at  that  time  so  mad?  tanta/ze  turn  amentia  fuisti?  I 
ask  you,  whether  you  were  at  that  time  so  mad,  quaero  a  te, 
tantazze  turn  amentia  fueris.  Say,  do  those  things  alarm 
you  ?  dic,  num  te  illa  terrent?  Say,  whether  those  things 
alarm  you,  dic,  num  te  illa  terreant.  Is  not  the  dog  like 
the  wolf?  canis  nonne  similis  es  t  lupo?  Ask  him,  whether 
the  dog  is  not  similar  to  the  wolf ,  nonne  —  sit. 


288 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  322,  323. 


TWO  OR  MORE  QUESTIONS,  DIRECT  AND  INDIRECT. 

322.  The  inquirer  does  not  always  ask  respecting  one  per¬ 
son  or  thing  merely,  as  in  all  the  examples  above  mentioned, 
but  often  also  respecting  several.  These  several  questions 
may  either  be  such  as  are  not  opposed  to  each  other,  and 
therefore  each  requires  an  answer,  or  such  as  ore  opposed  to 
each  other,  and  only  a  single  answer  is  expected,  which  af¬ 
firms  the  first  or  se’cond,  or  indeed  the  third. 

When  they  are  not  opposed  to  each  other,  these  questions 
are  placed  after  one  another,  each  having  its  own  interroga¬ 
tive;  then  the  word  or,  denoting  antithesis,  is  not  introduced. 
Yet  when  there  are  two  such  questions,  as  or  in  English  is 
placed  before  the  second  similar  interrogative,  so  is  aut,  in 
Latin ;  e.  g.  It  is  disputed  whether  virtue  can  perish  in  man, 
or  whether  it  can  be  changed  into  vice ,  n  u  m  interire  virtus 
in  homine,  aut  n  u  m  in  vitium  possit  converti. 

Examples  :  I  ask  you ,  whether  Cornelius  has  disregarded  the  JElian 
law ,  whether  the  Fujian,  whether  he  has  done  violence  to  the  consul ,  wheth¬ 
er ,  xcith  armed  men ,  he  has  taken  possession  oj'  the  temple ,  whether  he 
has  defiled  the  religious  usages ,  has  exhausted  the  treasury ,  and  plun¬ 
dered  the  republic?  Quaero  a  te,  n  u  m  Cor.  Aeliam,  n  u  m  Fuf.  legem 
neglexerit,  nu  m  cons,  vim  attulerit,  num  arm.  horn.  temp,  tenuerit, 
num  relig.  polluerit,  aer.  exhauserit,  remp.  compliant?  Had  you 
not  seen  your  father  ?  Had  you  not  heard  that  your  grandfather,  etc.  ? 
Did.  you  not  know,  etc.  ?  Non  patrem  tuum  videras  r  non  avum, 
proavum,  non  patruum  audieras  consules  fuisse?  non  denique  te 
Metelli  matrimonium  tenuisse  sciebas? 

When  nonne  begins  the  first  of  such  questions,  the  other 
similar  ones  usually  follow  with  non  only,  which  however  has 
the  same  signification.  Comp.  Cic.  Rose.  Am.  35,  where 
non  follows  nonne  six  times.  Nonne  is  seldom  repeated. 

323.  But  when  the  questions  are  opposed  to  each  other, 
and  the  inquirer  seeks  to  ascertain  whether  the  one  or  the 
other,  or  even  a  third ,  is  that  which  he  wishes  to  know,  and, 
when  therefore,  only  one  answer  is  necessary  for  all,  then 
the  English,  with  the  second  and  remaining  questions,  uses 
the  word  or.  But,  in  Latin,  this  or  is  not  translated  by  aut, 


§  324.] 


QUESTIONS. 


289 


because  that  is  opposed  to  either ,  but  always  by  an  inter¬ 
rogative.  — 

The  most  usual  mode  of  forming  such  questions  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  table  : 

O 


First  question. 

( 1 )  utrum  (utramne) 
whether 

(2)  n  u  m  (n  u  m  n  e) 
whether 

(3)  ne 
whether 

(4) - 
whether 


Second  question. 

an  (an  n  e,  n e) 
or 
a  n 
or 

a  n  (n  e) 
or 

a  n  (an  n  e,  n  e) 
or 


The  English  whether  is  usually  omitted,  where  the  ques¬ 
tions  are  opposed  to  each  other  ;  e.  g.  Do  you  love  him  or  not  T 
In  the  fourth  mode  above,  there  is  no  interrogative  in  the 
first  question,  but  only  in  the  question  following  it. 

324.  If  there  are  more  than  two  questions,  the  second  and 
remaining  ones  begin  with  an.  If  the  second  question  con¬ 
tains  merely  the  words  or  not ,  this  is  expressed  by  necne  or 
annon.  Necne  usually  stands  only  in  indirect  questions,  sel¬ 
dom  in  direct,  sometimes  with,  and  sometimes  without  the 
preceding  verb ;  annon  is  mostly  used  in  direct  questions, 
seldom  in  indirect,  with  and  without  a  verb.  The  verb  is 
repeated  in  both,  when  emphasis  is  required.  For  or  not  we 
also  say  or  the  contrary ,  in  Latin  an  contra. 


The  following  examples  will  illustrate  the  different  ways  of  form¬ 
ing  the  questions  already  described.  Let  vs  distinguish  whether  one 
cannot  or  will  not !  utrum  non  possit,  a  n  nolit !  Iphicrates  was 
ashed,  whether  he  esteemed  his  father  or  mother  more  highly ,  utrum 
pluris  patrem,  matremne  faceret.  Must  the  books  of  Mago  be  learned 
by  heart,  or  can  we  be  satisfied  with  this  ordinary  knowledge  ?  Nurn 
Magonis  libri  sunt  perdiscendi,  an  contenti  esse  possumus  P  Let  them 
see  what  they  wish,  whether  they  wish  to  take  arms  for  sport  or  for 
fighting ,  ad  ludendumne,  an  ad  pugnandum  arma  sint  sumpturi. 
Let  the  Stoics  see,  whether  pain  is  an  evil  or  not ,  sitne  malum  dolor 
(dolere),  necne.  Do  you  injure  me  or  not?  facisne  mihi  injuriam, 
annon?  I  wish  to  know,  whether  he  said  this  to  Clodia,  or  not? 
dixeritne  Clodiae,  annon  dixerit.  Do  nothing  respecting  which 

25 


290 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  325 — 327. 


you  doubt  whether  it  is  right  or  wrong ,  aequum  sit,  a  n  iniquum.  The 
questionis,  whether  three  is  a  few,  or  muni/,  tria  pauca  sint,  anne 
multa.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  Romans  would  have  conquered , 
or  have  been  conquered.,  vicissent,  victme  essent  Romani.  Are  these 
thy  words,  or  not ?  sunt  haec  tua  verba,  necne?  The  question  is, 
whether  this  happens,  or  not,  fiat,  necne  fiat.  I  know  not ,  whether  / 
shall  remain  at  Arpinum,  or  shall  approach  nearer,  or  come  to  Rome , 
raaneamwe  Arpini,  a  n  proprius  accedam,  an  veniam  Romam.  It  is 
important  who  hears  this,  whether  the  Senate,  or  the  people ,  or  the  judges  ; 
whether  many ,  or  few,  or  individuals,  senatus,  a  n  polulus,  a  n  judices  ; 
frequentes,  a  n  pauci,  a  n  singuli.  Has  he  acted  rightly,  or  the  contrary  ? 
recte/je  fecit,  an  contra. 

Of  this  kind  of  questions,  the  third  and  fourth  are  most 
used  ;  the  second  but  seldom. 

325.  If  the  word  or  after  a  preceding  question  does  not  contain  a 
new  question,  opposed  to  the  former,  but  is  used  merely  instead  of  the 
connective  and,  and  defines  more  precisely  or  changes  the  word  be¬ 
fore  used,  then  aut,  and  not  an  interrogative,  is  employed;  e.  g.  Does 
pleasure  make  a  man  bet'.er  or  more  praiseworthy  ?  meliorenme  aut 
laudabiliorem  virum  ?  not  an,  for  praisewoi  thy  is  not  opposed  to  better; 
and  hence  there  is  only  one  question,  not  two  opposed  to  each  other. 

326.  The  interrogative  utrum ,  since  it  properly  signifies 
which  of  two ,  can  be  used  only  in  a  double  question,  i.  e. 
where  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of.  Although  this 
is  its  most  common  use,  yet  it  is  often  found,  even  in  Cicero, 
where  there  are  several  questions;  e.  g.  Have  you  too  little 
recollection  of  this ,  or  have  I  not  sufficiently  understood  you , 
or  have  you  changed  your  opinion  ?  utru  m  hoc  parum  com- 
meministi,  an  ego  non  satis  intellexi,  an  mutasti  senten¬ 
tiam  1  But  utrum  very  seldom  occurs  in  a  single  question. 

327.  Ne  is  often  annexed  to  utrum ,  sometimes,  also,  it  is 
inserted  in  the  interrogative  clause  after  utrum.  This  is  the 
case  particularly,  when,  in  the  two  interrogative  clauses  fol¬ 
lowing  one  another,  there  are  two  words  contrasted  with  each 
other,  which  require  to  be  made  more  emphatic  ;  then  the 
interrogative  ne  is  annexed  to  the  first  of  those  words ;  e.  g. 
Shall  I  be  silent,  or  shall  I  speak  openly  ?  utr  u  m  taceanrme, 
an  praedicem  1  Do  you  prefer  that  we  spread  the. sails  im¬ 
mediately,  or  that  ice  row  on  slowly  ?  utrum  mavis  statim/ie 
nos  vela  facere,  an  paullulum  remigare  ? 


§§  328— 330.  J 


QUESTIONS. 


291 


DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  INTERROGATIVES. 

328.  The  interrogati  ves  ne,  nonne  and  num ,  differ  in  regu¬ 
lar  usage  from  -each  other.  This  difference,  however,  is  more 
evident  in  direct  single  questions,  than  in  indirect  compound 
ones.  Questions,  in  reference  to  the  idea  and  thought  of  the 
interrogator,  are  of  three  kinds  : 

(1)  The  interrogator  inquires  about  something  without 
any  view  to  the  kind  of  answer,  without  knowing  whether 
the  answer  will  be  yes  or  no,  and  without  intimating 
which  he  desires.  The  interrogative  ne  is  used  in  a  ques¬ 
tion  of  this  kind;  e.  g.  Ought  we  to  imitate  these ?  hoswe 
imitari  debemus  ?  Hast  thou  learned  this  ?  didicistiwe  hoc  ? 
The  interrogator  here  expects  for  answer  either  yes  or  no , 
because  the  interrogative  ne  admits  either. 

329.  (2)  The  interrogator  makes  an  inquiry  in  such  a  man¬ 
ner,  as  to  intimate  a  wish  that  the  answer  may  be  affirmative, 
and  therefore  by  yes,  since  he  himself  is  convinced  of  the 
truth  of  that  about  which  he  inquires.  Here  the  word  nonne 
is  used.  The  English  employs  an  interrogative  not ,  which  is 
contained  in  nonne;  e.  g.  Ought  we  not  to  imitate  these ? 
nonne  hos  imitari  debemus  ?  Ans.  debemus.  Do  not  the 
poets  wish  to  be  renowned  after  their  death  ?  nonne  poetae 
nobilitari  volunt  ?  Ans.  volunt.  Was  not  Aristides  ban¬ 
ished  on  account  of  his  remarkable  just  ice  ?  Aristides  n  on- 
n  e  expulsus  est?  The  inquirer  here  expects  the  answer 
yes,  sane,  certe. 

Frequently  also  the  simple  non  is  used  interrogatively, 
without  any  interrogative  particle,  for  nonne.,  especially  after 
quid  ?  or  after  a  whole  clause  with  quis,quul?  e.  g.  What? 
do  I  not  recognize  your  voice?  quid?  ego  non  cognosco 
vocem  tuam  ?  for  nonne  ego  cognosco  —  ? 

330.  The  above  not  must  be  distinguished  from  another 
which  is  often  used  in  questions,  to  negative  the  verb  of  the 
interrogative  clause  or  another  single  word.  The  interroga- 


292 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  331. 


tor  therefore  does  not  express  an  affirmative  idea,  but  a  nega¬ 
tive  one.  Such  a  not  is  usually  expressed  by  non,  and  not  by 
nonne;  yet  besides  this  non,  an  interrogative  can  be  placed 
before  or  even  annexed  to  it,  therefore  also  non  n  e  ;  e.  g. 
What  ?  if  I  ask  you  something,  will  you.  not  answer  me  ? 
quid?  si  te  rogavero  aliquid,  n  o  n  (non  n  e)  respondebis? 
(The  other  had  before  said,  he  would  never  interrupt  his  dis¬ 
course  ;  consequently,  in  non  there  is  an  actual  negative,  and 
ne,  when  non  ne  is  used,  is  added  only  as  an  interrogative). 
Do  you  not  remember  what  I  said  a  little  before  ?  quid  paulo 
ante  dixerim,  non  (non  ne)  meministi  ?  (The  other  replied 
to  this  :  O  yes,  certainly ,  memini  vero).  Do  you  not 
perceive,  that  you  effect  nothing  by  your  daily  complaints  ? 
tu  n  o  n  intelligis  ?  Do  I  not  understand  what  pleasure  means  ? 
Egorae  non  intelligo  ?  Could  not  their  anger  hereby  be  ap¬ 
peased ?  Hiscme  ira  expleri  non  potuit? 

331.  (3)  The  interrogator  wishes  to  receive  the  answer 
no  ;  for  he  is  convinced  of  the  falsity  of  that  about  which 
he  inquires.  The  Latins  generally  use  here,  num,  nutnnam, 
numne ,  numquid,  often  also,  ecquid.  As  these  words  are 
negative,  aliquis  cannot  follow  them,  but  quis  or  quisquam ; 
e.  g.  Will  a  wise  man  rob  another  for  his  own  advantage  ? 
num  sapiens  spoliabit  ?  (Ans.  No.)  Do  you  think  (num 
putas),  that  the  soul  is  mortal  ?  Ans.  non  puto.  Did  any 
one  ever  praise  Nero  ?  num  quis  laudavit  ?  Is  there  any 
one  besides  ?  num  q  u  i  s  n  a  m  praeterea  ?  Is  there  any 
cause  for  abandoning  our  friendship  ?  num  quid  est 
causae  ?  Does  any  one  determine  anything  against  his  will  ? 
num  quis  quidquam  decernit  invitus  ?  Have  you  anything 
to  say  ?  ecquid  habes,  quod  dicas  ?  Is  there  anything  new  ? 
num  quidnam  novi  ?  In  indirect  questions,  num  quis  and 
ecquis  signify,  whether  any,  whether  any  one  ;  e.  g.  He  asked 
whether  there  was  any  farm  for  sale  there,  num  quis  fun¬ 
dus  isthic  venalis  sit. 

In  double  questions,  the  first  with  num,  implies  the  nega- 


QUESTIONS» 


293 


$332.] 

tion  of  what  is  asked  by  it,  and  the  second  with  an,  the  af> 
formation  of  the  second  question. 

The  iriterrogatives  numquid  and  ecquid  often  signify  no 
more  than  man ;  e.  g.  Do  you  therefore  perceive  hoio  this  hap¬ 
pens  ?  ecquid  ergo  intelligis  quomodo  hoc  fiat  7 

Remarks » 

332.  (1)  But  the  Latins  do  not  always  speak  so  exactly,  at  least  in 
indirect  questions.  They  often  use  num  for  nc  ;  very  often  instead  of 
nonne ,  merely  the  enclitic  ne ,  especially  with  videre  and  scire ,  and  fi¬ 
nally,  for  num,  also  the  indefinite  concessive  ne  ;  e.  g.  Do  you  not  see ? 
vides/ie  ?  for  nonne  vides  ?  Have  you  ever  seen  a  world  besides  this  ? 
inundum  —  unquamne  vidisti?  for  num  rnundum  —  ?  Tell  me 
whether  you  will  come  to  Italy ,  ecquid  in  Italiam  venturi  sitis,  for 
in  Italiamne.  Besides  the  connexion,  the  emphasis  which  is  given  to 
the  question,  makes  the  meaning  sufficiently  plain. 

(2)  The  interrogative  quidni,  why  not  ?  takes  only  the  subjunc¬ 
tive,  as  it  is  a  modest  and  doubting  question  ;  e.  g.  Quidni  possim? 
zchy  should  I  not  be  able  ?  It  forms  only  an  independent  question. 
F orsitan,  -perhaps ,  has  also  in  most  cases  the  subjunctive,  which 
depends  upon  an. 

(3)  The  interrogative  an  always  supposes  a  previous  question,  or  a 
preceding  thought,  to  which  it  forms  an  antithesis;  for  an  does  not 
signify  whether ,  in  a  question,  but  or.  So  a  n  n  o  n,  or  not  ?  which, 
however,  has  often  the  same  signification  as  an.  Hence,  it  can  never 
begin  a  discourse,  but  either  continues  one  already  begun,  or  refers  to 
a  question  conceived  in  the  mind  ;  e  g.  Are  the  dead  in  want  of  the 
advantages  of  life  ?  or  can  he  icho  does  not  exist ,  be  in  want  of  anything  ? 
an  potest  ille  —  re  ulla  carere?  It  is  in  our  power ,  therefore ,  to  re¬ 
move  pain ,  since ,  if  one  wishes ,  it  accommodates  itself  to  the  time.  Or  is 
there  a  lime  to  which  we  do  not  accommodate  ourselves ,  for  the  sake  of 
removing  suffering  ?  An  est  ullum  tempus  ?  Or  is  not  all  fear  servi¬ 
tude?  Ann  on  est  omnis  metus  servitus?  Such  questions  often 
denote  wonder,  or  irony,  or  conjecture.  So  they  are  often  the  same 
as  questions  with  num.  Hence  in  conjectures  respecting  the  cause 
of  something,  an  quod  is  used. 

Cicero  does  not  use  this  an  in  single  indirect  questions,  nor  with 
the  first  of  two  or  more  questions  opposed  to  each  other,  consequent¬ 
ly  not  an  —  an,  nor  even  an  —  necne.  Therefore,  it  is  not  said, 
Quaeritur,  an  hoc  verum  sit,  for  hoc  verumne  sit;  neither  hoc  an 
verum,  a  n  falsum  sit,  for  hoc  verum  falsurrme  sit.  And  when,  in 
Cic  Catii.  II  6,  13  (according  to  most  of  the  earlier  editions)  it  is 
written,  Quaesivi  a  Catilina,  an  nocturno  conventu  —  fuisset  nec¬ 
ne,  an  must  be  either  erased,  or  be  changed  into  in,  according  to 
most  of  the  recent  editions.  So  also  the  negative  whether  not  is  not 
expressed  by  annon,  but  by  nonne. 

Finally,  vero  is  placed  with  an,  to  strengthen  it,  and  is  then  ren¬ 
dered  really,  indeed,  then  pet  haps  ;  e.  g.  Or  do  ice  really  doubt  that  this 
is  so?  an  v e  ro  dubitamus  ?  Respecting  haud  scio  (dubito)  an,  see 
(10)  below. 


25* 


294 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  333,  334. 


(4)  If  an  or  no  stand  in  a  question  that  implies  a  negative  answer, 
any  one  is  not  expressed  by  aliquis,  but  by  quis  or  quisquam  ;  e.  g.  Or 
can  any  one  be  angry  without  distraction  of  mind  ?  an  quisquam 
potest  —  ?  Can  what  is  good  prove  an  evil  to  any  one  ?  potestne  bo¬ 
num  c  u  i  q  u  a  m  malo  esse  ? 

333.  (5)  The  phrase  nescio  quomodo  often  stands  as  an  adverb,  sig¬ 
nifying,  in  a  manner,  and  then  has  no  influence  on  the  mode  of  the  fol¬ 
lowing  verb  ;  e.  g.  There  is,  in  a  manner ,  a  presentiment  in  our  minds , 
nescio  quomodo,  inhaeret  in  mentibus  augurium.  On  the  con¬ 
trary,  if  it  is  used  in  its  proper  sense,  the  subjunctive  follows  ;  e.  g. 
I  know  not  hoic  you  have  endured  the  injury ,  nescio,  quomodo  injuriam 
t  u  1  e  r  i  s.  In  the  same  manner,  nescio  quis,  nescio  qui,  nescio  quid , 
signifying  some  one,  some  thing,  are  followed  by  the  indicative  ;  these 
expressions  have  merely  the  force  of  an  indefinite  pronoun  ;  e.  g.  some 
one  is  speaking  near  me,  prope  me  nescio  quis  1  o  q  u  i  t  u  r  =  prope 
me  loquitur  (aliquis),  nescio  quis  (ille  sit). 

6.  The  pronouns  quis,  quid,  numquis  numquid ,  and  ecquis,  ecquid , 
‘often  followed  by  the  enclitic  nam,  are  the  proper  interrogatives.  But 
they  either  stand  alone  without  a  substantive,  or,  if  a  substantive  be¬ 
longs  to  them,  they  take  that  in  the  genitive.  But  when  the  sub¬ 
stantive  is  added  in  the  same  case,  qui,  quae ,  quod  ;  numqui ,  numquae , 
nurnquod?  ecqui,  ecquae ,  ecquod,  are  used  ;  e.  g.  Who  said  this  ?  quis 
hoc  dixit  ?  What  man  said  this  ?  quis  hominum  hoc  dixit  ?  What 
act  did  he  commit  ?  quid  facinoris  or  quod  facinus 
commisit?  Is  there  any  trace  of  eloquence  visible?  numquid 
vestigii  or  nurnquod  vestigium  eloquentiae  apparet  ?  What 
place  in  Greece  is  unknown  to  you?  qui  locus  Graeciae  tibi  igno¬ 
tus  est? 

334.  (7)  In  expressions  of  wonder,  irony  and  grief,  an  accusative 
with  the  infinitive  frequently  occurs,  with  and  without  the  interroga¬ 
tive  ne,  where  we  use  the  nominative  ;  e.  g.  (Shall)  I  vanquished,  give 
up  my  purpose?  m  e  n  e  victam  incepto  desistere  ?  (Can)  any  one  be 
as  unhappy,  as  I  am  ?  adeone  esse  hominem  infelicem  quemquam, 
ut  ego  sum?  Instead  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  the  con- 
unction  ut,  with  or  without  the  interrogative  particle,  is  also  used  ; 
e.  g.  Would  any  one  prefer  a  conquered  to  a  victorious  country?  vic- 
tamne  ut  quisquam  victrici  patriae  praeferret?  Will  anything  dis¬ 
hearten  you?  Will  you  ever  reform  ?  Te  u  t  ulla  res  frangat  ?  tu  u  t 
unquam  te  corrigas  ?  Ut  \s  sometimes  also  omitted;  e.  g.  Should  I 
reject  this  return?  hunc  ego  reditum  repudi  a  r  em  ?  Finally,  when 
there  is  no  person  in  the  sentence,  the  infinitive  merely  is  used,  as  in 
English;  e.  g.  Not  to  knoiv  this,  that  this  does  not  belong  here!  hoc 
non  videre  —  !  To  have  seen  so  much ,  while  the  province  icas  in  fear  ! 
itantumne  vidisse  in  metu  provinciae  ! 

(8)  Questions  expressive  of  astonishment  and  indignation,  as,  Shall 
not  I  be  able  to  do  what  Sulla  could  ?  or,  If  Sulla  could  do  this,  why  not 
I?  are  often  formed  by  inverted  sentences,  and  the  second  clause  is 
changed  into  an  interrogative  one,  with  or  without  an  interrogative 
particle ;  thus,  Sulla  or  an  Sulla  potuit,  egononpotero? 
The  last  verb  is  put  in  the  future,  as  the  sense  requires,  if  something 
which  has  not  yet  happened  is  spoken  of, — in  the  present,  when  the 
action  relates  to  the  present, — in  the  perfect,  when  the  action  relates  to 
the  past ;  e.  g.  Cannot  I  do  what  Sulla  could  ?  Sulla  pot  nit  e  ffi- 


QUESTIONS. 


295 


§  334.] 

cere,  ego  non  possum?  Otherwise,  the  question  is  expressed 
according  to  the  usual  mode  :  Si  Sulla  potuit,  cur  ego  non  possim  ? 
The  English  then ,  expressing  astonishment,  is  translated  by  ergo ; 
e.  g.  Ennius  then  teas  permitted  to  despise  the  old ,  hut  I  shall  not  be , 
ergo  Ennio  licuit —  mihi  non  licebit? 

(9)  The  question,  /  ?  denoting  astonishment,  and  standing  alone, 
is  always  expressed  by  egone ?  and  the  question  of  surprise,  Is  it  so  ? 
is  always  expressed  by  itane  ?  itane  est  ?  Vcro  or  tandem  is  often 
joined  with  these  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  ;  e.  g.  Is  it  then  really  so  ? 
Itane  vero?  Itane  tandem?  Is  it  not  true?  Is  it  not  so?  are  ex¬ 
pressed  by  nonne  ?  P'inally,  where  we  ask  with  astonishment,  Do  you 
mean  this  ?  Are  you  serious  ?  the  Latin  says,  Ain’  t  u  ? 

(10)  Haud  scio  an  (more  seldom  nescio  an)  and  the  subjunctive  of 
a  verb  connected  with  it,  is  used  in  making  a  modest  assertion,  in 
expressing  a  belief  of  something  cautiously,  and  may  be  translated 
by  our  perhaps ,  without  however  intimating  doubt ;  e.  g.  Perhaps  that 
may  he  better ,  or  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  may  he  better ,  haud  scio, 
an  illud  melius  sit.  Perhaps  ( lam  inclined  to  think)  no  one  is  more 
happy ,  haud  scio,  an  nemo  sit  beatior.  Hence  the  first  clause  is  affirm¬ 
ative,  the  second,  negative.  For  haud  scio ,  dubito  also  is  used. 
Some  assert,  that  ullus ,  quisquam ,  unquam  and  usquam  are  also  used 
in  a  negative  sense  in  this  connection,  by  the  better  writers,  which  is 
not  improbable.  Finally,  the  use  of  haud  scio  (nescio,  dubito)  an,  in 
the  sense  of  perhaps ,  belongs  only  to  the  classic  writers,  not  to  those 
subsequent  to  the  classic  period.  When  these  words  have  their  true 
signification,  viz.  I  know  not ,  an  is  not  used,  but  ne  ;  e.  g.  I  know  not , 
whether  this  is  so  much  to  he  wondered  at ,  id  adeo  haud  scio  mirandum- 
ne  sit 

(11)  Habeo,  non  habeo,  quid,  I  know  not,  what — ,  is  not  to 
be  confounded  with  habeo  aliquid ,  nihil  habeo,  quod.  In  the  former 
phrase,  the  clause  with  quid,  is  a  dependent  interrogative  clause  ;  in 
the  latter,  quod  refers  to  a  preceding  aliquid  or  nihil ,  and  is  only  a 
relative.  Hence,  I  know  not  what  I  shall  write,  or  what  to  write ,  non 
habeo,  quid  scribam.  I  know  (or  have)  nothing  to  write,  nihil  habeo, 
quod  scribam. 


Examples  on  §§  315 — 334. 

(1)  What  is  right,  is  manifest1;  what  is  expedient2,  is 
doubtful.  Think3,  in  what  times  we  have  been  born.  Can 
the  civil  law  be  understood4  merely  from  books?  Do  you 
believe,  that  Epaminondas  sighed5,  when  he  perceived6  that 
his  life  was  ebbing7  together8  with  his  blood  ?  Does  every* 
irregularity9  of  the  mind  seem  to  you  insanity  ?  I  see,  what 
you  demand  ;  but  I  could  wish10  to  know,  what  advantage 
these  demands11  will  bring12  to  you?  I  write  to  you  less 
frequently  on  this  account,  because  I  do  not  know13,  where 
you  are  or  where  you  will  be.  It  is  evident  what  Caesar  has 
in  mind14;  but  what  I  think15  respecting  his  plan16,  I  will 


296 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERliS. 


B  334. 


write  to  you  at  another  time.  No  one  can  say  where  our 
'.soul  is,  or  what17  is  its  nature.  Nature  reminds  us  daily  of 
this,  how  few  and  how  small  things  she  needs18.  It  is  of 
no  consequence19,  whether  our  body  rots20  in  the  earth21,  or 
in  the  air22.  It  is  uncertain,  what  place  will  receive  you  in 
future.  Write  to  me  as  soon  as  possible23,  whether  this  dis¬ 
course  pleases  you.  Tell  me,  whether24  any  one  has  dared 
to  do  this.  Why  do  you  hasten  so  much?  for  I  cannot  un¬ 
derstand25,  why  you  hasten  so  much.  I  know  not  why  he 
thinks,  that26  Alexander  was  not  a  great  commander.  It  is  of 
much  consequence,  whether  our  glory  is  diminished27,  or28  is 
transferred  to  another.  vShall  we  prefer  wealth,  or  prefer¬ 
ment,  or  a  beautiful  form,  or  health  to  friendship  ?  It  is  un¬ 
justly  doubted,  whether  wisdom  of29  itself  alone  makes  man 
happy  or  not.  Can  we  destroy30  the  remembrance  of  the 
past31  ?  It  does  not  depend32  upon33  ourselves,  whether  we 
are  acute  or  dull34,  whether  we  are  strong35  or  weak36. 

1  apparere.  2  expedire.  3  cogitare.  4  cognoscere.  5  ingemescere. 
6  sentire.  7effluere.  8una.  *omnis.  9commot,io.  10velim  (could  wish). 
11  postulatum.  18  afferre.  13  cei  tum  habere.  14  animus.  15  sentire.  16  con¬ 
silium.  17  qualis.  18egere.  19  interesse  (to  be  of  consequence).  "pu¬ 
trescere.  21  humus.  22  sublime.  23  quam  primum.  24num.  25  intelligere. 
2ti{acc.  with  inf.).  27  imminuere.  28 aut.  "per.  30delere.  31  res  praeteri¬ 
tae.  32  sto.  33  in.  34  hebes,  "valens,  "imbecillus. 

(2)  If  the  criminal1  says,  that2  he  has  erred  from3  igno¬ 
rance,  the  question4  is,  whether  he  could  know,  or  not.  It 
must  be  carefully5  considered6,  what  is  wont  to  spring7  from 
everything.  Think8,  whether  in  any  other  way,  it  can  be 
made  more  easy.  A  teacher  can  easily  know,  whether  his 
scholars  apprehend9  quickly  or  slowly10  what  is  taught. 
Shall  I  not  admire  him,  shall  I  not  love  him?  There  is  a 
great  difference,  whether  any  one  opposes*  my  will,  or  does 
not  do11  it;  whether  he  takes  something  from  me,  or  does 
not  give ;  whether  he  disappoints12  our  hope,  or  defers  it ; 
whether  he  acts  against  us,  or  for  himself;  whether  from  love 
to  another13,  or  from  hatred  towards  us.  Does  he  not  fear 
what  will  be  the  issue  of  that  contempt14  of  the  laws  ?  Let 
us  first  see,  whether  the  world  is  governed  by  the  foresight 
of  the  gods;  afterwards,  whether  they  care  for  the  affairs15 
of  men.  I  could  wish  to  know,  whether  you  read  this  letter 
with  a  troubled16  or  a  cheerful17  mind.  Those  who  rely18 
much  upon  the  pity19  of  others,  know  not  how  quickly  tears 
become  dry20. 

1  reus.  2  (acc.  with  inf.).  3  imprudens  (from  ignorance).  4  quaeritur 


QUESTIONS. 


297 


§  334.] 


(the  question  is).  5 diligenter.  6  considerare.  7evenire.  8  videre.  9ar- 
ripere.  10  tarde.  *  obstare.  11  deesse  (not  do  to).  12  praecidere.  13  alter. 
14  contemptio.  15  res.  16  sollicitus.  17  solutus.  18  ponere.  19  misericordia. 
20  inarescere. 

(3)  It  is  uncertain,  whether  we  shall  see  what  we  seek1, 
or  cease  to  doubt,  whether  it  is  expedient  to  spare  one  on  ac¬ 
count  of  many  wicked2,  or,  by  the  punishment  of  a  single 
wicked  one,  to  restrain3  the  depravity4  of  many.  Shall  I  be 
indignant5,  if  I  surpass6  one  in  courtesy7  ?  Do  you  refer8 
everything  to  the  body,  or  is  there  something  which  delights9 
you  of  its  own  accord10  ?  Have  I  taken  your  patrimony  from 
you,  or  have  you  consumed11  it  yourself?  I  have  often  re¬ 
flected12,  whether  the  power  of  speech13  has  conferred14  upon 
men  more  good  or  evil.  Ought  we  not  to  be  most  thankful15 
to  the  man  who  has  so  successfully16  understood17  the  voice 
of  nature,  that  he  leads18  all  the  rational19  in  the  way  of  a 
happy  life?  I  ask  you,  whether  you  think,  that  Homer  and 
Pindar,  Phidias  and  Zeuxis  accommodated20  their  arts  to21 
pleasure.  When  any  one  yields22  to  sensual  pleasure23  in  se¬ 
cret24,  has  he  a  sufficient  regard25  for  honor  ?  or  is  it  rather 
something  which  is  disgraceful26  in27  itself,  even  if  no  dis¬ 
grace28  accompanies29  it  ?  Shall30  not  our  philosophers  be 
able  to  do  that  which  the  Scythian  Anacharsis  could,  viz31., 
to  consider32  money  of  no  value33?  Can  any  orator  be  found 
like  Demosthenes  and  Cicero. 

‘petere.  2  improbus.  3 cogrcere.  4  improbitas.  5  indignari.  6  antece¬ 
dere.  7  comitas.  8  referre.  9  delectare.  10  sua  sponte,  “comedere.  12  co¬ 
gitare.  13  (gerund).  14  afferre.  15  habere  gratias  (to  be  thankful).  16  fir¬ 
me.  17  comprehendere.  lsdeducere.  19 bene  sanus.  20dirigere.  21  ad. 
22  parere.  23  libido  (sensual  pleasure).  24  sine  teste.  25  consulere  (to 
have  regard  for).  26  flagitiosus.  27  per.  28  infamia.  29  comitari.  30  (see 
§  334.  8).  31  (omitted  in  Latin).  32 ducere.  33  pro  nihilo  (of  no  value). 

(4)  Is  it  not  far  better  to  say  something  respecting1  these 
men,  than  respecting  many  wise  men  ?  Is  it  in  our  power2, 
what  we  remember3  ?  Let  us  ask  Zeno,  in  what  way  we  can 
spend  our  life,  if  we  think4  it  is  indifferent5,  whether  we  are 
healthy6  or  sick7,  whether  we  are  free8  from  pain  or  are  af¬ 
flicted  by  it,  whether  we  can  keep9  off  cold  or  hunger,  or  not  ? 
It  is  indifferent,  whether  pleasure  consists10  in  those  things 
which  are  first  according  to11  nature,  or  whether  it  does  not 
consist  in  these.  To12  begin  with13  the  body,  do  you  not  see 
how14  men  conceal15  the  distorted16  and  mutilated17  limbs  ? 
how  they  even18  strive19  and  labor20,  that21  a  defect  of  the 
body  may  either  not  appear,  or  appear  as  little  as  possible22? 


298 


C  ONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  335,  336. 


how,  for  the  sake  of  curing23  it,  they  will  endure24  many  pains  ? 
Do  we  not  consider  many  worthy  of  hatred,  who,  by  a  certain 
attitude23  or  movement,  seem  to  have  despised26  the  law  of 
nature?  Can  it  indeed  be  doubtful  to  any  one,  that27  virtue 
is  the  highest  good  ?  Do  you  believe28,  that29  this  befalls30 
the  wise  ?  Do  you  not  therefore  believe,  that  sufferings31  be¬ 
fall  the  wise  ?  I  by  no  means32  believe  it.  I  ask  you  what 
you  think  ?  I  ?  I  believe,  that  there  is  a  providence.  This 
happened  by  accident.  Is  it  so  ?  This  cannot  have  happened  by 
accident.  Are  you  serious,  said33  he  ? 

1  de.  2potestas.  3  meminisse.  4  putare.  5 nihil  interesse.  6  valere. 
7  aeger.  9  vacare.  9  propulsare.  10esse.  11  secundum.  12  ut  (verb  first 
person  singular).  13  a.  14  ut.  15  occultare.  _  16  pravus.  17  debilitatus. 
18  etiam,  19  contendere.  20  elaborare.  21  ut.  22  quam  minimum  (as  — 
possible),  ^curatio.  24  perferre.  25status.  29 contemnere.  27 quin. 
29  (verb  at  the  end  ;  the  question  with  ne  ;  this  is  the  principal  word). 
29(acc.  with  inf.).  30 cadere  in  aliquem.  31  aegritudo.  32  non  prorsus. 
33  inquam. 


335.  ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS. 

The  answers  are  either  affirmative  or  negative. 

( a)  Affi  r  mativ  e  answers. 

These  are  not  made  by  the  word  immo  (imo)  by  which  yes 
is  often  translated,  but : 

(1)  By  ita,  ita  est,  sic  est ,  sane ,  etiam ,  vero  (which  can 
stand  here  even  without  a  verb)  and  certe;  e.  g.  Do  you  icish 
anything  1  Yes,  Numquid  vis?  Etiam!  Does  my  brother 
live  here  ?  Yes,  Ita  est  or  est  ita.  Yes,  it  is  so,  s  i  c  e  s  t. 
Do  you  wish  me  to  ask  you  only  the  most  important  ?  Yes, 
if  you  please,  sane,  si  placet.  Have  you  been  often  in  the 
schools  of  the  philosophers?  Yes,  Ver  o.  Yes,  it  is  as  you  say, 
est,  u  t  dicis.  The  words  sane,  vero,  certe  and  profecto, 
however,  always  give  a  strong  affirmative  to  the  question. 

336.  (2)  By  repeating  that  word  of  the  interrogative  clause, 
on  which  the  question  particularly  depends.  This  is  the  most 
frequent  method.  Still  an  affirmative  particle,  especially  the 
strengthening  vero,  is  usually  joined  to  the  word  that  is  re¬ 
peated  ;  e.  g.  Does  not  the  reading  of  this  book  delight  you  ? 
Yes,  Me  vero  delectat.  I  icish  that  you  would  agree 
with  me  in  this.  Yes,  entirely,  Prorsus  assenti  or. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS. 


299 


§§  337—340.] 

Have  you  a  new  edition  of  this  book  ?  Yes ,  I  have,  Habeo 
vero.  Do  you  wish  for  me?  Yes,  Mene  vis?  Te.  Did 
you  come  here  alone  ?  Yes,  Solus. 

337.  (3)  Sometimes  also,  the  affirmative  word  is  omitted, 
and  something  expressing  the  wish,  meaning  or  opinion  of 
the  one  answering,  is  substituted;  e.  g.  Is  pleasure  to  be  reck¬ 
oned  among  the  blessings  ?  Yes,  and,  indeed  among  the  great¬ 
est  !  Ac  maximis  quidem.  Do  you  really  mean  df'lato  ? 
Yes,  him  precisely,  Istum  ipsum. 

(b)  Negative  answers. 

These  are  made  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  affirmative 
ones : 

333.  (I)  By  n  o  n,  no,  mini  m  e,  by  no  means,  nequa¬ 
quam,  neutiquam,  haudquaquam;  with  the  last 
three  a  verb  is  almost  always  joined.  Moreover,  there  is  of¬ 
ten  connected  with  all  of  these,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  her- 
cule,  mehcrcule,  sane,  vero,  etc.  Vero  in  particular,  when 
joined  with  the  above  negative  particles,  although  without  a 
negative  force  itself,  expresses  our  ah  (O)  no!  e.  g.  Can  we 
always  observe  this  order  in  placing  words  ?  No,  N  o  n  s  a  n  e. 
Do  you  consider  these  as  orators  ?  O  no,  I  consider  them  not 
so  much  as  worthy  of  the  name,  Ego  vero  lie  nomine  qui¬ 
dem  dignos  puto.  Do  you  not  believe  this  ?  No,  by  no  means, 
M  i  n  I  m  e  vero.  Where  we  say  :  No,  only  go  on,  the  Latin 
says  :  perge  vero  or  tu  vero  perge,  without  negation. 

339.  (2)  By  repeating,  with  a  negative  particle,  that  word 
of  the  interrogative  clause,  on  which  the  question  particularly 
depends  ;  e.  g.  Is  thy  brother  icithin  ?  No,  Non  e  s  t.  Are 
you  pleased  with  this  oration  ?  No,  Non  placet  or  dis¬ 
plicet.  Did  you  come  here  alone  ?  No,  Non  solus. 
Does  your  hand  desire  anything  ?  No,  by  no  means,  Nihil 
sane. 

340.  (3)  By  the  particle  immo  (imo),  particularly  when 
the  antithesis  of  the  question  is  to  be  expressed,  where  we 


300 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS, 


L$  340. 


say,  on  the  contrary ,  no  rather.  Vero  is  often  used  here  to 
give  emphasis.  Hence  immo  does  not  usually  stand  alone, 
but  has  something  joined  with  it;  e.  g.  Was  Roscius  poor? 
No,  he  was  rich,  Immo  locuples  erat.  Was  he  avaricious  ? 
No,  he  was  always  in  the  highest  degree  generous,  Immo 
semper  liberalissimus  fuit.  Do  you  certainly  not  agree  with 
me  ?  No,  I  wholly  agree  icith  you,  Immo  prorsus  assentior. 
Has  therefore  utility  triumphed  over  goodness  ?  No,  utility 
was  rather  the  consequence  of  goodness,  Immo  vero  hon¬ 
estatem  utilitas  est  consecuta.  Where  was  Sulla  ?  at  Rome  ? 
No,  he  was  far  distant,  Immo  longe  abfuit. 

Nihil  vero  minus  is  used  in  the  same  sense,  followed  by  a 
clause,  which  denotes  exactly  the  opposite  of  that  which  the 
interrogator  said ;  e.  g.  Was  heat  Athens?  Surely  not,  he 
was  at  Rome,  Nihil  vero  minus!  fuit  Romae. 

Examples  on  §§  335 — 340. 

Have  you  heard  all,  even  what  I  spoke  with  a  low1  voice  ? 
Yes2.  Have  I  not  long  said,  that  this  would  happen3  ?  Yes2. 
Does  not  that  still  remain4,  which  relates5  to  nature  ?  Yes6, 
as  you  say.  If  you  please,  let  us  speak7  respecting  the  first. 
Yes2.  Does  this  man  think  upon8  what  he  says  ?  By  no 
means9.  Does  death  seem  to  you  to  be  an  evil  ?  Certainly6. 
King  Tarquin  asked  the  messengers:  Have  you  been  sent  by 
the  people  of  Collatia10  to11  give12  up  yourselves  and  the  peo¬ 
ple  ?  They  answered  :  Yes13.  Are  the  people14  of  Collatia 
independent15?  Yes13.  Do  they  give  up  their  city,  fields,  tem¬ 
ples,  everything  belonging  to  gods16  and  men,  into  my  pow¬ 
er17  ?  They  answered  :  Yes13.  Was  Catiline  then  in  the  Pi¬ 
cene  district18?  Surely  not19,  for  he  was  at  Neapolis.  Do 
you  deny,  that20  virtue  is  strong21  enough  for  a  happy  life  ? 
Yes22,  entirely  so.  Is  the  case23  a  different  one  ?  No,  pre¬ 
cisely  the  same.  Is  there  protection24  enough  in  virtue  to 
live  happily  ?  Yes25.  Did  I  not  wish26  to  see  you  ?  No,  I 
wished  rather  not  to  be  seen  by  you. 

1  surntnissus  (submissus).  2(§  336).  3esse.  4restare.  5  spectare. 
6(§  335).  7disputare.  3cogitare.  9(§  338).  10  Collatinus  (of  Collatia). 
11  ut.  12dedere.  13  ( §  336) -  14  (singular).  15  in  sna  potestate.  I6divinus 
(belonging  to  gods).  17  ditio.  13  ager.  19  (§  340).  20  (acc.  with  inf.). 
21  posse.  22  prorsus  (§  336).  23  res.  24  praesidium.  25  certe  (§  336). 
26(perf.  subj.). 


§  341.] 


THE  IMPERATIVE 


301 


C.  The  Imperative. 


341.  The  imperative  includes  those  forms  of  the  verb,  by 
which  one  desires,  asks,  or  demands  something  of  another, 
counsels  him,  forbids,  dissuades  or  seeks  to  prevent  him. 
Such  wishes,  commands  and  prohibitions  are  either  for  the 
nearest  present ,  requiring  something  to  be  done  or  not  to  be 
done,  immediately,  or  for  the  future ,  being  of  a  general  na¬ 
ture  and  left  to  the  will  of  another,  to  do  or  not  to  do  some¬ 
thing,  when  the  case  occurs.  The  shorter  forms  are  those  of 
the  present,  the  longer,  those  of  the  future.  The  present  is 
confined  to  a  second  person  present ;  but  the  future  refers 
not  only  to  a  second,  but  also  to  a  third  person  absent,  whc 
is  to  do  or  suffer  something  future.  The  forms  are,  e.  g. 


Present. 

abi 


Future 

abito 

abito 


abite 


abitote 

abeunto 


The  frst  show,  that  something  should  happen  immediate¬ 


ly;  the  second,  that  something  should  happen  at  some  future 
time.  There  is  nothing  more  severe  or  imperative  in  the 
last,  than  in  the  first.*  As  the  commands  and  injunctions  of 
the  laws  relate  only  to  the  future,  the  second  forms  are  more 
usual  in  these.  So  the  future  imperative  is  found  oftener, 
when  a  clause  in  the  future  is  connected  with  the  command; 
e.  g.  If  this  shall  not  happen  to  you,  accuse  your  injustice, 
accusatote;  praise  my  courtesy,  if  I  shall  not  answer 
you  without  delay ,  laudatote.  When  there  is  any  new 
and  remarkable  occurrence ,  ascertain  (investigato)  the 
cause,  if  you  can  (si  poteris). 

*  Some  orammarians,  however,  regard  the  shorter  as  the  milder 
form,  expressing  merely  a  command  of  the  speaker  himself;  the 
longer  form  as  the  stronger,  expressing,  in  addition  to  this,  the  higher 
injunctions  of  duty  or  law.  See  Krilger  §  464.  liamshorn  §  167.  Kii fi¬ 
ner  §  8.  Rcisig  §  333. 


26 


r 


302 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


L$$  342,  343. 


Farther;  the  Latin  says  only  scito,  know,  scitote, 
know  ye  ;  mement  o,  remember,  mementote,  remem¬ 
ber  ye;  and  when  Cicero  uses  habere  in  the  sense  of  to 
know,  to  believe,  he  says  only  habeto,  habetote ;  e.  g.  Know 
so  much,  tantum  habeto;  know  this,  sic  habetote. 
So  also,  finally,  in  the  concessive  phrase,  Grant  that  this  is  so, 
only  verum  esto!  or  merely  esto,  not  sit. 

The  request  to  one  or  more  to  do  something  in  common  with  the 
speaker,  is  expressed  in  Latin  by  the  first  person  plural  of  the  present 
subjunctive  ;  e.  g.  Let  vs  go  away,  a  b  e  a  in  u  s  ;  let  vs  jest ,  joce- 
m  u  r. 

342.  When  a  person  forbids  or  seeks  to  prevent  anything, 
the  Latin  does  not  use  non,  but  the  particle  nc,  which  is 
placed  before  the  imperative  ;  e.  g.  n  e  crede,  n  e  credito  ; 
do  not  go  away,  n  e  abi ;  n  e  abito. 

When  a  new  prohibition  is  joined  to  a  preceding  one  by 
nor,  or  when  in  a  clause  expressing  prohibition,  neither  —  nor 
occurs,  neu  or  neve  is  used  ;  e.  g.  Let  magistrates  neither 
receive  a  reward  nor  give  one,  n  e  capiunto,  neve  danto. 
Let  no  one  (nequis)  put  us  to  shame,  neither  (neve)  during 
his  life,  nor  (neu)  after  his  death. 

Ne  is  also  used  with  the  persuasive  clause,  let  us  not ;  e.  g. 
Let  us  not  exceed  the  measure,  n  e  modum  excedamus. 

The  place  of  the  imperative  is  also  supplied  : 

343.  (1)  By  the  subjunctive  present,  but  in  the  classical 
period  only  very  seldom, — and  hence  it  is  rather  to  be  avoided  ; 
e.  g.  Go  away ,  abeas,  for  a  b  i ;  let  him  go  away,  abeat, 
for  a  b  \  t  o  ;  do  you  go  away ,  abeatis;  let  them  go  away , 
abeant.  Here  also,  in  prohibitions,  ne  is  used;  e.  g.  Do 
not  go  away,  n  e  abeas,  n  e  abeatis  ;  be  not  superstitious, 
ne  sis  superstitiosus.  In  the  same  manner  must  the  impera¬ 
tives  of  impersonal  verbs  be  expressed,  the  imperatives  of 
these  not  being  used;  e.  g.  Be  ashamed,  te  pudeat; 
vos  pudeat.  In  prohibitions,  the  subjunctive  perfect  is 
also  used  with  ne,  or  with  a  negative  word,  as  nihil;  e.  a. 
Do  not  do  tins,  n  e  hoc  feceris;  fear  nothing  from  me, 
de  me  nihil  t  i  m  u  e  r  i  s.  Comp.  §  242. 


§  344.] 


THE  IMPERATIVE. 


303 


(2)  The  place  of  the  imperative  is  supplied  by  the  future 
indicative,  as  in  English,  when  one  leaves  his  wish  to  the  per¬ 
son  with  whom  he  speaks,  and  hopes  that  he  will  comply 
with  it ;  e.  g.  You  will  be  so  good  as  to  go  there ,  instead  of, 
Be  so  good,  etc.,  In  cases  of  prohibition,  ne  is  not  used  here, 
but  non  ;  e.  g.  Continue  in  health,  attend  to  my  business,  and 
with  the  help  of  God,  look  for  me  before  summer ,  valebis  — 
videbis  —  expectabis.  Do  not  delay  and  polish  well 
the  articles  you  have  made,  and  love  us,  tu  non  cessabis 
—  perpolies,  nosque  diliges. 

344.  (3)  The  imperative  is  also  expressed  by  a  periphra¬ 
sis,  and  : 

(a)  In  commands  or  affirmat  ions ,  by  fac  or  velim ,  ut  and 
the  subjunctive,  in  which  case,  however,  ut  is  generally 
omitted,  or  by  memento  and  the  infinitive  ;  e.  g.  Take  care  to 
convince  yourself,  or  convince  yourself,  fac  (ut)  tibi  per¬ 
suadeas,  velim  tibi  persuadeas ;  remember,  be  careful  to  do 
this,  or  do  this,  memento  hoc  facere  ;  be  sure  to  remember 
these,  etiam  atque  etiam  facite,  ut  ea  recordemini.  But 
where  this  periphrastic  construction  is  used,  the  idea  is  al¬ 
ways  expressed  more  strongly.  This  can  be  indicated  in 
English  by,  be  sure,  take  care,  do,  etc.  Respecting  the  peri¬ 
phrastic  jacere,  ut,  comp.  §  (541.  d.) 

(b)  In  prohibitions  and  negations,  the  imperative  is  ex¬ 
pressed  periphrastically,  by  fac,  ne  and  the  subjunctive,  by 
noli  and  the  infinitive,  which  is  more  frequent  than  ne  with 
the  imperative,  by  cave ,  ne,  or  without  ne,  and  the  subjunc¬ 
tive,  and  by  vide,  ne  and  the  subjunctive.  Here,  also,  with 
the  exception  of  noli,  the  prohibitions  are  expressed  more 
strongly  ;  e.  g.  Be  careful  not  to  think  ( do  not  think)  that  any¬ 
thing  is  more  true,  cave,  putes;  fear  not,  noli  vereri ; 
take  care  {be  sure)  not  to  do  this,  cave,  ne  id  facias  ;  cave, 
ne  id  feceris. 

Finally,  when  an  action  has  already  begun,  and  one  wishes 
it  to  cease,  where  we  say  no  further,  no  more,  no  longer,  de- 


304 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  344. 


siste  or  desine  with  the  infinitive  can  be  used  ;  e.  g.  Ask  no 
further  respecting  this ,  hoc  percunctari  (percontari)  desine 
(desiste). 


Examples  on  §§  341 — 344. 


Associate  with  good  men,  and  avoid  the  company1  of  the 
evil.  Lie9  not,  but  rather  speak  the  truth3,  wherever4  you 
may  be.  Do  ye  approach5  the  gods  with  purity6,  show7  pie¬ 
ty,  put  away8  splendor9,  do  not  respect  foreign10  gods,  di¬ 
minish11  expense  upon19  the  dead,  and  neither  bury  the  dead 
in  the  city,  nor  burn13  them.  Hope  not  for  exemption14  from 
the  evils15  of  human  life.  Place16  this  eminent17  man  alone18 
before  your  eyes,  model19  all  which90  you  think  or  do91  after99 
his  pattern93,  take  care  not  to  turn94  your  eyes  to  the  corrupt95 
custom  of  the  multitude,  and  do  not  forget,  that96  thus  you 
will  obtain  what  you  wish*  for.  Travel97  diligently98  the  di¬ 
rect  road  to  glory,  and,  if  anything  should  entice  you  to  leave 
it,  leave  it  not ;  follow  only  your  own  judgment  and  my  ex¬ 
hortation.  Weep  no  more,  for  everything  which  has  hap¬ 
pened  to  you,  has  happened  to  you  according  to  the  com¬ 
mand  and  will  of  God.  Let  him  give  me  my  possessions,  let 
him  not  take99  them  from  me,  let  him  surrender30  me  my  goods. 
Let  him  who  wishes  to  arrive31  where  he  has  determined39, 
follow33  only  one  way,  and  not  wander34  through  many.  Know, 
that35  I  now  write  more  boldly  than  before.  Be  careful  to  re¬ 
tain  the  province  in  the  possession36  of  the  republic.  Excuse37 
me,  that38  I  have  not  written  to  you  recently.  Do  so39,  and 
love  me,  and  provoke40  me  by  writing  something41.  Be  sure 
not  to  consider49  this  man  among43  your  friends.  VDo  not  at¬ 
tempt44  what  is  impossible45.  Doubt  no  longer,  whether  this 
is  useful.  Doubt  not,  that46  I  will  do  everything.  Know47 
this  first,  that  I  am  thy  most  ardent48  friend.  Believe  that  I 
remain49  the  same,  even  when  you  see  no  one50 ;  therefore51 
honor  me  as  a  god.  If  you  will  listen  to  me,  avoid59  animos¬ 
ities.  Farewell,  and  remember53  me  ever. 

Societas.  2  mentiri.  3  vera.  4  ubicumque  (see  §  270.  b).  5  adire.  6  cas¬ 
te.  7 adhibere.  8 amovere.  9  opes.  10  peregrinus.  11  imminuere.  12 in. 
13  comburere.  14  immunitas.  15  malum.  16  constituere.  17 summus. 
18unus.  ]9lingere.  20  quicquid  (all  which).  21agere.  22ad.  23imago. 
24  flectere.  20  depravatus.  26  (acc.  with  inf.).  *  requirere.  27  ingredi. 
28impiger.  29adimere.  30addicere.  31  pervenire.  32 destinare.  33sequi. 
34  vagari.  35  (acc.  with  inf.).  36potestas.  37(§  344).  38quod.  39(§  343, 
2).  40  lacessere.  41  scriptum  aliquod.  42  referre.  43  in  numero.  44tentare, 


INFINITIVE  AND  GERUNDS. 


§§  345,  346.] 


305  ' 


45 effici  non  posse.  4Gquin.  47  habere.  43 amicissimus.  49esse.  30nul- 
Ius.  51  quare.  32  vitare  (§  343,  2).  33  meminisse. 


INFINITIVE  AND  GERUNDS. 

345.  The  English  and  Latin  infinitives,  present  and  per¬ 
fect,  are  used  in  both  languages,  not  only  as  subjects  or  pre¬ 
dicates,  but  also  as  objects  of  the  principal  verb  in  the  sen¬ 
tence. 

(1)  As  subjects,  they  are  the  principal  word  on  which  the 
verb  of  the  sentence  depends,  and  as  predicates,  they  refer 
to  other  definite  subjects,  and  in  both  these  relations,  they 
are  in  the  nominative;  e.  g.  To  die  for  one's  country  (i.  e. 
death  for  one’s  country)  is  sweet  and  honorable,  pro  patria 
mori,  where  m  o  r  i  is  the  subject  of  the  verb,  and  therefore 
in  the  nominative,  and  stands  in  the  place  of  mors.  So,  To 
be  without  pain  (nihil  doler  e,  freedom  from  pain)  is  found 
(inest)  only  in  pleasure.  The  business  of  the  poets  was  to  sing 
the  praises  of  heroes,  heroum  laudes  canere.  To  paint 
seems  more  pleasing  to  an  artist,  than  to  have  painted,  p  i  n- 
gere  quam  pinxisse.  In  these  sentences  the  infinitives 
are  the  subjects  of  the  verbs.  And  so  in  the  sentence,  To 
learn  is  nothing  else  than  to  remember,  nihil  aliud  est  d  is- 
cere,  nisi  recordari,  discere  is  the  subject,  and  r  e- 
c  o  r  d  a  r  i  the  predicate. 

346.  Such  an  infinitive  can  also  be  often  translated  into 
English  by  a  noun,  as  the  examples  show;  e.  g.  Reverence 
for  the  gods,  colere  deos  ;  indulgence  to  his  enemies,  par- 
cere  inimicis  ;  remembrance  of  the  past,  meminisse  prae¬ 
teritorum  or  praeterita;  the  use  of  life,  utivita.  In  such 
sentences,  the  personal  pronouns  must  be  used  instead  of 
the  possessive  ;  e.  g.  My  preservation,  me  conservare; 
our  protection,  nos  tueri.  So ‘must  every  adjective  be 
expressed  in  Latin  by  an  adverb,  because  the  infinitive 
retains  the  nature  of  the  verb ;  e.  g.  A  happy  life,  beate 
vivere ;  an  honorable  death,  gloriose  (honeste)  mori ; 

26* 


306  CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS.  [§§  347,  348. 

such  a  use,  i  t  a  uti ;  a  more  just  mode  of  thinking,  a  e- 
q  u  i  u  s  sentire. 

347.  (2)  An  infinitive  can  also  stand  as  the  object  of 
another  verb,  and  is  therefore  its  accusative  ;  e.  g.  Many  de¬ 
spise  the  very  idea  of  being  conquered,  multi  ipsum  vinci 
contemnunt.  Some  think  it  low  to  prefer  money  to  friend¬ 
ship,  pecuniam  praeferre  amicitiae.  Here  the  infini¬ 
tives  are  the  objects  of  the  principal  verbs,  and  take  the  place 
of  accusatives. 

All  infinitives  which  are  joined  to  a  large  class  of  verbs, 
to  complete  the  imperfect  ideas  expressed  by  these  verbs 
alone,  may  be  considered  as  such  objects.  Here  belong  verbs 
denoting,  to  wish,  to  be  able,  ought  (debere),  to  be  accustomed, 
to  begin ,  to  continue,  to  cease,  etc. ;  e.  g.  No  one  can  divine 
this,  divinare;  I  ought  (debeo)  to  alleviate  thy  pain, 
levare.  Most  of  these  verbs  admit  the  full  construction 
of  the  accusative  and  the  infinitive,  or  a  conjunction  with  the 
verb  in  the  subjunctive  ;  e.  g.  I  wish  to  be  loved  by  all,  volo 
ab  omnibus  amari  or  me  ab  omnibus  amari. 

When  an  infinitive,  used  to  complete  the  idea  of  another  verb,  has 
a  predicate  which  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  principal  verb,  then 
such  predicate  is  in  the  nominative,  because  both  verbs  have  the  same 
person  for  their  subject.  But  when  the  accusative  with  the  infini¬ 
tive  occurs,  the  predicate  is  in  the  accusative  ;  e.  g.  IVe  'prefer  to  be 
beloved,  c  a  r  i  esse  malumus ;  I  must  be  more  brief ,  debeo  esse  bre¬ 
vior;  I  desire  to  be  compassionate ,  cupio,  me  esse  clementem. 

HISTORICAL  INFINITIVE. 

348.  In  the  animated  description  of  actions,  following  each 
other  in  quick  succession,  or  of  a  restless  and  irresolute  state 
of  mind,  the  best  Latin  writers  very  often  use  the  present 
infinitive  active  and  passive,  for  a  definite  person  of  the  im¬ 
perfect  or  the  narrative  present.  With  this  infinitive,  how¬ 
ever  the  subject  is  in  the  nominative,  and  the  infinitive  does 
not  have  a  governing  word  on  which  it  depends.  ;'e.  g.  A 
part  (pars)  mount  (ascendere)  their  horses,  and  go  against 
the  enemy  ;  the  combat  (pugna)  becomes  more  like  a  highway 


§§  349,  350.] 


GERUNDS. 


307 


robbery ,  than  a  battle ;  horsemen  and  footmen  mixed  together, 
here  cut  down  (caedere),  there  heion  in  pieces  (obtruncare); 
surround  many  (circumvenir  e)from  behind.  Henceforth 
Jugurtha  trusted  (credere)  no  man,  nor  place,  nor  time, 
feared  (metuere)  countrymen  and  enemies  alike,  looked 
round  suspiciously  (circumspectare)  at  everything  and 
trembled  (pavescere)  at  every  sound,  now  rested  (r  e- 
quiescere),  now  starting  from  sleep  raised  (facere)  an 
alarm.  In  such  cases  as  the  above,  this  may  be  imitated, 
since  it  is  the  most  forcible  representation  of  actions  which 
are  capable  and  worthy  of  being  represented  to  the  senses. 
Historians  frequently  employ  it  for  this  purpose. 

GERUNDS. 

349.  The  present  infinitive  active,  e.  g.  amare,  is  used  in 
Latin,  not  merely  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  and  as  the 
object  of  another  verb,  e.  g.  Litteras  amare  laudi  ducitur 
or  laudi  ducimus,  but  it  also  has  its  peculiar  forms,  when  it 
occurs  in  other  relations,  in  that  of  the  genitive,  dative,  ac¬ 
cusative  (depending  upon  a  preposition)  and  ablative.  Thus 
it  is  a  kind  of  verbal  substantive.  The  declension  of  the  in¬ 
finitive,  the  oblique  cases  of  which  are  called  gerunds,  is  as 
follows;  e.  g.  Nom.  amare,  Gen.  amandi,  Dat.  amando, 
Acc.  amare ,  or  with  a  preposition,  amandum,  Abi.  amando. 
The  governing  word  alone  determines  the  cases  of  the  ge¬ 
runds.  That  word  may  be  a  substantive,  adjective,  verb  or 
preposition. 

The  use  of  the  gerunds  is  as  follows  : 

I.  The  Genitive. 

350.  As  the  genitive  of 'a  substantive  is  a  dependent  case, 
so  also  is  that  of  the  gerunds.  It  can  be  used,  therefore,  only 

(1)  When  it  depends  upon  a  substantive;  e.  g.  The  art 
of  loving,  ars  amandi;  the  power  of  speaking,  facultas 
loquendi  (dicendi). 


308 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  351—355. 


A  genitive  stands  in  a  similar  connection  after  voluntas , 
occasio ,  spes,  consuetudo ,  studium ,  causa  (a  cause),  libido, 
metus.  Also  causa  and  gratia,  signifying  on  account  of ,  for 
the  sake  of,  take  the  genitive  of  a  gerund  dependent  upon 
them.  Then  the  gerund  is  placed  before  causa  and  gratia ; 
e.  g.  For  the  sake  of  driving,  vehendi  causa  ;  for  the  sake 
of  sleeping,  dormiendi  causa. 

351 .  The  phrases,  finem  f  a  c  e  r  e,  to  make  an  end ,  and  modum 
facere,  to  place  a  limit,  take  the  genitive  only,  not  the  dative  ;  e  g. 
I  will  cease  writing ,  scribendi;  I  cease  to  speak,  loquendi 
finem  facio.  So,  causam  dare,  afferre;  ansam  dare,  to 
give  an  occasion  for  something ,  to  occasion  something. 

352.  The  phrase,  tempus  est ,  has  the  nominative  or  the  genitive, 
according  to  its  different  significations.  When  tempus  est  signifies, 
there  is  leisure,  nothing  prevents,  and  therefore  is  the  same  as  otium 
est,  vacat ,  it  takes  the  genitive  ;  e.  g.  1  have  no  time  to  reply  to  these, 
non  est  mihi  tempus  ad  haec  respondendi;  you  certainly  have 
time  to  tarry  here  a ■  little ,  certe  tibi  tempus  est  paululum  hic  commo¬ 
randi.  But  when  it  has  the  sense  of,  the  time  is  ft,  is  convenient , 
one  can ,  must,  it  takes  the  usual  infinitive,  as  the  nominative  ;  e.  g. 
JS'ow  is  the  time  to  speak  respecting  this  affair ,  nunc  tempus  est  de  hac 
re  dicere;  it  is  not  noro  time  to  feast  sumptuously,  nunc  non  est 
tempus  magnifice  epulari.  When  the  subject  is  definite,  the  ac¬ 
cusative  with  the  infinitive  is  used  here  ;  e.  g.  It  is  time ,  that  we  should 
no7C  think  (we  must  now  — ),  respecting  that  unending  life,  tempus  est, 
n  o  s  de  illa  perpetua  vita  jam  cogitare.  But  when  tempus  est  has  an 
adjective,  as  idoneam,  alienum,  or  the  like,  the  genitive  of  the  gerund 
is  used  with  tempus  ;  e.  g.  It  is  now  an  unsuitable  time  for  me  to  dis¬ 
pute  with  you ,  nunc  alienum  tempus  est  mihi  tecum  expostulandi. 

353.  (2)  An  adjective  also  c^n  govern  the  genitive  of  the 
infinitive.  Such  adjectives  have  been  mentioned  above,  §§ 
150 — 152  ;  e.  g.  Eager  to  learn,  studiosus  discendi; 
skilful  in  singing,  peritus  canendi. 

354.  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  governs  the  same  case  as  its  verb  ; 
e.  g.  Power  to  crush  the  people,  populum  opprimendi;  desire  to 
destroy  all  cities ,  omnes  urbes  diruendi;  the  wish  to  spare  the 
enemy,  hostibus  parcendi  ;  the  hope  of  taking  the  camp  of  the  enemy , 
potiundi  castris  hostium.  Yet  when  the  gerund  governs  an 
accusative,  the  Latins  usually  prefer,  instead  of  the  gerund,  the  ver¬ 
bal  adjective  in  andus  or  endus,  in  which  case  the  construction  is 
changed,  and  the  accusative  becomes  a  genitive;  e.  g.  Populi 
(for  populum)  opprimendi;  omnium  urbium  diruen¬ 
darum.  See  respecting  this,  §  365. 


II.  The  Dative. 

355.  The  dative  of  a  gerund,  like  the  dative  of  a  substan- 


§356.] 


GERUNDS. 


309 


tive,  expresses  the  object  and  purpose  for  which  anything  hap¬ 
pens  or  is  done.  It  depends  : 

(1)  Upon  adjectives,  such  as  have  been  specified  above, 
§§  163 — 167  ;  very  few  of  them,  however,  are  of  such  a  na¬ 
ture  as  to  take  a  verb  after  them  ;  most  of  them  also  require 
the  preposition  ad  to  follow  them  ;  e.  g.  Antony  was  very 
much  addicted  to  drinking ,  potando  erat  deditissimus; 
the  season  of  the  year  is  suitable  for  sowing,  idoneum  est 
serendo. 

356.  (2)  The  dative  depends  upon  some  verbs,  which 
govern  the  dative,  with  the  idea  of  to  or  for  something. 
Th  us,  e.  g.  esse  without  an  adjective,  in  the  sense  of,  to  be 
ft  or  able  for  something,  to  be  in  a  condition  to  ;  e.  g.  I  can 
pay,  sum  solvendo;  I  can  (I  am  in  a  condition  to)  bear, 
sum  ferendo.  It  is  also  said  further  :  studere*  ali¬ 
cui,  to  engage  in  something ;  operam  dare  alicui 
rei,  to  bestow  labor  on  something,  to  strive  for,  to  give  at¬ 
tention  to ;  aliquid  insumere  alicui,  to  expend  or 
bestow  something  upon  something ;  praeficere,  prae¬ 
ponere,  to  place  over  something ;  praeesse  alicui, 
to  be  placed  over  something ;  and  so  similar  verbs;  hence, 
To  give  attention  to  writing,  oper  am  scribendo  dare;  to 
place  some  one  over  the  planting ,  aliquem  serendo  praepo¬ 
nere.  Especially  is  it  often  used  with  verbs  signifying,  to 
choose,  to  announce i  to  denote  for  what  the  choice  or  an¬ 
nouncement  is  made  ;  e.  g.  I  choose  this  place  for  myself  to 
rest,  requiescendo;  assemblies  of  the  people  were  an¬ 
nounced  to  choose  censors,  censores  creando  (censori¬ 
bus  creandis).  Hence,  this  often  occurs  in  abridged 
phrases  with  a  noun  denoting  the  office  of  the  magistrate ; 
e.  g.  Triumvir  repub  licae  c  o  n  s  t  i  t  u  e  n  d  a  e,  for 

*  In  Cicero,  the  verb  studere  rarely  occurs  with  the  dative  of  the 
gerund  or  verbal  adjective  ;  when  it  does  not  govern  these,  it  takes 
only  the  infinitive,  except  when  other  datives  of  substantives  precede  ; 
e.  g.  Cui  gloriae,  cui  virtuti  studes  ?  patrimonione  augendo? 
Cic.  Orat.  11.  55,  225. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


310 


[§§  357,  358, 


rempublicam  constituendo,  a  triumvir  for  regu¬ 
lating  the  state. 

a 

This  dative  of  the  gerund  rarely  governs  an  accusative,  for  where 
the  gerund  would  govern  an  accusative,  it  is  changed  to  a  verbal 
adjective,  and  the  accusative,  on  account  of  the  change  of  construc¬ 
tion,  passes  into  the  dative ;  e.  g.  for  operam  do  litteras  scri¬ 
bendo,  the  usual  construction  is,  litteris  scribendis.  See 
on  thisj  §  365. 

III.  The  Accusative. 

357.  The  accusative  of  the  gerund  with  the  ending  andum 
and  endum,  is  used  only  when  a  preposition  precedes  it ;  on¬ 
ly  ad  and  inter ,  however,  are  found  here  ;  a  d  signifying  for, 
to,  in  order  to  ;  i  n  t  e  r,  while,  during  ;  e.  g.  Man  is  born  for 
reflection  and  action,  homo  ad  intelligendum  et 
agendum  natus  est ;  even  a  short  life  is  long  enough  to 
live  happily,  ad  beate  vivendum;  Duilius  laid  hold  of 
the  ships  of  the  enemy  with  iron  hands,  during  the  battle,  in¬ 
ter  pugnandum. 

With  this  case  of  the  gerund,  the  accusative  is  very  rarely  joined 
as  a  dependent  case,  but  is  rather  the  principal  word,  and  the  gerund 
becomes  a  verbal  adjective  merely,  and  must  agree  with  the  noun  ; 
e.  g.  To  conciliate  the  gods ,  ad  deos  placandos,  for  ad  deos  p  1  a- 
c  a  n  d  u  m.  Comp,  on  this,  §  365. 

When  the  gerund  governs  a  dative  or  an  ablative,  it  is  contrary  to 
Latin  usage  to  place  these  words  directly  after  ad;  e  g.  To  enjoy 
pleasure,  not  a  d  voluptatibus  fruendum,  but  ad  fruenduin  volup¬ 
tatibus;  to  use  time  wisely,  not  ad  tempore  sapienter  utendum, 
but  ad  sapienter  tempore  utendum;  not  ad  hostibus  par¬ 
cendum,  but  ad  parcendum  hostibus;  not  ad  m  e  t  u  ani¬ 
mum  liberandum,  but  ad  animum  metu  liberandum;  not  ad 
procul  Roma  vitam  degendam,  but  ad  vitam  procul  Roma  degen¬ 
dam.  So  also  with  inter,  and  the  prepositions  governing  the  ablative. 

Finally,  that  not,  in  order  that  not,  cannot  be  translated  by  ad  non  and 
the  gerund,  but  only  by  ne,  because  non  only  denies,  and  does  not  pre¬ 
vent  ;  e.  g.  IVe  will  be  silent  respecting  this,  that  we  may  not  increase  the 
pain,  ne  augeamus  dolorem,  not  ad  dolorem  non  augendum. 


IV.  The  Ablative. 

358.  The  ablative  of  the  gerund  stands,  sometimes  with, 
and  sometimes  without  a  preposition.  The  preposition  is 
omitted,  when  the  gerund  denotes  the  instrument  and  cause; 
otherwise  the  prepositions  a,  de,  ex,  in,  cum  and  pro  are  used. 


§  358.] 


GERUNDS. 


311 


Examples :  1 By  doing  nothing ,  men  learn  to  do  evil ,  nihil 
agendo;  I  derive  much  pleasure  from  learning ,  ex  dis¬ 
cendo;  moderation  must  he  observed  in  jesting,  in  j  o  c  a  n- 
d  o  ;  Plato  has  said  much  respecting  the  manner  of  living 
well  and  happily,  de  bene  beateque  vivendo. 

The  accusative  of  a  noun  is  joined  to  this  ablative  of  the 
gerund,  only  when  the  object  denoted  by  the  accusative  is 
to  be  made  prominent  or  emphatic  ;  otherwise  it  is,  in  most 
cases,  put  in  the  ablative,  and  the  gerund  becomes  a  verbal 
adjective;  e.  g.  By  suffering  lighter  pains,  doloribus 
levioribus  perferendis,  instead  of  d o  1  o r e s  levi¬ 
ores  per  fe  ren  do.  Comp.  §  365. 

Examples  on  §§  345 — 358. 

(In  the  following  examples,  the  gerund  is  not  to  be  changed  into  the 

verbal  adjective). 

Philosophizing1  displeases  some,  and  these  too2  not  very3 
unlearned.  Each  is  an  error,  both4  to  believe  all  and  to  be¬ 
lieve  no  one.  I  wish  to  hear  what  you  do  not  approve5. 
Wisdom  is  the  art  of  living  happily.  Economy  is  the  art  of 
avoiding6  unnecessary7  expenses8,  or  the  art  of  using  one’s 
property9  savingly10.  Avarice  is  the  desire11  to  increase12 
one’s  wealth  excessively13.  The  night  time  is  more  suitable 
for  sleeping,  than  for  working.  The  memory  is  strength¬ 
ened14  by  exercise  and  getting  by  heart15.  In  learning,  be¬ 
gin16  with17  the  easiest18.  Learn  early19  the  art  of  living 
happily.  Never  neglect20  an  opportunity  of  accomplishing21 
anything  useful.  A  hundred  hands  are  scarcely  sufficient22 
to  prepare23  what  each  one  needs24  daily.  It  is  easy  for  any 
one  to  show25  why  you  especially26  ought27  not  to  grieve28. 
When  we  are  wearied  by  standing  or  walking29,  let  us  sit30 
down  upon  the  ground31.  Men  resemble32  the  gods  in  no¬ 
thing  more  than  in  making  men  happy33.  To  be  an  upright34 
man  is  always  useful.  Is  it  not  better35  to  be  a  dumb36  man, 
than  to  be  eloquent  for  the  injury  of  others  ? 

1  philosophari.  2 et  is  quidem  (and  —  too).  3admddum.  4et  —  et 
(both  —  and).  5  probare.  6  vitare.  7  supervacaneus.  8sumptus.  0  res 
familiaris.  10  moderate.  11  libido.  12  augere.  13  praeter  mod  uni.  ,4au- 
gere.  15  ediscere.  16  ordiri.  17  ab.  ls(plural).  19  mature.  20  praetermit¬ 
tere.  21exsequi.  22sufficere.  23  (dative  of  gerund).  24indigere.  ^do- 
cere.  26  praecipue.  27  debere.  28dolere.  23  ire.  30  considere.  31  humus. 
32propius  accedere  (to  resemble  more).  33  salutem  dare.  34  bonus.  35  sa¬ 
tius.  36  mutus. 


312 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  358. 


(2)  The  mind  of  man  is  nourished  by  learning  and  think¬ 
ing1.  I  do  this  for  the  sake  of  not  grieving2  thy  father. 
Who  is  there,  who  has  not  at  some  time3  put  a  limit.4  to  his 
grief5  ?  Many  know6  not,  how7  important8  true  friends  are  to 
a  good  and  happy  life.  No  one  can  have  a  just  cause  to  take9 
arms  against  his  country.  Men  are  accustomed  to  judge  us 
according  to  the  society  in  which  we  are.  A  rich  miser10  is 
like  a  man  who  owns  a  horse,  but  does  not  know11  how*  to 
ride.  It  is  shameful  to  do  a  wrong  to  others;  but  far  more 
shameful  to  be  ungrateful  to  those  who  have  bestowed12  favors 
upon  us.  To  strive13  for  learning  and  to  consider14  all  other 
things  insignificant15,  are  divine  gifts.  If  our  life  has  fallen16 
among  the  weapons17  of  robbers,  every  expedient18  for  pro¬ 
moting19  safety  is  honorable.  Pirates20  wandered21  about, 
scattered22  over  the  whole  sea,  when  the  direction23  of  the 
maritime  war  was  given  to  Pompey.  When  the  people  judge24, 
they  are  generally25  not  guided26  by  wisdom  to27  judge  pru¬ 
dently.  The  drop28  hollows29  the  stone,  not  by  force,  but  by 
falling30  often.  Rhetoric  is  the  art  of  speaking  well ;  but  only 
the  orator  knows31  how32  to  speak  well.  My  brother  is 
afraid33  of  marrying34. 

Cogitare.  2  dolore  afficere.  3  aliquando.  4  modum  facere.  5  lugere. 
6  nescium  esse.  7 quid.  8  valere.  9capere.  10 avarus.  11  noscere.  *  (omit¬ 
ted  in  Latin).  12praestare.  13studere.  14  ducere.  15  levis.  1Ginciderein 
aliquid.  17  telum.  18  ratio.  19expedire.  20 praedo  maritimus.  21  vagari. 
22dispersus.  23  gerere.  24judicare.  25  plerumque.  2G ducere.  27 ad. 
2S gutta.  29 cavare.  30  cadere.  31  scire.  32  (omitted  in  Latin),  ^abhor¬ 
rere  ab  aliqua  re.  34 uxorem  ducere. 

(3)  It  is  our  duty  to  be  true  to  our  friends.  It  is  most 
painful1  for  a  man  to  live  despised2  by  others.  If  to  live  is 
pleasant,  to  whom  can  it  be  pleasant  to  have  lived  ?  Thou 
hast  not  injured3  me  by  praising4  my  ancestors.  The  fishing 
boats5  furnished6  a  refuge7  and  safety  to  many  who  were  skill¬ 
ed8  in  swimming.  They  spent9  the  following  day  in  burying 
those  slain10  in  battle,  on  both  sides11.  Everything  which12 
was  suitable13  to  feed14  the  fire,  we  collected15  into  one  place. 
Alexander  who  was  wearied16  by  following17  Darius  far,  re¬ 
turned  to  the  tent  of  his  friends,  when  he  had  no  hope  of  over¬ 
taking18  him.  By  watching19,  by  activity20  and  by  wise21 
counsel22,  everything  succeeds23  well24.  A  short  period  is 
sufficiently  long,  even  for  a  good  and  virtuous25  life26.  By 
such  a  life,  you  will  effect27,  that28  every  one  will  favor  you. 
Nothing  can  be  less  pleasing  to  God,  than  that  the  way  is  not 
open29  to  all  to30  worship31  him. 


§§  359,  360.] 


VERBAL  ADJECTIVES. 


313 


Acerbus.  2  contemptus.  3  corrumpere.  4  laudare.  5  navis  piscatoria. 
6afFerre.  7  effugium.  s  peritus.  9 consumere.  10  caesus.  11  utrimque 
(on  —  sides).  12  quicquid  (every —  which).  13aptus.  ,4alere.  ^con¬ 
gerere  in  locum.  16 fatigatus.  17  persequi.  ,8consequi.  19  vigilare. 
20  agere.  21  bene.  22consulere.  23cedere.  24prospere.  25 honestus.  26  vi¬ 
vere.  27  consequi.  2Sut.  29  patere.  30  (gerund).  31  colere. 

THE  VERBAL  ADJECTIVE  IN  AJYDUS  AND  EJVDUS. 

359.  The  verbal  adjective,  e.  g.  amandus,  legendus,  has 
much  resemblance  to  the  forms  of  the  gerund.  But  the  re- 
semblance  is  not  merely  in  form,  but  also  in  sense;  and, 
therefore,  the  gerund  and  verbal  adjective  can  be  exchanged 
for  each  other.  The  verbal  adjective,  commonly  called  the 
future  passive  participle,  or  the  gerundive,  contains  no  defi¬ 
nite  time,  but  only  shows,  that  something  happens  or  is  to 
happen,  and,  when  it  is  connected  with  a  substantive  in  one 
of  the  oblique  cases,  and  consequently  another  verb  is  the 
principal  one,  the  verbal  adjective  denotes  only  an  action  co¬ 
temporary  or  continuing  ivhile  something  else  happens,  has 
happened,  or  will  happen ;  e.  g.  I  am  pleased  when  I  read 
your  letters,  in  reading  your  letters,  litteris  legendis  de- 
lector.  I  have  been  pleased,  when  I  read,  your  letters,  or  in 
reading,  litteris  legendis  delectatus  sum.  I  shall  be  pleased 
when  I  read  your  letters,  litteris  legendis  delectabor. 
Therefore  it  has  reference  to  all  relations  of  time.  Instead 
of  it,  in  all  the  above  examples,  litteras  tuas  legens  might 
have  been  used. 

360.  Those  verbs  which  govern  an  accusative  are  the  only 
ones  which  properly  have  this  verbal  adjective ;  but  also  the 
deponent  verbs  fruor,  utor,  fungor  and  potior  have,  in  the 
best  Latin  writers,  the  verbal  adjectives  f ruendus,  utendus , 
fungendus,  poiiundus  ^  the  first  of  these  especially,  is  very 
often  used  by  Cicero.  On  the  contrary,  those  verbs  which 
govern  any  other  case  than  the  accusative,  e.  g.  the  dative , 
have  only  the  neuter  singular  of  the  verbal  adjective,  which 
is  used  impersonally,  e.  g.  from  parco  comes  only  parcendum, 
which,  however,  can  be  used,  only  when  it  is  joined  with  est, 

27 


314 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VEIlllS. 


[§§361,302. 


crat ,  etc.  without  a  subject,  signifying,  it  must  be  spared, he, 
we,  etc.  m\ist  spare.  So  also  moriendum  est,  he,  we,  etc. 
must  die ;  eundum,  currendum,  equitandum  est 
and  others. 

This  verbal  adjective,  therefore,  has  two  special  significa¬ 
tions.  First,  it  contains  the  idea  of  necessity,  obligation  and 
the  being  worthy  ;  second,  the  idea  of  a  continuing  or  cotem¬ 
porary  action  considered  passively,  in  which  case  it  is  used 
in  place  of  the  gerund. 

1.  The  verbal  adjective  containing  the  idea 
of  necessity,  obligation  and  being  wor¬ 
thy. 

361.  Verbal  adjectives,  therefore,  contain  the  idea  of  ne¬ 
cessity,  which  we  express  in  different  ways ;  e.  g.  a  m  a  n  dus, 
one  who  must  be  loved,  deserving  to  be  loved,  worthy  to  be 
loved  or  of  love.  In  other  sentences,  this  may  be  rendered 
by,  to  be  necessary,  to  need,  to  require  and  the  like,  follow¬ 
ed  by  the  passive.  The  verbal  adjective  is  used  in  this 
sense : 

(a)  When  it  qualifies  a  substantive  ;  e.  g.  Wisdom  is  the 
knowledge  of  the  things  winch  arc  to  be  sought  and  avoided 
{which  must  he  sought,  etc.),  rerum  expetendarum  fu¬ 
giendarum  que. 

362.  (b)  When  it  is  the  subordinate  predicate,  either  of  a 
subject  connected  with  a  passive  verb,  or  of  an  object  con¬ 
nected  with  an  active  one.  As  predicate  of  the  subject,  it  is 
in  the  nominative ,  as  predicate  of  the  object,  in  the  accusative. 
This  predicate  shows  what  is  to  happen  to  it,  or  for  what  pur¬ 
pose  or  with  what  design  something  is  done  to  the  subject  or 
object.  We  express  this  in  English  by  the  preposition  to  and 
the  infinitive  active  or  passive,  or  by  for  and  a  substantive  ; 
e.  g.  The  house  is  given  to  them  to  plunder,  or  to  be  plunder¬ 
ed,  domus  iis  diripienda;  Antony  gives  them  the  house 
to  plunder  {for  plunder ),  domum  diripiendam  dat. 
Romulus  and  Remus  were  given  up  to  some  slaves  to  expose , 


§§  363,  364.] 


VERBAL  ADJECTIVES. 


315 


exponendi;  Amulius  gave  Romulus  and  Remus  to  some 
slaves  to  expose ,  exponendos.  I  have  many  things  to  do 
(which  must  he  done),  multa  facienda  habeo.  Have  you 
nothing  to  learn  ?  nihilne  habes  discendum?  I  have  re¬ 
ceived  these  for  use  (profit),  haec  utenda  accepi.  Such  pre¬ 
dicates  are  used  principally  with  the  verbs  to  give,  to  commit 
to,  to  undertake,  to  send,  to  have  and  the  like. 

363.  (c)  It  stands  with  the  verb  esse,  as  the  predicate  of  a 
subject,  and  with  esse  forms  a  complete  conjugation,  which  is 
called  the  passive  periphrastic  conjugation  ;  e.  g.  amandus,  a, 
uni  sum,  I  must  be  loved,  I  am  to  be  loved,  deserve  to  be  loved. 
The  following  particulars  should  here  be  noticed  : 

(l)  When  the  verb  is  used  without  any  definite  subject, 
the  verbal  adjective  is  put  in  the  neuter  ;  e.  g.  moriendum  est , 
confitendum  cst.  This  neuter  must  always  be  used,  when 
the  verb  governs  a  dative  or  ablative,  which  cases  we  gene¬ 
rally  translate  into  English  by  the  nominative  and  a  passive 
verb,  or  by  an  active  verb,  using  our  indefinite  we  or  one  as  the 
subject ;  e.  g.  The  citizens  must  be  helped,  we  must  help  the 
citizens,  civibus  subveniendum  est ;  the  city  must  be 
spared,  urbi  parcendum  est;  reason  must  be  used ,  ratione 
utendum  est. 

These  datives  and  ablatives  cannot  be  changed  into  the 
nominative  and  become  the  subjects  of  the  sentence,  (Comp. 
§  223).  On  the  contrary,  every  accusative,  which  is  govern¬ 
ed  by  an  active  verb  in  Latin,  can  become  a  nominative ,  as 
the  subject  of  the  verb;  e.  g.  The  innocent  must  be  defended , 
innocens  defendendus  est,  for  innocentem  defenden¬ 
dum  est,  which  the  best  Latin  writers  very  seldom  use.  For 
an  example  of  the  accusative,  see  Cicero  de  Senectute,  at  the 
close  of  chapter  II. 

364.  (2)  But  when  the  person  is  specified,  by  whom  some¬ 
thing  is  to  be  done  or  must  be  done,  which  in  English  is  de¬ 
noted  by  the  use  of  the  passive  and  the  preposition  by,  then 
the  dative  is  generally  used,  and  the  preposition  a  but  seldom. 


316 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  365. 


Yet  a  is  sometimes  used  when  there  is  still  another  personal 
dative  connected  with  the  verb,  since  two  personal  datives 
would  make  the  sentence  ambiguous;  sometimes  too,  when 
it  is  desirable  to  make  the  person  particularly  emphatic  ;  e.  g. 
I  must  be  esteemed  by  you,  tibi  diligendus  sum;  our  pa¬ 
rents  must  be  esteemed  by  us,  parentes  nobis  diligendi  sunt ; 
the  townsmen  must  be  aided  by  us,  oppidanis  a  nobis  sub¬ 
veniendum  est,  for  n  o  b  is  alone;  for  whom  you  must  con¬ 
sult,  quibus  est  a  v  o  b  i  s  consulendum  ;  I  think  that  he  should 
be  recompensed  even  by  me,  ei  etiam  a  m  e  referendam  gratiam 
puto ;  my  cause  must  be  managed  by  the  consuls ,  a  consuli¬ 
bus  mea  causa  suscipienda  est. 

These  datives,  as  above  remarked,  we  generally  express  by 
the  nominative ;  e.  g.  I  must  love  my  father,  m  i  h  i  (a  m  e) 
pater  amandus;  you  must  shun  sensual  pleasure,  tibi  (a  te) 
voluptas  fugienda  est ;  our  father  must  love  us,  patri  (a  pa¬ 
tre)  amandi  sumus.  So,  I  must  die,  mi  hi  moriendum  est  ; 
men  must  die,  hominibus  moriendum  est. 

2.  Th  e  v  erb  a  l  aclj  ective  containing  theidea 
of  a  continuing  action,  and  used  instead 
of  a  g  er  un  cl, 

365.  It  has  already  been  seen  above,  §  359,  that  the  ver¬ 
bal  adjective  denotes  also  a  cotemporary ,  continuing  action, 
during  the  time  of  which  something  else  takes  place,  has 
taken  place,  or  will  take  place.  Hence,  it  is  used  instead  of 
the  gerund  almost  entirely,  where  the  gerund  would  govern 
an  accusative.  This  is  only  changing  the  active  idea  into 
the  passive. 

Hence,  according  to  the  usage  of  the  ancients,  it  may  be 
a  general  rule  in  writing  Latin,  to  put  the  verbal  adjective  in¬ 
stead  of  every  gerund  which  governs  the  accusative  of  a  sub¬ 
stantive  or  personal  pronoun.  By  this  change,  the  substan¬ 
tive  or  pronoun  before  dependent  upon  the  gerund,  is  made 
to  depend  upon  that  word  which  determined  the  case  of  the 


§  366.] 


VERBAL  ADJECTIVES. 


317 


gerund,  consequently  upon  another  substantive,  adjective, 
verb  or  a  preposition  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  verbal  adjective  is 
treated  as  an  adjective,  and  agrees  with  its  substantive,  since 
it  qualifies  it. 

The  following  examples  will  show  this  in  all  the  cases: 
Gen.  The  art  of  reading  a  book, 

Ars  libri  legendi. 

-  The  art  of  writing  a  letter , 

Ars  epistolae  scribendae. 

-  The  hope  respecting  actions  to  be  accomplished , 

Spes  rerum  gerendarum. 

Dat.  Fit  to  sharpen  the  mind, 

Aptus  ingenio  acuendo. 

-  Necessary  for  healing  the  wounds , 

Opus  vulneribus  curandis. 

Acc.  To  write  a  letter, 

Ad  epistolam  scribendam,  or 
Ad  litteras  scribendas. 

-  For  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  wars. 

Ad  bella  gerenda. 

Abl.  On  despising  glory, 

De  gloria  contemnenda. 

-  Respecting  the  interchange  of  captives, 

De  captivis  commutandis. 

_  In  choosing  the  manner  of  living , 

In  genere  vitae  deligendo. 

- -  In  choosing  f  riends, 

In  amicis  eligendis. 

-  By  enduring  every  toil, 

Omni  labore  tolerando. 

-  By  praising  my  ancestors, 

Laudandis  majoribus  meis. 

Remarks . 

366.  (1)  The  verbal  adjective  is  not  used  instead  of  the  gerund, 

27* 


318 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  367—370. 


when  the  accusative,  which  stands  with  the  genitive,  dative  and  ab¬ 
lative  of  the  gerund,  is  an  adjective  in  the  neuter  plural  (e.  g. 
vera,  omnia)  or  a  neuter  pronoun  singular  or  plural,  because  in  that 
case  the  neuter  could  no  longer  be  distinguished  by  the  form  :  for 
hujus  videndi  causa  would  rather  designate  a  hunc  than  hoc;  it 
would  signify  for  the  sake  of  seeing  him,  not  for  the  sake  of  seeing 
this.  The  same  is  true,  therefore,  of  the  words  vera ,  falsa ,  futura , 
multa,  plura,  omnia.,  hoc,  haec,  id,  ea,  illud ,  illa,  aliquid ,  and  others 
similar, — which  are  connected  only  with  the  gerund  ;  e.  g  The  skill 
to  distinguish  the  true  from  the  false,  scientia  v  e  r  a  a  falsis  dignos¬ 
cendi,  not  verorum  .  .  .dignoscendorum;  the  desire  to 
learn  this,  hoc  (haec)  discendi,  not  hujus  d  i  s  c  e  n  d  i  or  h  o- 
r  u  m  discendorum;  the  ai  t  of  conducting  his  own  affairs,  s  u  a 
administrandi,  not  suorum  administrandorum.  But 
the  nominative  and  accusative  form  an  exception,  and  admit  the  ver¬ 
bal  adjective,  because  in  these  cases  the  neuter  can  be  distinguished 
from  the  masculine;  e.  g.  All  things  must  be  explained,  omnia 
sunt  explicanda;  to  distinguish  what  is  true,  ad  vera  dig¬ 
noscenda.  The  verbal  adjective  can  be  employed  with  the  other 
cases  also,  when  a  quae  indicating  the  neuter  follows  it ;  e.  g.  To  pre¬ 
pare  everything  which  — ,  omnibus  parandis,  quae  — . 

Adjectives  in  the  singular  also  form  an  exception,  because  the  neu¬ 
ter  singular  is  considered  and  used  in  all  respects  as  a  substantive  ; 
e.  g.  The  desire  of  finding  the  truth ,  v  e  r  i  inveniendi,  instead  of  ve¬ 
rum  inveniendi. 

367.  (2)  Sometimes  the  verbal  adjective  is  not  used  instead  of  the 
gerund,  when  an  unpleasant  sound  would  be  produced  by  too  many 
similar  endings,  e.  g.  orurn  and  arum.  Thus,  there  are  not  many  ex¬ 
pressions  in  Cicero  similar  to  novorum  favorum  fingendo- 
r  u  m  causa,  except  that  he  says,  Fin.  1.  10,  majorum  dolorum 
effugiendor  u  m  gratia,  because  he  had  before  said  majorum 
voluptatum  adipiscendarum,  and  Cat.  I.  3,  7.  tuorum 
consiliorum  reprimendorum  causa,  on  account  of  the  pre¬ 
ceding  sui  conservandi.  In  other  cases,  he  softens  such  forms  by  intro¬ 
ducing  words  of  a  different  ending. 

368.  (3)  When  the  ablative  stands  by  itself  without  a  preposition, 
the  gerund  occurs  as  frequently  with  an  accusative,  as  the  verbal  ad¬ 
jective  with  its  noun  in  the  ablative  ;  e.  g  Fratrem  laudando,  by 
praising  my  brother,  instead  of  fratre  laudando;  injurias 
ferendo,  by  enduring  injuries,  for  injuriis  ferendis.  But  though 
Cicero  says,  Fin.  V.  23,  67,  Justitia  cernitur  in  s  u  o  cuique  tribuen¬ 
do,  he  expresses  himself  more  distinctly,  De  Off.  I.  5.  14,  by  in  tri¬ 
buendo  suum  cuique,  and  Brut.  21,  in  suum  cuique  tribuendo. 

369.  (4)  By  this  verbal  adjective,  many  English  substantives  are 
expressed,  because  the  verb  generally  denotes  the  idea  more  naturally 
and  clearly  than  substantives;  indeed  it  is  often  the  case  also,  that 
the  Latin  has  no  substantive  which  expresses  this  idea  ;  e.  g.  In 
stor  miner  the  city ,  in  urbe  oppugnanda;  in  the  choice  of  friends, 
in  amicis  eligendi  s.  Comp.  §  464.  Here  it  is  to  be  remarked  : 

370.  (a)  That  the  substantive  which  stands  in  connection  with  the 
verbal  adjective,  is  the  principal  one,  and  that  the  verbal  adjective 
must  agree  with  it.  The  case  of  the  substantive  is  determined  by 
the  nature  of  the  sentence  ;  e.  g.  Brutus  devised  the  plan  of  restoring 


VERBAL  ADJECTIVES. 


319 


371,  37*2.] 

the  freedom  of  Rome ,  consilium  libertatis  Romanae  restitu¬ 
endae.  Here  the  principal  word  is  consilium  which  governs  the 
genitive.  He  attended  to  everything  which  was  necessary  for  healing 
the  wound  (the  wounds)  ;  here  the  words  for  healing  are  expressed 
either  with  the  dative  or  with  ad,  hence  either  vulneri  (vulne¬ 
ribus)  sanando  (sanandis),  or  ad  vulnus  (vulnera) 
sanandum  (sananda). 

(b)  Every  English  adjective  agreeing  with  a  substantive  express¬ 
ed  in  Latin  by  the  verbal  adjective,  is  always  translated  into  Latin 
by  an  adverb  ;  e.  g.  Wisdom  is  necessary  for  the  wise  administration 
of  the  republic ,  ad  rempublicam  sapienter  administrandam. 

371. (5)  When  the  English  here  employs  a  substantive,  and  the 
possessive  pronouns,  my,  thy ,  his ,  their  qualify  it,  these  must  be  ex¬ 
pressed  in  Latin  by  the  personal  pronouns  ;  e.  g.  For  my  preserva¬ 
tion,  ad  me  conservandum  (conservanda  in)  ;  for  our 
preservation,  ad  nos  conservandos  (conservandas). 

372.  (6)  The  Latin  does  not  join  the  verbal  adjective  to  the  genitives 
nostri ,  vestri ,  su.i  (of  several)  in  the  genitive  plural,  but  only  in  the 
singular;  e.  g.  For  the,  sake  of  inciting  us  {you,  themselves ),  nostri 
(vestri,  sui)  adhortandi  causa,  not  adhortandorum, 
or  instead  of  that,  nos  (vos,  se)  hortandi  causa. 

(7)  Finally,  the  genitive  of  the  gerund,  as  a  genitive  of  quality, 
is  used  in  connection  with  esse ;  e.  g.  regium  imperium,  quod 
initio  conservandae  libertatis  atque  augendae  rei- 
publicae  fuerat — ,  properly,  which  had  been  of  such  a  nature ,  that  it 
preserved  liberty,  i.  e.  ichich  had  served  to  preserve  liberty. 

The  remark  made  above  §  357  that  ad  non  with  the  accusative  is 
not  used  for  ne,  is  important  here  also,  as  well  as  what  was  said  re¬ 
specting  the  false  position  of  some  words  directly  after  the  preposi¬ 
tion. 

Examples  on  §§  359 — 372. 

(1)  Every  man  must  avoid  the  suspicion  of  ostentation. 
Those  men  are  not  to  be  listened1  to,  who  believe  that  one 
must  be  angry  at  his  enemies.  Such  praises  are  among  the 
most  suitable  to  commend  and  embellish2  old  acre.  Cicero 
united  himself  with  Pompey  for  the  preservation  of  the  state 
against  Caesar.  When  the  emperor  Diocletian  perceived3, 
that4  he  was  not  suitable5  to  manage6  the  government,  he  re¬ 
turned  to  private  life.  In  the  first  book  of  the  Tusculan 
questions7,  Cicero  treats8  of  despising9  death, — in  the  second, 
of  enduring10  pain, — in  the  third,  of  mitigating11  sorrow12, — 
in  the  fourth,  of  the  other  passions13,  and  of  calming14  them, 
— in  the  fifth,  that15  the  virtue  of  a  happy  life  is  contented 
with  itself.  Agriculture  is  particularly16  praised  by  Xeno¬ 
phon,  in  the  book,  which  treats17  of  the  management18  of 
household  affairs19  ;  indeed20,  nothing  seemed  to  him  so  prince- 


320 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  VERBS. 


[§  372. 


ly21  as  the  employment22  of  agriculture23.  Summer  and  au¬ 
tumn  are  designed24  for  cutting25  and  gathering26  the  fruits. 
The  highest27  branches  of  the  tree  must  be  stript28  off,  for  the 
sake  of  checking29  its  luxuriance,  and  only30  here  and  there 
one  must  be  kept,  to  renovate31  the  tree.  Alexander  must 
n<  vv  yield32  to  the  circumstances  of  the  time33^  and  must  par¬ 
don  his  soldiers;  then  he  must  abandon34  the  hope  of  cross¬ 
ing35  the  Indian  stream.  In  breaking36  horses,  the  masters 
must  observe  many  rules.  Men  must  early37  learn  the  art  of 
using38  time,  and  an  opportunity  of  accomplishing39  some¬ 
thing  valuable  must  never  be  omitted40.  Send  the  letter  back 
to  me,  which  I  sent  to  you  to  read.  In  straining41  the  voice, 
the  whole  body  is  exerted42.  Verres  and  others  participated43 
in  plundering44  the  inheritance  of  Hercules. 

1audire.  2ornare.  3sentire.  4  (acc.  with  inf.).  3  idoneus.  6  moderari, 
’disputatio.  8disserere.  9 contemnere.  10tolerare.  11  lenire.  12  aegritu¬ 
do.  13 animi  perturbatio.  14sedare.  15  (acc.  with  inf.).  16  copiose.  17 esse. 
18tueri.  19  res  familiaris.  20  quin.  21  regalis.  22studium.  23  agrum  cole¬ 
re.  24  destinatus.  25  demetere.  26  percipere.  27  summus.  28  defringere. 
29  comprimere.  30  nec  nisi.  31renovare.  32  cedere.  33  tempora  (exig. — 
times).  34abjicere.  35 transire  aliquid.  36  domare.  37  mature.  38uti. 
39  exsequi.  40  praetermittere.  41  profundere.  42  contendere.  43  partici¬ 
pem  esse  alicujus.  44  diripere. 

(2)  Those  must  be  considered  brave  and  magnanimous 
men,  who  strive1  for  true  glory  and  to  avert2  all  injustice. 
Every  means  of  promoting3  one’s  safety  is  honorable4.  Ly- 
sanias  was  present5  at  the  writing  of  the  resolution6.  When 
time  and  necessity  require  it,  we  must  fight  with  our  hands, 
and  prefer7  death  to  servitude8  and  disgrace9.  There  are 
some10  sports11  which  are  suitable12  to  sharpen13  the  intellect14 
of  children.  In  the  expulsion15  of  the  kings,  Collatinus  was 
the  partner16  and  the  assistant17  of  Brutus’  plans18.  Tarquin 
went  to  Rome,  chiefly  from  a  desire  and  hope  of  greater 
honor,  for  the  acquisition19  of  which  he  had  no  means20  at 
Tarquinii.  Reflection21  is  employed22  chiefly  in  search23 
of  truth24.  There  exists25  in  our  minds,  for  the  endurance26 
of  pain  and  the  meeting27  of  dangers,  a  firm  and  fixed28  con¬ 
tempt  of  pain  and  death.  Courage29  is  seen30  in  the  endur¬ 
ance  of  hardships31 ;  temperance,  in  the  neglect32  of  pleas¬ 
ures;  wisdom,  in  the  choice33  of  good  and  evil,  and  justice  in 
giving34  to  every  one  his  own.  For  our  common35  cheerful¬ 
ness36  and  instruction37,  nature  has  implanted38  in  our  minds 
a  desire39  for  society40.  We  despair  of  your  recall41  to  your 
country,  since  many  venerable  men  oppose  you.  We  see 


§372.] 


VERBAL  ADJECTIVES. 


321 


that  man  was  born  for  the  preservation  and  protection42  of 
men.  We  must  consult43  for  friends,  just  as44  for  ourselves. 

1  stndere.  2  propulsare.  3expedire.  4honestus.  5 adesse  alicui.  6  de¬ 
cretum.  7  anteponere.  8  servitus.  9  turpitudo.  10  nonnullus.  11  lusus. 
12habTlis.  13  acuere.  14ingenium.  15expellere  16socius.  17  adjutor. 
18 consilium.  19  adipisci.  20  facultas.  21  cogitatio.  22  versari  in  aliqua  re. 
23exquirere.  24verum.  25  i  nesse.  26perpeti.  27  adire.  28stabilis.  ^forti¬ 
tudo.  30  cerni  in.  31  labor.  32  praetermittere.  33  deligere.  34  tribuere. 
35  communis.  36  exhilarare.  37  docere.  38 ingignere.  39  appetitus. 
40  (genitive).  41  revocare.  42tueri.  43consulere.  44non  minus  (justas). 

(3)  When  Caesar  marched  to  Spain,  he  gave  Italy  to  An¬ 
tony  to  devastate1.  Tarquin  insisted2,  that3  the  comitia 
should  be  held4  as  soon  as  possible5  for  the  choice6  of  a 
king.  The  Furies  often  ascend7  from  the  lower  world8  to 
excite  war,  to9  scatter10  discord  among  the  people,  and  to 
destroy11  peace.  All  the  rest12  of  the  booty  was  given  to  the 
soldiers  to  plunder13.  The  timid14  youth  committed  them¬ 
selves  to  Scipio  for  protection15.  Every  life  is  a  kind  of 
slavery16 ;  therefore,  we  must  accustom17  ourselves  to  our 
situation18,  we  must  complain19  of  it  as  little  as  possible20, 
and  seize121  every  advantage22.  No  one  must  either  grieve23 
on  account  of  the  injury  of  the  people,  or  rejoice  on  account 
of  their  honors,  that  he  may  not  pass24  an  unquiet25  life. 
Nothing  contributes26  more  to  our  happiness27  than  virtue 
and  wisdom.  The  consul  Sulpicius  assigned28  to  Amynan- 
der  the  AEtolians,  to  arouse29  them  to  war.  Many,  although 
they  bestow30  much  care  in  purchasing31  things  unimpor¬ 
tant32,  are  negligent  in  the  choice33  of  friends,  since  they  do 
not  know34,  how  valuable35  true  friends  are  to  a  useful  and 
happy  life36.  Amulius  gave  to  his  slaves  the  children  born 
of  Rhea  Silvia,  to  throw37  them  into  the  Tiber.  The  sol¬ 
diers  of  Caesar  gave38  the  enemy  no  opportunity39  to  collect. 
Caesar  sent  Caecina  to  the  river  Amisia  to  disperse40  the  ene¬ 
my.  It  was  the  report,  that41  a  third  army  was  prepared 
to  guard  the  frontiers.  The  shepherd  Faustulus  brought  the 
children  of  Rhea  Silvia  to  his  wife  to  educate42.  The  whole 
value43  of  philosophy  consists44  in  the  preparation45  for  a  hap¬ 
py  life46;  for  we  all  are  inflamed47  with  a  desire  for48  a  happy 
life49. 

1  vastare.  2  instare.  3  ut.  4  facere.  3  quam  primum.  6  creare.  7  exire. 
8 inferorum  loci.  9ad.  10dividere.  11  lacerare.  12  reliquus.  13dirlpere. 
14  pavidus.  15  custodire.  1(3  servitium.  17  assuescere.  18  conditio.  19queri. 
20 quam  minimum.  21  servire.  22  commodum.  23dolere.  24agere.  25  in¬ 
quietus.  26  conferre.  27  beare.  28  attribuere.  29  excitare.  3U  collocare. 


322 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


[§§  373,  374. 


31  emere.  32  exilis.  33  deligere.  34  nescium  esse.  35  valere.  36  vivere. 
37  mittere.  38  relinquere.  39  facultas.  40  distrahere  (fut.  part,  in  dative). 
41  (acc.  with  inf.).  42  educare.  43  auctoritas.  44  consistere.  45  comparare. 
46  vita.  47  incensus.  48  (genitive).  49  vivere. 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT* 


373.  As  the  English  conjunction  that  has  several  signifi¬ 
cations,  it  would  be  natural  to  suppose,  that  the  Latin,  which 
speaks  so  definitely  and  distinctly,  would  have  more  than  a 
single  word  with  which  to  express  the  force  of  this  conjunc¬ 
tion. 

The  Latin  expresses  himself  differently,  according  to  the 
different  relation  denoted  by  the  word  that.  He  uses,  espe¬ 
cially  in  affirmative  sentences,  the  conjunction  ut  or  quod, 
or  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  and  in  negative  sen¬ 
tences  for  the  English  that  not,  ut  non,  ne,  quod  non,  quin, 
and  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  and  the  adverb  non. 

As  everything  depends  upon  the  thought  contained  in  that, 
the  student  should  learn,  first  of  all,  to  distinguish  its  differ¬ 
ent  relations  and  significations,  and  then  he  can  translate  the 
conjunction.  The  following  ideas  are  denoted  by  it : 

374.  (1)  It  expresses  motive,  purpose  or  design. 

When  the  word  that  denotes  a  motive,  purpose,  or  design, 
why  or  for  which  another  action  is  undertaken,  or  has  been 
undertaken,  or,  moreover,  is  not  to  be  undertaken,  the  Latin 
uses  ut  in  affirmative  and  ne  in  negative  sentences,  or,  when 
the  negation  is  to  be  made  stronger,  u  t  ne,  that  not.  Some¬ 
thing  is  to  be  done,  and  the  question  is  asked,  For  what  pur¬ 
pose  one  does  (did)  this  ?  For  ivhat  purpose  this  happens  (hap- 


*  This  includes  the  construction  of  dependent  sentences  introduced 
by  the  conjunctions  ut,  ne,  quo ,  quin,  quominus  and  quod,  as  well  as 
the  construction  of  the  accusative  and  the  infinitive.  It  will  be  seen 

used  in  these 
a  purpose  or 


by  the  sequel,  however,  that  other  words  are  frequently 
constructions  instead  of  that,  especially  in  expressing 
command,  either  positive  or  negative. 


§§  375*370.]  DEPENDENT  CLAUSES  WITH  U  T,  ETC.  323 

pened)  ?  What  object  one  has  (had)  in  view  ?  Hence  i  d  e  o, 
on  this  account ,  e  o  consilio,  with  this  design ,  often  pre¬ 
cede  and  refer  to  the  following  clause. 

Instead  of  that ,  we  also  use  in  order  that ,  in  order  to, 
to,  for  the  purpose  of.  In  order  (that)  the  (more,  etc.),  in 
order  (that)  thereby  is  always  expressed  by  quo  instead  of 
ut  eo. 

In  negative  sentences,  the  idea  of  preventing,  averting,  is 
contained  ;  one  wishes  that  something  may  not  happen,  which 
in  English  is  sometimes  expressed  by  lest  and  from.  The 
Latins  use  the  subjunctive  with  ne  in  such  phrases  as  the 
following :  I  do  not  wish  to  live,  n  e  vivam  ;  I  do  not  wish  to 
be  safe,  n  e  sim  salvus ;  and  in  the  phrase,  I  will  not  say,  or 
not  to  say,  when  something  stronger  than  was  said  before 
follows  ne  dicam. 

i  .  yfl  |  i 

Examples. 

Laws  are  made  that  the  citizens  may  live  quietly  and  hap¬ 
pily,  u  t  —  vivant.  Show  the  wanderer  the  way ,  that  he  may 
not  fall  into  dangers,  n  e  —  incidat.  Wars  must  be  under¬ 
taken  on  this  account,  that  we  may  live  in  peace  without  in¬ 
jury, —  ut  vivatur.  I  keep  silence,  that  I  may  not  increase 
thy  pain,  ne  augeam.  Many  wish  to  be  assisted,  not  that 
they  may  not  be  debased,  but  that  they  may  rise  higher,  non 
ut  ne  affligantur,  sed  ut  —  ascendant. 

375.  When,  in  such  dependent  clauses,  the  word  not  is  contained 
in  a  negative  word,  e.  g.  no  one,  nothin!?,  never,  nowhere  and  the  like, 
t lie  preventive  ne  and  affirmative  Latin  words  are  employed  ;  e.  g. 
That  no  one,  n  e  q  u  i  s,  q  u  i  s  q  u  a  in,  ullus;  that  nothing,  n  e 
quid,  q  u  i  d  q  u  a  m  ;  that  never,  n  e  unquam;  that,  nowhere,  n  e 
usquam;  seldom  otherwise.  Further  :  And  that  not  is  expressed 
by  neve  ;  that  neither  —  nor,  by  ut  neve  —  neve,  or  ut  ne  out  —  avt, 
or  merely  ne  out  —  aut.  In  some  few  places  also,  ut  neque  —  neque 
occurs. 

376.  (2)  That  denoting  a  w  ish,  care ,  labor  and 
eff  o  r  t. 

When  in  the  word  that,  an  implied,  not  expressed  wish, 
desire,  care,  labor  and  effort  is  contained,  that  something 


324 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


[§  376. 


may  happen ,  or  may  not  happen ,  ne  or  nt  ne  is  used  in  nega¬ 
tive  sentences,  and  nt  in  affirmative  ones.  The  question  is 
here  asked :  What  docs  he  wish  ?  For  what  is  he  anxious  ? 
Here  also  something  is  to  happen,  or  not  to  happen,  and 
there  is  therefore  an  intentional  effort  or  exertion. 

Such  sentences  are  formed  by  the  verbs,  to  wish ,  not  to 
wish ,  to  prefer ,  to  care  for,  to  desire,  and  by  the  nouns  wish, 
will,  desire,  also  by  to  strive  (operam  dare),  to  be  anxious, 
etc. ;  in  short,  by  every  word  or  clause  which  is  a  motive  or 
ground  for  action. 

Words  with  this  construction  are  volo,  rnalo ,  nolo,  opto,  cupio ,  con¬ 
tendo,  nitor,  laboro,  curo,  consuto,  prospicio,  operam  do,  id  ago,  facio, 
efficio,  perficio ,  evinco,  pervinco,  impetro,  assequor,  consequor,  adi¬ 
piscor,  caveo  and  video  (to  take  care),  consilium  capio,  animum  or  in 
animum  induco.  Comp,  on  caveo  and  video,  §  §  407,  408. 

Negative  sentences,  here  also,  contain  the  idea  of  prevent¬ 
ing,  averting,  as  before,  §  374,  and  all  which  was  said  under 
§§  374  and  375  is  also  applicable  here.  Hence,  when  fa- 
cere  has  ne  with  it,  it  signifies  to  take  care  that  something 
may  not  happen,  to  prevent  something. 

The  verb  studere,  to  strive,  has  ut  after  it,  when  the 
subject  of  both  verbs  is  different,  but  merely  the  infinitive, 
when  their  subject  is  the  same.  Comp.  §  396.  For  the  use 
of  the  words  velle,  nolle,  malle,  and  cupere  without  ut  or  with 
the  Acc.  and  Inf.,  see  §  395. 

Examples. 

I  wish  (velim)  that  your  brother  would  write  to  me  soon, 
ut  —  scribat.  Take  care  to  (that  you)  recover  your  health, 
ut  —  convalescas.  Take  care,  that  I  may  know  it,  permit 
me  to  know  it,  fac,  ut  sciam.  Take  care,  that  he  may  not 
hear  it,  do  not  let  him  hear  it,  fac,  n  e  audiat.  I  wish  that 
your  brother  would  not  associate  with  this  man,  ne  hoc  ho¬ 
mine  utatur.  This  science  aims  at  this,  that  we  may  assent 
to  no  one  without  reason,  and  that  we  may  never  be  deceived, 
necui  falso  assentiamur,  neve  unquam  fallamur.  Care 
must  be  taken,  that  we  do  nothing  imprudently  and  carelessly 
( ut)  n  e  quid  —  agamus. 


DEPENDENT  CLAUSES  WITH  U  T,  ETC. 


325 


§  377.] 


377.  (3)  When  an  expressed  wish,  request,  incitement  or 
command  is  stated,  ut  is  also  used  in  affirmative  sentences, 
and  ne  in  negative  ones. 

Sentences  of  this  kind  may  be  called  imperative  ones,  be¬ 
cause,  as  principal  sentences,  they  must  be  stated  in  the  im¬ 
perative  without  the  conjunction  that ;  e.  g.  I  told  him  to 
read  Cicero,  i.  e.  read  Cicero. 

These  sentences  are  formed  by  verba  dicendi,  i.  e.  by 
such  as  signify,  to  wish,  to  ask,  to  demand,  to  incite,  to  coun¬ 
sel,  to  persuade,  to  command ,  to  entrust,  to  write  and  the  like. 
Here  also  belongs  i  t  a,  on  condition,  with  the  command,  in¬ 
junction.  So  also  after  such  words  as  law,  duty,  and  every 
word  or  clause,  which  contains  the  idea  of  a  command  or  pro¬ 
hibition,  ut  or  ne  is  used. 

Such  verbs  are:  rogo ,  oro,  postulo,  pcsco,  flagito,  moneo,  admoneo , 
hortor,  suadeo,  persuadeo ,  moveo,  excito ,  impello,  impero,  edico,  mando , 
praescribo,  praecipio,  censeo  (to  decree),  statuo,  instituo,  constituo,  de¬ 
cerno,  cogo,  dico,  praedico,  scribo  (when  it  implies  a  command^,  placet ; 
lex,  jus,  munus,  conditio.  For  the  omission  of  ut  with  many  of  these 
verbs,  see  §  392. 

The  words  jubere,  to  command,  and  vetare,  to  forbid, 
however,  form  a  particular  exception  here,  inasmuch  as  they 
are  followed  almost  exclusively  by  the  accusative  with  the  in¬ 
finitive,  not  by  ut  and  ne.  So  Cicero  usually  constructs  im¬ 
perare  with  ut  in  active  sentences,  but  with  the  accusa¬ 
tive  and  the  infinitive  in  passive  sentences ;  e.  g.  Verres  com¬ 
manded  them  to  receive  the  tithes ,  u  t  accipiant.  The  same 
commanded  them  to  be  led  to  prison,  eos  abduci;  seldom 
ut  in  passive  sentences.  This  accusative  is  also  used,  when 
the  passive  periphrastic  conjugation  is  employed,  because  this 
contains  in  itself  the  idea  of  should,  ought,  consequently  the 
force  of  ut  with  the  subjunctive.  For  the  construction  of  sinere , 
pali,  permittere  and  concedere,  see  §  397  ;  of  postulare,  mo¬ 
nere,  admonere  and  persuadere  with  the  Acc.  and  Inf.,  see  §396. 

In  negative  sentences,  a  prohibition  is  always  contained; 
hence  ne  can  be  used,  and  instead  of  it  ut  ye,  but  only  in 

28 


326 


THE  CONJUNCTION  T  II  A  T. 


[§  378, 


making  a  request ,  and  not  in  a  strict  prohibition.  With  i  n- 
te  r  d  i  e  e  r  e,  to  forbid,  to  prohibit,  the  Latin  mostly  uses  ne, 
seldom  ut.  The  remarks  made  §  375,  are  applicable  here  also. 

Examples . 

I  wish  (velim)  that  you  would  come  (l  wish  you  to  come) 
as  soon  as  possible,  ut  —  venias.  Quintilian  advises  that 
we  should  (us  to)  read  Cicero,  u  t  —  legamus.  Solon  com¬ 
manded,  that  no  one  should  destroy  the  graves,  nequis  — 
deleret.  I  request  that  you  would  (you  to)  spare  expense  in 
nothing,  n  e  sumptui  parcas  ulla  in  re.  Themistocles  ad¬ 
vised  the  Athenians  to  leave  the  city,  u  t  —  relinquerent. 
Caesar  has  written  to  me  that  I  should  (to)  prepare  every¬ 
thing,  ut  —  pararem.  I  have  been  forbidden  to  do  this,  ne 
hoc  facerem,  not  u  t  hoc  facerem. 

378.  (4)  That  denoting  result  or  eff ect. 

When  in  the  word  that,  the  result  or  effect  of  a  past  action 
or  a  condition,  or  of  a  property  or  quality  of  something  is  ex¬ 
pressed,  ut  is  used  in  affirmative  sentences,  and  ut  non,  not 
ne  or  ut  ne,  in  negative  ones.  It  is  here  asked,  What  hap¬ 
pens,  has  happened,  ivill  happen  ?  What  is  the  result,  conse¬ 
quence  ? 

Such  sentences  are  indicated  by  various  words;  e.  g.  by 
so,  so  very,  such  a,  of  such  a  hind  or  nature,  so  far,  and  all 
which  are  qualified  by  so.  Further  ;  by  it  happens,  it  comes 
to  pass,  it  is  the  custom,  and  others,  of  which  the  sentences 
denoting  the  result  are  the  subjects.  Finally  after  a  compara¬ 
tive  with  than,  where,  however,  ut  is  also  sometimes  omitted. 
So  that  the  (more,  etc.)  is  expresssed  by  ut  eo,  not  by  quo. 
Comp.  §  374. 

Examples. 

The  essence  of  law  consists  in  this  (est  ea),  that  it  com¬ 
mands  to  do  right  and  forbids  to  do  wrong,  ut  jubeat  vetet- 
que.  Many  arc  of  such  a  nature  (tales),  that  they  do  not 


327 


§§379,380.]  ACCUSATIVE  WITH  the  infinitive. 

distinguish  between  the  true  and  the  false ,  u  t  —  non  discer¬ 
nant.  The  leaders  of  the  army  are  so  inhuman ,  that  I  trem¬ 
ble  in  view  of  their  victory,  ut  —  horream.  This  seems  to  be 
too  high  for  us  to  understand,  quam  ut  —  possimus.  Zeno 
preferred  to  bear  all,  rather  than  to  inform,  against  his  accom¬ 
plices,  quam  —  indicaret,  instead  of  q  u  a  m  ut  indicaret. 

The  following  words  have  this  construction  :  facio ,  efficio,  committo., 
(to  go  so  far  as  to),  cst  (it  happens,  is  the  case,  is  possible),  fit,  factum 
est,  f  uturum  esse  or fore,  multum  and  tantum  abest, -prope  est,  in  eo  sum, 
accidit,  incidit ,  evenit ,  occurrit,  contingit ,  abest  (is  not  the  case),  nas¬ 
citur,  mos,  consuetudo  est,  relinquitur,  reliquum  est,  restat,  superest , 
extremum  est ,  proximum  est,  tempus  est,  ita,,  sic,  eo,  adeo ,  usque  eo,  tam , 
tantopere,  talis,  is,  hic,  iste,  ejusmodi,  tantus.  Comp,  on  relinquitur 
sqq.  §  390,  on  fore  §  403,  and  on  tantum  abest  §  410. 

379.  (5)  That  denoting  conclusion. 

When  the  word  that  denotes  a  conclusion  drawn  from 
something  previously  stated,  ut  is  used  in  affirmative  sen¬ 
tences,  and  ut  non,  not  ne  or  ut  ne,  in  negative  ones. 

Before  such  a  sentence  in  English,  stands  either  the  word 
so,  or  the  phrase,  it  follows  from  this .  Words  introducing  a 
conclusion  are:  sequitur ,  relinquitur,  efficitur,  consequens  est, 
probo,  efficio  (to  make  out,  to  prove).  Respecting  sequitur, 
relinquitur,  and  efficitur,  comp.  §  397. 

Examples. 

Sisenna  is  so  childish  in  his  narrations ,  that  he  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  thoroughly  instructed,  u  t  —  non  videatur. 
It  follows  from  this,  that  he  was  not  killed  by  him,  u  t  non 
sit  occisus.  Cicero  has  omitted  nothing,  so  that  he  seems  to 
have  devoted  his  leisure  wholly  to  the  interest  of  the  orator, 
u  t  —  videatur. 

380.  (6)  That  denoting  the  object  of  a  verbum 

sentiendi  or  dicendi,  and  of  all  clauses  con¬ 
taining  general  statements. 

(a)  When  a  sentence  with  that  contains  the  object  of  a 
verbum  sentiendi,  or  of  a  verbum  dicendi  narrating  something, 
the  Latins  use  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive. 


328 


THE  CONJUNCTION  T  H  A  T. 


[§  381. 


Verba  sentiendi  include  all  words  which  relate  to  an  ope¬ 
ration  of  the  mind  or  the  senses  ;  e.  g.  to  believe ,  to  think,  to 
perceive,  to  hope,  to  observe ,  to  see,  to  hear ;  belief,  opinion, 
hope ;  certain,  true,  probable,  evident,  etc. 

Such  words  are  :  audio ,  video,  sentio,  puto,  reor,  judico,  animadver¬ 
to,  cognosco ,  inteUigo,  percipio,  disco,  scio ,  credo,  duco,  statuo,  memini , 
recordor,  obliviscor,  spero ,  facio  (to  admit) ,fac  (admit,  suppose,  grant), 
efficio  (to  infer,  to  conclude),  opinio,  spes  est. 

Verba  dicendi  (or  declarandi )  include  all  words  which  re¬ 
late  to  discourse,  whether  written  or  spoken;  e.  g.  to  say,  to 
answer,  to  write ,  to  announce;  report ,  message ,  etc.  These, 
however,  must  contain  only  the  idea  of  a  narration  and  in¬ 
formation,  but  not  a  request,  a  demand,  a  command,  where 
ut  would  be  used,  or  a  prohibition,  where  ne  would  be  used. 
Comp,  on  these  last,  §  377. 

Such  verbs  are  ;  dico,  trado,  prodo,  scribo,  refero,  nuntio,  confirmo , 
nego ,  ostendo ,  demonstro,  perhibeo,  promitto,  polliceor,  spondeo,  indico, 
doceo  (to  inform),  probo,  efficio  (to  prove). 

When  therefore  such  sentences  with  that,  denote  what  some 
one  believed,  hoped,  saw,  heard,  related,  wrote ,  or  what  is  to 
him  credible,  known,  true,  or  what  was  the  report,  the  rumor 
and  the  like,  they  form  the  objects  of  a  verbum  sentiendi  or  di¬ 
cendi,  and  the  Latin  expresses  them  by  the  accusative  with 
the  infinitive  ;  e.  g.  I  hear  (you  say),  that  you  are  reading, 
have  read,  are  about  to  read,  would  read,  would  have  read  Ci¬ 
cero,  audio  (dicis)  te  Ciceronem  legere,  legisse,  lec¬ 
turum  esse,  lecturum  fuisse.  Here  the  clause, 
that  you  —  denotes  the  object, — udiat  I  hear,  what  you  say, 
therefore  the  object  of  a  verbum  sentiendi  or  dicendi. 

The  question  is  here  asked:  What  does  one  perceive? 
What  is  thought  or  related? 

381.  Such  a  sentence,  in  reference  to  the  verbum  sentiendi 
or  dicendi,  is  either  its  object  (genitive  or  accusative),  or  its 
subject  (nominative).  So  in  the  above  example,  I  hear  (you 
say),  that  you  are  reading  Cicero,  this  last  clause  is  the  ob¬ 
ject  or  the  accusative  of  / hear,  or  of  you  say ;  for  it  denotes 


§  382.]  ACCUSATIVE  WITH  THE  INFINITIVE.  329 

what  I  hear,  and  what  you  say ;  and  in  the  example,  He  re¬ 
ceived  information,  that  the  city  had  been  taken,  nuntium  ur¬ 
bem  esse  captam,  the  last  clause  is  the  object  of  the  sub¬ 
stantive  nuntium,  consequently  the  genitive.  On  the  con¬ 
trary,  when  I  say,  It  is  known  that  you  read  Cicero,  notum 
est  te  Ciceronem  legere,  then  the  clause  that  —  is 
the  subject  of  it  is  known,  notum  est.  Hence  the  clause 
containing  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  is  the  subject 
or  nominative,  when  the  principal  clause  has  no  subject;  it 
is  the  object  (genitive  or  accusative),  when  there  is  already  a 
subject,  but  the  object  of  the  governing  verb,  substantive  or 
adjective,  is  wanting.  It  is  the  subject  therefore  in  such 
phrases  as:  est  notum,  credibile ,  verum,  auditum ,  nuntiatum, 
apparet,  constat,  etc. ;  but  the  object  in  such  phrases  as : 
audio ,  putamus,  pater  dixit,  ille  ignarus  est,  fama  fu¬ 
it,  etc. 

382.  (b)  The  Latins  also  commonly  form,  by  means  of 
the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  all  general  sentences,  i.  e. 
such  as  do  not  describe  a  single  action  occurring  at  a  definite 
time,  if  these  sentences  are  subjects  of  another  sentence,  even 
although  the  principal  sentences  do  not  contain  a  verbum  sen¬ 
tiendi  or  dicendi,  but  only  remarks  of  various  import  in  the 
neuter ;  e.  g.  It  is  expedient  that  the  captives  should  be  re¬ 
stored,  captivos  reddi;  it  is  an  innate  principle  with  all 
that  there  is  a  God,  Deum  esse;  it  is  a  disgrace  that  a 
Roman  citizen  should  be  bound,  civem  Romanum  vin¬ 
ciri.  Here  belong  also  such  sentences  as  the  following: 
To  be  irascible  (iracundum  esse)  is  something  different 
from  being  angry  (iratum);  to  be  unacquainted  (rude  m) 
with  history,  is  censurable ;  it  is  the  duty  of  a  good  citizen  to 
love  (a  m  a  n  t  e  m  esse)  his  country.  In  these  clauses,  the 
accusative  aliquem,  that  some  one,  is  omitted. 

Such  neuter  or  impersonal  phrases  are  :  par,  fas,  aequum.,  justum, 
rectum,  utile  cst,  neccsse,  opus  est,  licet,  expedit,  convenit,  pulchrum  est, 
apparet,  constat,  certum ,  manifestum,  perspicuum,  verum ,  verisimile 
est.  Comp.  §  397. 


28* 


330  THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT.  [§§  383,384. 

383.  The  word  that ,  as  the  examples  show,  is  omitted  in 
Latin  with  the  accusative  and  the  infinitive,  and  the  subject 
of  the  sentence,  I,  thou ,  lie,  or  any  other  definite  person  or 
thing  is  put  in  the  accusative,  and  the  verb  in  the  infinitive  of 
the  proper  tense  ;  e.  g.  That  I  hear ,  have  heard,  shall  (should) 
hear,  shall  (should)  have  heard,  me  audire,  audivisse, 
auditurum  (am)  esse,  auditurum  (am)  fuisse; 
that  we  are  heard,  have  been  heard,  shall  be  heard,  nos  au¬ 
diri,  auditos  (as)  esse,  auditum  iri. 

Esse  is  very  generally  omitted  with  the  future  infinitive. 
When  would  be  able,  and  would  have  been  able  are  to  be  ex¬ 
pressed  by  an  infinitive  of  possum,  the  former  is  rendered  by 
posse  and  the  latter  by  potuisse,  or  both  are  expressed  peri- 
phrastically  by  fore,  ut  according  to  §  403.  The  subject  of 
the  infinitive  cannot  ordinarily  be  omitted. 

384.  Intermediate  clauses  expressing  comparison,  where 
the  clause  of  comparison  contains  no  new  verb,  take,  in  Latin, 
the  accusative  as  a  continuation  of  what  precedes;  and  so  all 
sentences,  which  continue  the  predicate  of  the  preceding  sen¬ 
tence,  take  the  accusative;  e.  g.  You  see  that  nothing  is  so 
like  death,  as  sleep,  nihil  esse,  nisi  somnum  (not 
somnus).  Do  not  say  that  he  (istum)  has  done  the  same, 
as  Cicero,  quod  Ciceronem.  I  suppose  that  you  (te) 
are  excited  by  the  same  circumstances,  by  which  I  myself  am, 
quibus  me  ipsum.  I  know  that  man  was  born  for  action, 
as  the  horse  for  running,  and  the  ox  for  ploughing,  ut  ad  cur- 
sum  equum,  ad  arandum  bovem.  So  in  such  clauses  as, 
I  believe  you  also,  I  believe  Cicero  also, — abridged  for  I  be¬ 
lieve  that  you  also — the  verb  for  which  is  to  be  supplied  from 
the  preceding  clause ;  hence  puto  etiam  te,  puto  etiam 
Ciceronem,  not  tu  —  Cicero.  But  if  the  predicate  is 
changed  and  a  new  verb  introduced,  this  accusative  cannot 
be  used ;  e.  g.  Quis  credat,  tantum  esse  solem,  quantus 
videtur,  T Vho  can  believe  that  the  sun  is  as  small  as  it  ap- 


331 


§§  385,  386.]  ACCUSATIVE  WITH  the  infinitive. 

pears .  Here  the  introduction  of  videtur  requires  a  subject  in 

the  nominative. 

385.  With  verba  sentiendi  and  dicendi ,  there  is  very  frequently  join¬ 
ed  a  superfluous  this  (h  o  c,  i  d),  that'(j  1 1  u  d),  so  (i  ta,  sic).  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  be  misled  by  these  to  use  quod  or  ut,  unless  the 
clause  with  that  refers  to  these  words  alone,  and  depends  upon  them; 
e.  g.  I  think  this  first ,  that  friendship  is  the  highest  good ,  hoc  primum 
sentio,  amicitiam  summum  bonum  esse.  I  think  so  (am  of  the 
opinion),  that  our  soul  cannot  be  mortal ,  si  c  sentio,  non  posse  ani¬ 
mum  nostrum  esse  mortalem.  So  i  t  a  est  credibile,  mundum 
hominum  causa  creatum  esse.  Cicero  says  very  frequently,  sic 
e  x  i  s  t  i  m  a  r  e,  s  i  c  habere,  etc. 

After  credo ,  mihi  crede  and  puto ,  the  objective  clause  belonging  to 
them,  is  frequently  not  put  in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  as 
dependent  on  them,  but  is  made  independent,  as  often  in  English  ; 
e.  g.  Believe  me ,  one  year  —  icill  bring ,  mihi  crede,  unus  annus  — 
a  fife  ret,  for  unum  annum  —  allaturum  (esse) . 

Memini ,  recordor ,  memoria  teneo  are  regularly  followed  by  the  in¬ 
finitive  present,  if  something  is  mentioned,  which  still  continued  to 
exist,  at  the  time  that  it  was  called  to  mind  ;  e.  g.  /  recollect  that  you 
were  pursuing  the  study  of  law  from  a  very  early  period  of  your  life ,  te 
studere  memini ;  but  if  something  is  mentioned,  which  was  already 
completed  at  the  time  of  recollection,  the  infinitive  perfect  must  be 
used  ;  e.  g.  Philip  remembered  that  the  JEtolians  injured  his  fame , 
when  he  was  liberating  Greece,  obtrectasse  meminerat. 

336.  Finally,  care  should  be  taken,  not  to  put  every  clause, 
following  a  verbum  dicendi ,  in  the  accusative  with  the  infini¬ 
tive,  even  if  it  begin  with  that.  Verba  dicendi  do  not  always 
denote  what  happens,  has  happened  or  will  happen,  but  often 
something  which  should  happen ,  and  then  they  have  the  idea 
of  command,  which  requires  ut.  Comp.  §  377. 

A  comparison  of  examples  will  show  the  difference  ;  e.  g.  I  wrote 
to  my  father  that  my  brother  would  come  to  me  in  the  morning ,  meum 
fratrem  venturum.  Here  I  narrate  something. 

I  wrote  to  my  father  that  my  brother  should  come  to  me  in  the  morn¬ 
ing,  u  t  frater  veniret.  Here  I  ask  for  something,  as  it  were  com¬ 
mand  something,  viz.  that  he  should  come.  Who  has  persuaded  you  of 
this,  that  he  is  your  friend  ?  hunc  tibi  esse  amicum  ?  A  narra¬ 
tive  sentence.  Who  persuaded  you  to  this ,  that  you  should  assent  (to 
assent)  to  him  Put  huic  assentirere.  An  imperative  sentence. 

Who  has  told  you ,  that  l  am  transcribing  this  book ?  me  hunc  li¬ 
brum  describere?  A  narrative  sentence.  Who  told  you ,  that  you 
should  transcribe  (to transcribe)  this  book?  ut  hunc  librum  descri¬ 
beres?  An  imperative  sentence. 


332 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


[§  387. 


387.  (7)  That  denoting  the  cause  of  an  action. 

When  a  sentence  with  that  contains  not  only  an  action  now 
happening,  that  has  happened,  or  is  yet  to  happen,  but  also, 
at  the  same  time,  the  reason  or  cause  of  something  that  is  as¬ 
serted,  then  the  Latin  has  two  inodes  of  expression,  either  the 
accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or  the  conjunction  quod  ( that, 
because ,  because  that) ;  e.  g.  I  am  much  rejoiced ,  that  you  are 
happy ,  te  hilari  anirno  esse,  valde  me  juvat;  I  am 
much  rejoiced,  that  you  have  come,  quod  venisti,  valde  me 
juvat.  The  former,  therefore,  could  have  been  expressed  by 
quod  es,  and  the  latter  by  te  venisse.  With  the  accusa¬ 
tive  and  the  infinitive,  the  idea  of  perceiving ,  noticing  (with 
joy,  grief,  wonder  and  the  like),  is  prominent,  with  quod, 
the  reason  why  is  made  emphatic. 

This  principle  prevails  with  many  substantives,  adjectives 
and  verbs,  particularly  with  such  as  denote  a  state  of  the  mind , 
praise ,  blame ,  accusation ,  apology ,  thanks ,  congratulation , 
consolation ,  pardon  and  boasting.  After  these,  sometimes  the 
thing  itself,  as  something  narrated  or  perceived ,  is  made  pro¬ 
minent  by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  sometimes  the 
cause ,  by  quod.  With  different  verbs,  however,  sometimes 
one  construction  is  more  frequent,  sometimes  the  other. 

With  verbs  expressing  joy ,  sorrow,  astonishment ,  displea¬ 
sure  and  boasting,  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  oftener 
occurs.  Such  verbs  are  gaudeo,  laetor,  doleo,  indignor,  que¬ 
ror,  miror,  glorior,  angor.  Here  belong  also  jucundum,  mo¬ 
lestum  est,  animo  aequo  {iniquo),  graviter ,  moleste,  aegre  fer¬ 
re,  etc. 

On  the  contrary,  quod  oftener  occurs  with  words  express¬ 
ing  praise,  blame,  accusation,  calumniating ,  reproaching,  apo- 
logy,  pardon,  repentance,  complaint,  thanks,  congratulation, 
consolation,  anger  and  pity  ;  e.  g.  laudo,  vitupero,  reprehendo, 
accuso,  gratulor.  Here  belong  also  facere  bene,  prudenter, 
etc.,  ft,  evenit,  cadit,  accidit  bene ,  male,  commode,  percom¬ 
mode,  perincommode ;  when  these  are  used,  the  clause  contain¬ 
ing  that  shows  why  anything  is  bene ,  etc.  Comp.  §  388. 


§  388.]  QUOD  AND  THE  ACCUS.  WITH  THE  INFIN.  333 

Examples. 

1  rejoice  much  that  my  book  is  approved  by  you, Whxxxm  meum  a  te 
probari.  The  countrymen  are  not  sorry,  that  summer  has  come ,  aesta¬ 
tem  venisse.  IV e  do  not  iconder  that  you  rejoice ,  te  laetari. 
It  teas  wonderful  to  me,  that  you  had  changed  your  resolution ,  t  e  mu¬ 
tasse.  You  do  well,  that  you  assist  me,  quod  me  adjuvas.  He 
finds  fault  with  old  age,  because  (that)  it  enjoys  no  pleasure ,  quod 
c  a  r  e  a  t.  Pardon  me,  that  1  write  so  much  to  you,  quod  ad  te 
scribo  tam  multum.  /  believe  that  he  himself  must  regret,  that  he 
has  abandoned  his  purpose ,  ipsi  poenitendum  (esse)  puto,  quod  — 
decesserit. 

388.  (8)  That  in  periphrastic  explanations. 

It  has  been  remarked  (§  381 )  that,  when  the  subject  or 
object  of  a  verbum  sentiendi  or  dicendi  is  expressed  periphras- 
tically  by  a  clause  with  that,  the  accusative  with  the  infini¬ 
tive  is  almost  always  used.  The  verbs  above  mentioned, 
§  387,  are  here  excepted. 

But  sentences  without  a  verbum  sentiendi  or  dicendi  also 
have  a  periphrastic  clause  with  that  for  their  subject  or  ob¬ 
ject.  Respecting  such  sentences,  it  is  to  be  noticed : 

(a)  When  they  specify  general  ideas ,  and  not  real  actions 
now  taking  place,  or  that  have  taken  place,  they  are  put  only 
in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  according  to  §  382. 

(b)  When  they  contain  single  actual  facts  and  supply  the 
place  of  the  subject-nominative,  they  are  stated  in  almost  all 
cases  by  quod ;  e.  g.  That  I  am  at  Rome,  excites  suspicion 
among  many,  quod  Romae  sum  — .  This  foolish  act ,  that 
(quod)  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  king,  seems  sagely  devised. 
Hoc,  id,  illud,  res,  hacc  res,  eares  often  stand  in  the  principal 
clause,  for  the  sake  of  clearer  reference  to  this  periphrastic 
subject ;  e.  g.  Between  me  and  you,  there  is  this  difference , 
that — ,  hoc  interest,  quod — .  This  circumstance  shows 
this,  that,  hoc  res  declarat,  quod — .  This  one  circum¬ 
stance  pains  me,  that  I  have  not  followed  him,  h  ae  c  u  n  a 
res  me  torquet,  quod  non  eum  secutus  sirn. 

(c)  When  these  single  facts  supply  the  place  of  oblique 
cases,  and,  as  explanations,  refer  to  an  expressed  or  implied 
eo,  ex  eo  {hoc),  ex  hac  re,  hinc,  pro  eo,  in  eo,  de  to,  ad  id,  prae - 


334 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


[§  389. 


ter  id  and  the  like,  quod  is  almost  exclusively  used.  So  after 
praeter  quam  and  nisi,  with  such  sentences  as  belong  here ; 
e.  g.  Friendship  surpasses  all  blessings  in  this  (hoc),  that 
(quod)  it  — .  The  truth  of  this  doctrine  is  manifest  from 
this  (ex  eo),  that  (quod)  — .  The  manor  pleases  me,  except 
that  (nisi  q  u  o  d)  has  involved  me  in  debt. 

So  also  only  quod  follows  adde  and  adjice,  add  to ; 
mittere,  omittere,  praeterire,  £0 waive ,  to  pass  by. 

(d)  Finally,  when  the  sentence  with  that  stands  almost 
wholly  by  itself  and  independent  of  the  nearest  principal 
clause,  and  denotes  for  the  most  part  a  subject  alluded  to  by 
another,  upon  which  some  observation  is  to  be  made,  the 
Latins  use  quocl,  which  we  translate  in  respect  to  this  that,  in 
respect  to ;  e.  g.  in  respect  to  your  wishing  my  advice,  it  is 
such — ,  quod  meum  consilium  exquiris,  id  est  tale.  In  re¬ 
spect  to  your  exhorting  me,  I  wish  that  it  may  be  of  such  a 
nature — ,  quod  me  hortaris,  id  velim  sit  ejusmodi.  In  let¬ 
ters  and  conversation,  nothing  is  more  frequent. 

389.  The  following  table  will  give  a  general  view  of  the 
different  sentences,  and  of  the  usage  with  each,  whether  af¬ 
firmative  or  negative. 


Sentences. 

1.  Purpose ,  design , 

2.  Wish ,  care ,  effort , 

3.  Request,  command , 

4.  Result ,  effect, 


5.  Conclusion. 

6.  Object  of  a  ver¬ 

bum  sentien¬ 
di  or  dicendi, 
and  clauses  con¬ 
taining  general 
statements , 

7.  Cause,  reason, 

8.  Circumstance  and 

explanation. 


That. 
u  t, 

u  t, 

u  t, 

u  t, 


u  t, 

Acc.  with  inf. 


quod,  or  the  acc. 
with  inf. 

the  same,  quod  more 
frequently. 


That  not. 

n  e,  u  t  n  e ;  and  that 
not,  neve. 

n  e,  u  t  n  e  ;  and  that 
not ,  neve. 

n  e  ;  and  that  not,  n  e- 
v  e. 

u  t  non;  where  the 
principal  sentence 
is  negative,  also 
quin. 

u  t  non. 

Acc.  and  inf.  with 
non;  where  the 
principal  sentence 
is  negative,  also 
quin. 

quod  non,  or  acc. 
and  inf.  with  non. 

the  same. 


§§  390 - 392.]  THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


335 


Some  Additional  Remarks . 

390.  (1)  From  what  has  been  said  thus  far,  from  §  374 — 389,  it  is 
evident,  that  the  right  translation  of  the  conjunction  that  depends  par¬ 
ticularly  upon  the  idea  contained  in  the  sentence  beginning  with  that, 
and  therefore  upon  the  relation  and  connection  of  that  sentence  with 
the  principal  one.  Hence  ut  does  not  always  follow  sic ,  ita,  when 
the  sentence  with  that  does  not  depend  upon  them ;  nor  does  quod 
always  follow  id,  hoc,  illud;  nor  does  the  accusative  with  the  infini¬ 
tive  always  follow  the  verba  dicendi.  Only  the  idea  which  is  to  be 
expressed,  can  determine  the  construction.  Therefore,  when  Cicero 
says,  This  is  evident,  that  roc  have  been  born  for  action,  it  is  expressed 
by,  hoc  apparet,  n  o  s  ad  agendum  esse  n  a  t  o  s,  for  the  last  clause 
is  connected  with  apparet. ,  therefore  not  quod  nati  sumus,  although 
hoc  precedes.  But  when  he  says,  This  is  evident  f torn  this  fact,  that 
we  have  been  born  for  action,  it  is  expressed  by  quod  nati  surnus,  be¬ 
cause  the  clause  with  that  explains  the  word  this  more  clearly.  You 
had  written  me,  that  you  unshed  it  might  prove  fortunate,  that  I  had 
bought  this  house,  ad  me  scripseras,  velle  te  bene  evenire,  quod  hanc 
domum  emissem  ;  ut  could  not  stand  here  instead  of  quod  merely  be¬ 
cause  of  evenire,  for  the  clause  with  quod  does  not  depend  upon,  but 
is  rather  the  subject  of,  evenire ,  inasmuch  as  the  sentence  does  not 
denote  a  consequence,  but  only  the  circumstance  of  buying  the  house. 
It  appeared  very  wonderful  to  me,  that  you  went  away,  illud  mihi  permi¬ 
rum  accidit  te  abisse;  where  neither  illud  nor  accidit,  hui  permi¬ 
rum  is  the  governing  word. 

After  the  phrases,  it  remains,  r  e  1  i  n  q  u  i  t  u  r,  restat,  reliquum 
est;  the  last  thing  is,  extremum  e  s  t ;  the  next  thing  is,  proxi¬ 
mum  est;  the  principal  thing  is,  the  main  point  is,  caput  e  s  t,  vt 
is  used,  because  the  sentence  contains  either  a  wish  or  a  request,  and 
the  above  phrases  signify  only,  as  for  the  rest,  finally,  principally ; 
e.  g.  It  still  remains  that  /  should  console  you ,  reliquum  est,  u  t  te  con¬ 
soler  ;  it  remains  that,  or  the  last  thing  is,  that  I  entreat  you,  extremum 
est,  u  t  te  orem ;  the  principal  thing  is,  that  you  must  think,  caput  est, 
ut  tibi  cogitandum  sit. 

391.  (2)  We  often  omit  the  conjunction  that,  and,  especially  where 
the  verbs  of  both  sentences  have  the  same  subject,  employ  the  infini¬ 
tive.  Hence  one  must  not  be  hasty  in  translating,  but  must  think  of 
the  possible  omission  of  the  conjunction  that.  The  following  exam¬ 
ples  will  show  this:  /  believed.  I  teas,  thou  wast,  he  was  sick  (that 
1,  thou,  he  was  sick).  He  said  the  soul  was  immortal.  Strive  to  do 
everything  orderly .  God  commands  us  to  act  uprightly .  The  laws  for¬ 
bid  men  to  def  raud  others.  Wisely  employ  time  for  the  purpose  of  be¬ 
coming  intelligent.  I  see  the  wood  burn  (or  bur  ning).  I  hear  the  thun- 
dor  roll.  I  perceive  death  approach  (or  approaching). 

392.  In  like  manner,  the  Latin  sometimes  omits  ut  with  verbs  which 
according  to  §  §  376  and  377,  would  naturally  require  it  after  them. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  after  velim,  fac,  monere  and  tire  like,  which 
form  imperative  sentences.  But  ne  can  never  be  omitted  here,  nor  can 
non  be  placed  with  the  subjunctive  merely.  Examples:  l  wish  youwould 
persuade  yourself,  velim  tibi  persuadeas.  Take  care  to  have  (that 
you  have),  fac,  habeas.  I  had  told  my  son  to  read  the  book  and  give 


336 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


m  393—396. 

it  to  you ,  dixeram,  legeret  et  daret.  Cicero  commanded  the  am¬ 
bassadors  to  visit  the  others ,  praecepit,  ceteros  adirent. 

393.  (3)  Sentences  with  that ,  after  some  verbs,  can  be  translated  dif¬ 
ferently,  i.  e.  ut,  quod ,  or  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  may  be 
used.  Here  belong: 

(a)  Verbs  of  joy,  grief,  complaint,  displeasure ,  wonder ,  consolation, 
and  others  which  denote  a  perception  or  a  verbal  expression ,  but  at  the 
same  time  give  a  reason.  Respecting  these,  comp.  §  387. 

394.  (b)  The  verb  accedit,  it  is  added ,  moreover ,  takes  not  only 
quod ,  which  is  properly  its  periphrastic  subject  (see  §  388,  b),  but  also 
ut  ;  e.  g.  It  was  added  (the  circumstance)  that  he  was  blind ,  or  more¬ 
over  he ,  etc  ,  accedebat,  ut  caecus  esset.  Cic.  Cato,  6.  And  so  seve¬ 
ral  times  in  Cicero.  There  is  however  a  difference  between  the  two 
constructions:  the  additional  circumstance  introduced  by  quod  is  pre¬ 
supposed  as  a  known  fact;  introduced  by  ut,  it  is  represented  as  new 
or  as  yet  unknown. 

395.  (c)  The  verbs  to  wish  (velle),  not  to  wish  (nolle),  to  prefer 
(mall  e),  to  desire  (cupere),  when  the  sentence  with  that  has  a  dif¬ 
ferent  subject,  e.  g.  /  wish ,  that  you  — ,  are  followed  either  by  ut  or 
the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  ;*  e.  g.  I  am  unwilling  that  this  error 
should  be  forced  from  me,  nolo  mihi  hunc  errorem  extorqueri,  or 
ut  mihi  hie  error  extorqueatur. 

Yet  after  the  expressions  velim  and  vellem  (l  could  wish  that — ) 
nolim  and  nollem,  malim  and  mallem,  the  accusative  with  the  infini¬ 
tive  is  but  seldom  used,  but  either  ut,  or,  what  is  still  more  common, 
the  subjunctive  without  ut ;  e.  g.  /  could  ivish  that  you  would  write  to 
him,  velim,  ei  perscribas.  I  could  zvish  you  had  been  present, 
vellem,  adfuisses. 

396.  Rut  when  the  subject  is  the  same  in  both  clauses,  e.  g.  I  wish, 
that  I,  either  the  infinitive  alone  is  used,  or  (as  is  often  the  case  in 
Cicero)  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  especially  when  the  subject 
is  to  be  made  prominent.  By  this  construction  the  idea  becomes 
more  distinct  and  full ;  e.  g.  We  wish  to  be  beneficent  (that  we  may  be 
beneficent),  benefici  esse  volumus,  or  nos  esse  beneficos  vol¬ 
umus.  /  do  not  zvish  to  be  preferred,  nolo  praeferri,  or  me  prae¬ 
ferri.  Many  ivish  to  be  considered  Greeks  rather  than  Romans,  multi 
Graeci  magis,  quam  Romani  haberi  volunt,  or  multi  s  e  Graecos, 
magis  quam  Romanos  haberi  volunt.  I  would  prefer  to  be  an  old. 
man,  senex  esse  mallem,  or  me  senem  esse  mallem. 

So  studere,  which  otherwise  takes  the  infinitive,  only  where  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  both  verbs  is  the  same  (see  §  376),  is  followed  by  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive,  when  a  wish  or  inward  desire  is  signified  ;  e.  g.  I 
wish  to  be  acceptable  to  all,  g  ratum  me  omnibus  v  i  d  e  r  i  studeo.  The 
accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  also  sometimes  used  instead  of  ut,  even 
when  the  subjects  of  the  two  verbs  are  different ;  e.  g.  I  earnestly  de¬ 
sired  that  the  disagreement  should  be  healed  in  the  bud,  studebam,  d  i  s- 
sensionem  nascentem  exstingui.  The  accusative  with  the  in¬ 
finitive  occurs  also  with  postulare,  in  the  sense  of  to  claim  to  be  some¬ 
thing,  to  presume, pretend  ;  e.  g.  I  presume  to  know,  postulo  me  scire, 
whereas  postulo  ut  sciam  signifies  I  demand  to  know. 


*  There  is,  however,  a  difference  between  the  two  constructions  ; 
volo,  ut  mihi  respondeas  is  a  much  milder  expression  than  volo  te  mi¬ 
hi  respondere. 


CLAUSES  WITH  QUI,  ETC. 


337 


§§397—399.] 


Persuadere,  in  the  sense  of  to  persuade  one  to  something ,  al¬ 
ways  takes  ut  and  the  subj. ;  in  the  sense  of  to  persuade  or  convince 
one  of  something ,  always  the  acc.  and  inf.  ;  e.  g.  Themistocles  per¬ 
suaded  the  people  to  build  a.  Jleet,  ut  aedificaret.  Mithridates  con¬ 
vinced  Datames,  that  he  hail  undertaken  an  endless  wa.r,  se  susce¬ 
pisse.  So  monere  and  admonere ,  in  the  sense  of  to  admonish  or  ex¬ 
hort  to  something ,  are  always  followed  by  ut;  in  the  sense  of  to  remind' 
of  something ,  always  by  the  acc.  and  inf.  ;  e.  g.  ire  admonished  him  to 
escape ,  ut  effugiat;  /  forewarn  you  that  you  will  find  no  better  op¬ 
portunity,  te  esse  repertu  rum. 

397.  (a)  After  the  verbs  to  permit,  to  allow ,  to  be  content  with,  to  suf¬ 
fer  (permittere,  sinere,  pati),  to  grant,  to  concede  (conce¬ 
de  r  e),  and  after  the  phrases,  it  is  true  (v  e  r  u  m  est);  probable  (v  e- 
r  i  s  i  m  i  1  e) ;  just  (a  e  q  u  u  m,  justum,  rectum);  useful  (utile 
e  s  t,  e  x  p  e  d  i  t)  ;  it  follows  (consequens  est,  sequitur,  e  ffi- 
citur);  to  prove  (probare,  efficere);  it  is  jit  (c  o  n  v  e  n  i  t), 
either  izZ  or  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  follows.  They  more  fre¬ 
quently,  however,  take  the  latter  construction  ;  e.  g.  It  follows  from 
this,  that  that  alone  is  good,  which  is  seemly,  ex  quo  efficitur,  ut,  quod 
honestum  sit,  i  d  esse  solum  bonum,  or  quod  honestum  sit,  i  d  esse 
solum  bonum  ;  many  willingly  suffer  themselves  to  be  conquered,  multi, 
ut  vincantur,  patiuntur,  or  multi  se  vinci  patiuntur. 

398.  (4)  Qui  can  be  used  instead  of  ut  ego,  tu,  is  in  the  singular 
and  plural,  when  ut  denotes  the  purpose  or  result,  and  the  pronoun  of 
the  sentence  refers  to  a  preceding  substantive.  Hence  quam  qui  is 
used  instead  of  quam  ut,  when  a  pronoun  follows,  which  refers  to  the 
subject  of  the  principal  sentence.  And  hence  quo  in  the  sense  of  in 
order  that,  or  that,  is  almost  always  used  for  ut  eo. 

399.  (5)  After  verbs  which  signify  to  hinder,  prevent,  oppose,  deter , 
stand  in  the  way  of  and  the  like,  the  Latins  express  the  dependent 
sentence  negatively  by  quo  minus.  In  English  we  sometimes  trans¬ 
late  this  dependent  sentence  by  but  that ,  sometimes  by  without,  from. 

The  verbs  which  belong  here,  are  :  impedire ,  prohibere ,  tenere,  de¬ 
ducere,  obstare,  officere,  obsistere,  resistere,  repugnare ,  adversari ,  deter¬ 
rere,  morari ,  moram  efferre ,  recusare ,  interdicere ,  vetare ,  interpellare , 
non  desiderare  (not  to  long  for),  excusare  and  others  similar,  when  the 
idea  expressed  is,  that  something  is  not  to  be  accomplished.  Instead  of 
quo  minus,  ne  is  often  used,  and  when  the  governing  sentence  is  nega¬ 
tive,  quin. 

Examples  :  Nothing  prevents  us  from  being  able  to  do  this,  quo  mi¬ 
tt  u  s  (q  u  i  n)  id  facere  possimus;  Many  things  prevent  other  natures 
from  becoming  perfect,  obsistere  —  quo  minus  perficiantur  ;  Scau¬ 
rus  was  prevented  by  force,  from  removing  his  servant  from  the  temple 
of  Diana,  quo  minus  servum  suum  —  abduceret ;  an  accident  pre¬ 
vented  me  from  doing  this,  ne  (quo  minus)  hoc  facerem ;  7  cannot 
be  restrained  ( that  I  should  not.  write)  from  writing  to  you,  quin  (quo 
minus,  ne)  ad  te  scribam.  Ne  and  quominus  denote  a  negative  pur¬ 
pose,  (that  something  is  not  to  happen,  should  not  happen),  quin  a 
negative  result,  (that  something  happens  in  spite  of  hindrance,  or  that 
thef  hindrance  is  not  such,  that  something  does  not  happen)  ;  e.  g.  Non 
prohibui  eum,  ne  (q  u  o  m  i  n  u  s)  proficisceretur,  7  did  not  hinder  his 
going,  suffered  him  to  go  unhindered ;  but  quin  proficisceretur,  he 
went  notwithstanding  1  hindered  him,  1  could  not  prevent  his  going. 

29 


338 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


[§  400. 

400.  (6)  When  the  principal  and  the  dependent  sentences  are  both 
negative,  the  Latins  prefer  quin  in  all  cases  to  ut  non.  They  also 
prefer  it  to  the  accusative  and  the  infinitive  with  non ,  as  with  non 
dicere,  negare,  haud  ignorare,  non  est  suspicio,  etc.  Further;  in  the 
phrase,  not  but  that,  non  quin  stands  instead  of  non  quod  non  —  and 
generally,  as  an  apparent  substitute  for  qui,  quae,  quod  non,  yet  only  for 
the  nominative  of  that  pronoun.  It  is,  however,  never  used  instead 
of  ne  and  quod  non,  in  imperative  sentences  (§  377),  in  those  denoting 
purpose  (§  374),  nor  in  those  denoting  cause  (§  387).  The  question 
made  by  quis,  ecquis  or  numquis  is  also  considered  as  belongingto  nega¬ 
tive  principal  sentences  ;  e.  g.  Who  has  read  this  book  without  being 
moved  ?  quin  commoveretur  ?  Was  there  any  one ,  at  that  time,  who 
did  not  know?  ecquis  illo  tempore  fuit,  quin  sciret? 

So  non  dubitare  and  dubium  non  esse,  signifying  not  to 
doubt,  not  to  be  doubtful,  to  be  certain,  to  hope,  moreover  cave  dubi¬ 
tes,  num  (an)  dubitas  and  the  like,  signifying  to  fear,  in  Cicero, 
are  always  followed  by  the  conjunction  quin  or  quin  non,  and  not 
by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  ;  but  dubitare,  dubium  esse,  sig¬ 
nifying  to  doubt,  to  hesitate,  to  delay,  as  also  non  dubitare,  non 
dubium  esse,  not  to  hesitate,  generally  take  the  infinitive,  seldom 
quin.  On  the  contrary,  dubitare,/»  doubt,  to  be  uncertain,  and  d  u- 
bium  esse,  to  ic  doubtful,  do  not  take  quin  after  them,  but  either  an 
accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or  what  is  the  most  frequent,  they  are 
followed  by  interrogative  sentences. 


Examples. 

He  does  not  omit  to  send  me  a  letter  each  month,  non  intermittit, 
quin  mihi  singulis  mensibus  epistolam  mittat. 

The  power  of  the  Tribunes  wa,s  of  no  avail,  in  preventing  the  prefer¬ 
ment  of  those  men,  non  valuit,  quin  i lli  homines  praeferrentur. 

Nothing  is  wanting  to  make  me  most  miserable ,  i.  e.  /  am  most  mise¬ 
rable,  nihil  abest,  quin  sim  miserrimus. 

It  cannot  be  effected,  but  that  I  shall  hate,  i.  e.  I  cannot  be  prevented 
from  hating  the  freedom  of  the  enemy,  effici  non  potest,  quin  oderim. 

JYo  delay  shall  be  made,  but  that  the  city  shall  be  surrendered,  i.  e. 
there  shall  be  no  delay  in  surrendering  the  city ,  h  a  u  d  ulla  intercedet 
mora,  quin  urbs  dedatur. 

We  cannot  prevent,  but  that  the  others  will  think  differently  from  us, 
i.  e.  we  cannot  prevent  the  others  from  thinking  differently  from  vs, 
non  possumus,  quin  alii  a  nobis  dissentiant,  recusare. 

I  have  not  given  a  recommendation  to  Crassus,  not  but  that  I  believe 
this  would  be  valued  by  you,  non  quin  arbitrarer. 

There  teas  no  one  among  all,  who  did  not  think,  quin  existimaret. 

Nothing  is  so  difficult,  but  that  it  can  be  investigated,  qu  in  investi¬ 
gari  possit. 

What  reason  is  there ,  that  the  Peripatetics  are  not  allotced  to  say  the 
same  ?  quid  est  causae,  quin  liceat  idem  Peripateticis  dicere  ? 

Who  does  not  know,  that  there  are  in  fact  three  kinds  of  Greeks? 
quis  ignorat,  quin  tria  Graecorum  genera  sint  vere  ? 

/  do  not  doubt,  that  you  waited  for  me,  non  dubito,  quin  me  expec- 
taveris. 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


339 


§401.] 

It  is  not  doubtful ,  but  that  I  shall  remain  here ,  quin  hic  mansurus 
sim. 

We  did  not  doubt  (i.  e.  ice  feared )  that  ice  could  not  again  overtake 
you,  quin  te  jam  consequi  non  possemus  ;  without  non ,  the  sense 
would  have  been,  ice  hoped  to  be  able  to  overtake  you. 

The  wise  man  does  not  hesitate  to  quit  life ,  ichenthis  is  best ,  non  du¬ 
bitat  migrare  de  vita. 

Aristo  is  altogether  uncertain,  whether  God  is  a  living  being  or  not , 
deus  animans,  necne  sit. 

We  doubt  whether  this  is  true,  a  n  hoc  verum  sit ;  whether  this  is 
true  or  false ,  verunme  a  n  falsum  sit.  Finally, 

401.  (7)  Verba  sentiendi  and  dicendi  are  not  always 
followed  by  sentences  with  that ,  to,  etc.,  but  often  also  by  interroga¬ 
tive  sentences.  These  two  kinds  of  sentences,  therefore,  should  not 
be  confounded  with  each  other  ;  e.  g.  /  know  not  how  this  happened, 
quomodo  hoc  factum  sit  ;  you  see  what  you  can  do,  quid  valeas  ; 
/  know  not  from  whence  he  came,  unde  venerit;  write  me  ichy  this 
discourse  pleases  you ,  cur  oratio  tibi  placeat.  Here  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive  is  not  used. 

Still  further  remarks  will  be  made  on  the  conjunction  that  hereafter. 
But  some  examples  for  practice  will  first  be  given  on  the  rules  already 
stated. 

Examples  on  §§  373 — 401. 

(1)  We  follow  this  precept,  that  we  may  live  without 
anxiety  and  fear,  and  free  the  soul  and  body  from  troubles1. 
The  writings  of  this  man  are  so  unimportant2,  that  only  or¬ 
dinary  learning  is  manifested3.  I  have  commanded4  this  let¬ 
ter  to  be  returned5.  The  first  law  of  history  is,  that  it  should 
not  dare6  to  state7  anything  false.  I  hope,  that  I  shall  be  at 
Athens  in  the  month  of  September.  yEmilius  Paulus  brought8 
so  much  money  into  the  treasury9,  that  the  spoils  of  this  one 
commander  put10  an  end  to  taxes.  It  is  pleasing  to  me,  that 
you  long11  for  me  ;  but  doubt  not,  that  I  shall  be  excited12 
the  more,  to  long  for  you.  O  how  it  pleases  me,  that  it  will 
be  told  everywhere13,  in  what  harmony  we  have  lived.  I 
have  so  lived,  that  I  do  not  believe,  that  I  was  born  in  vain. 
The  time  is  such14,  that  every  one  considers15  his  condition 
the  most  unfortunate16.  I  indeed17  think18  that  it  is  most  un¬ 
fortunate,  that  we  are  at  Rome.  I  am  very  anxious19,  that 
this  youth  should  be  so  educated20,  that  he  may  answer21 
your  wishes22  and  those  of  his  father.  Romulus  told  Julius 
Proculus,  that  he  was  a  god  and  was  called  duirinus,  and 
commanded23  a  temple  to  be  dedicated  to  himself.  This 
youth  is  not  so  unacquainted24  with  ancient  history25  as  not 
to26  know,  that  the  Cimbri  and  the  Teutones  were  routed27 
by  Marius.  Nature  daily28  produces29  sweet30  flowers,  as  a 


340 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


[§  401. 


striking  admonition  to  man31,  that  that,  which  blossoms  most 
beautifully32,  withers33  soonest34.  We  educate35  others,  in 
order  that36  they  may  be  better  citizens  and  more  useful  to 
their  country. 

1  molestia.  2  levis.  3apparere.  4  jubere.  5  referre.  6 audere.  7  narrare. 
8invehere.  9  aerarium.  10 finem  afferre  alicujus.  11  requirere.  ,2accen- 
dSre.  13  usquequaque.  14  hujusmodi.  15  putare.  16  miser.  17  equidem. 
,8ducere.  19curaeesse.  20erudire.  21  respondere.  82 optatum.  23  edi¬ 
cere.  24  imperitus.  25  (genitive).  26  quin  (as  not  to).  27  fundere.  28  in 
diem.  29  gignere.  30 odorus.  31  (genitive).  32 spectate.  33 marcescere. 
34  cito.  35 erudire.  36  quo. 

(2)  I  believe  that  it  happens1  to  some2,  to3  have  a  dislike4 
for  Grecian  writings.  Cicero  thinks5,  that  the  Latin  lan¬ 
guage  is  not  only  not  meagre6,  but  even7  richer8  than  the 
Greek.  Those  who  prefer,  that  something  different  should 
be  written  by  me,  must9  be  reasonable;  for  these  subjects10 
please  me.  Do  you  believe,  that  these  excellent  men  have 
done  so  great  deeds  without  cause  1  Decrepit  old  men  often 
exclaim11,  that  they  were  fools,  in  that  they  had  not  lived  tru¬ 
ly12.  I  hope,  that  I  shall  soon  live  in  quiet13.  I  know14  well, 
that  some  have  stated,  that  Augustus  so  much15  disapproved16 
of  the  rude  manners  of  Tiberius,  that  sometimes,  when  he 
came,  he  ceased17  his  joyful 18  conversation19.  A  ugustus  praised 
the  pretor,  that  he  had  revived20  the  ancient  custom  of  speaking 
of  his  ancestors.  I  believe,  that  no  one  could  have  conduct¬ 
ed21  more  prudently  than  you  have.  As  I  hear,  that  your 
strength22  has  been  weakened23  by  continued  labors,  I  beseech 
you  to  spare  yourself,  in  order  that  we  may  not  be  grieved24 
by  the  intelligence  that  you  are  sick25.  I  pray  the  gods  to26 
continue27  you  to  us,  and  to  grant28,  that  you  may  now  and 
always  be  in  health29.  Lysander  perceived  that  he  could  not 
accomplish30  his  plan31,  without  the  help  of  the  gods.  The 
priests  sent  messengers  to  Lacedemon  to32  accuse  Lysander 
of33  endeavoring34  to  corrupt  the  priests  of  the  temple.  No 
one  can  deny,  that  this  pronunciation35  is  correct.  Laenius 
Flaccus  was  not  prevented36  by  the  Clodian  law  from  show¬ 
ing37  the  right  of  hospitality  to  Cicero.  Brave  men  prefer  to 
die  rather  than  to  be  taken  captive.  I  will  say  nothing  more38 
of  the  pretor  of  Macedonia,  than39  that  he  was  an  excellent 
citizen  and  my  most  intimate40  friend,  but  he  feared  just  what 
others  (fear). 

1  usu  venire.  2quidam.  3  ut.  4  abhorrere  ab  aliqua  re  (see  §  177). 
5  censere.  6  inops.  7etiam.  8  locuples  9  debere.  10  res.  11  clamitare. 
12 vere.  13otium.  14 non  ignorare.  15adeo  (so  much).  16  improbare. 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


341 


§401.] 

17  abscindere.  18  hilaris.  19  sermo.  20  referre.  21  se  gerere.  22  vires. 
23  conficere.  24  dolore  afficere.  25  languere.  26  ut.  27  servare.  28  conce¬ 
dere.  ^valere.  30perficere.  31consilium  32 qui.  33 quod.  34 conari  (plu¬ 
perfect).  35 litterarum  appellatio.  30  deduci.  37  praestare.  38amplius. 
39  nisi.  40  amicissimus. 

(3)  Cicero  relates,  that  two  Roman  knights  had  been  found1, 
who  had  promised  Catiline,  that  they  would  slay  Cicero  by 
night.  Often  no  hope  is  held  out9  to  a  patient,  that  he  will 
be  better ;  and  yet3  it  not  seldom  happens,  that  he  recovers4 
and  has  new  strength5.'  Manlius  confidently  hopes6,  that  by 
this  my  letter,  he  will  be  agreeable7  to  you  ;  and  that  this 
hope  may  not  deceive  him,  I  earnestly  and  particularly  re¬ 
quest  you  so  to  treat  him  in  all  things,  that  he  may  perceive, 
that  my  recommendation  was  no8  common9  one.  Tiberius 
received10  the  government,  complaining11  that  an  oppressive12 
servitude  was  imposed13  upon  him;  yet  he  gave  hopes,  that 
he  would  at  some  time14  surrender15  it  again.  The  same  em¬ 
peror  forbade  any  statues  to  be  erected16  for  him,  and  he  per¬ 
mitted  it  only  on  the  condition,  that  they  should  not  be  placed 
among  the  statues17  of  the  gods.  Julius  Caesar  persuaded 
a  Gaul  to18  go  over19  to  the  enemy  and  say  to  them,  that  the 
Romans  feared  them,  and  Caesar  would  be  hardly20  pressed21 
by  them,  and  it  would  certainly  happen,  that  he  would  be 
routed29,  if  they  should  attack23  him.  Cato  believed,  that  all 
the  cities  of  Spain  would  revolt24 ;  he  therefore  wrote  to  each 
one25  to  destroy  their  fortifications26,  and  he  commanded  this 
to  be  done  the  same  day.  You  write,  that  you  were  not  a  lit¬ 
tle27  troubled28  by  my  absence,  and  that  you  had  only  one 
consolation29,  viz.  that  you  possessed30  my  books  instead  of31 
me.  I  know  what  cause  prevented32  you  from  being  able  to 
anticipate33  my  arrival  in  Campania.  I  wonder  that  you  write, 
that  there  were  some,  who  find  fault,  that  I  recite  my  dis¬ 
courses  to  others.  Who  was  so  inhuman  as  not  to  have  been 
affected34  by  the  misfortune  of  that  man  ?  W  as  there  any  one35 
who  did  not  weep36  'I  It  was  written  in  the  Valerian  law,  that 
the  goods  of  those  who  had  been  proscribed,  should  be  sold37. 

1  reperiri.  2  ostendi.  3  nec  tamen  (and  yet  not).  4  convalescere.  5  ref¬ 
ici  (lias  —  strength).  6  vehementer  confidere.  7  gratiosus.  8  non.  9  vul¬ 
garis.  10  recipere.  11  querens.  12  onerosus.  13  injungere.  14  quandoque. 
15  deponere.  16  ponere.  17  signum.  lsut.  19  transire.  20 graviter.  21  pre¬ 
mere.  22  fundere.  23  adoriri.  24rebellare.  25singuli.  29 munimentum. 
27  mediocriter.  28affic6re.  29 unum  solatium.  30tenere.  31  pro.  ^im¬ 
pedimentum  (comp.  §  173).  33  praecurrere.  34  commovere.  35  ecquis. 
33  lacrimari.  37  venire. 


29* 


342 


THE  CONJUNCTION  T  H  A  T. 


[§401. 


(4)  Augustus  wrote  to  Tiberius,  who  entreated  in  behalf 
of1  a  Grecian  client,  that  he  would  not  grant2  his  request,  un¬ 
less3  he  should  be  convinced  by  his  own  eyes4,  how  just  a 
reason  he  had  for  entreating.  The  same  refused5  the  right 
of  citizenship6  to  Livia,  who  asked  it  for  a  tributary7  Gaul, 
and  offered  an  exemption8  from  taxation,  he  protesting  that 
he  would  more  readily  grant9,  that  something  should  be  ta¬ 
ken10  from  the  treasury11,  than  that  the  honor  of  Roman  citi¬ 
zenship  should  be  made  common12.  1  perceive,  that  you  be¬ 
lieve  one13  law  must  be  observed  in  history  and  another13  in 
a  poem.  Philosophers  believe,  that  morality14  is  a  law15, 
the  force  of  which  is  this16,  that  it  commands17  to  do  right 
and  forbids  to  do  wrong18.  If  bodily  pain  or  feeble*  health 
has  prevented19  you  from  coming  to  the  games,  I  attribute 
this  to  your  good  fortune.  Orgetorix  persuaded  the  Helvetii 
to  depart20  from  their  district21  with  all  their  effects22.  When 
we  are  free23  from  business,  we  desire24  to  see,  to  hear,  to  learn 
something  ;  and  we  are  grieved,  if  we  are  hindered  from  do¬ 
ing**  this.  When  Timoleon  had  killed  his  brother,  his  mother 
never  looked  upon  him,  but  that  she  called  him  a  fratricide. 
Caesar  complained25  severely26  of  the  AGdui,  that  he  was  not 
assisted27  by  them  with  corn.  The  Sequani  bound28  the  AG- 
dui  by  an  oath,  that  they  would  never  refuse29  to  continue 
under  their  government.  Cleomenes  commanded30  the  mast31 
of  the  ship  to  be  erected32,  the  sails  to  he  spread33,  and  the 
anchor  to  be  raised34  ;  he  also35  at  the  same  time  commanded36 
a  signal  to  be  given  for37  the  others  to  follow  him.  I  hope  thy 
parents  will  come  here  soon ;  I  hope  thy  brother  also.  I 
would  prefer38  to  be  a  Phidias,  rather  than  even39  the  best 
carpenter40. 

1  pro  (in  —  of).  2  dare.  3  aliter  quam  si.  4  praesens  (by  —  eyes). 
5  negare.  6  civitas  (right  of  citizenship)  7  vectigalis.  8  immunitas  (ex¬ 
emption —  taxation).  9pati.  10  detrahere  de.  11  fiscus.  12  vulgare. 
13alius.  14  prudentia.  16 lex.  16  is.  17  jubere.  18 delinquere.  *  infirmitas 
(feeble  health).  19  tenere.  20  exire.  21  fines.  22  copiae.  23  vacuus. 
24  avere.  **  posse.  25  accusare  aliquem.  26  graviter.  27  sublevare.  28  ab- 
stringere.  29iecusare.  30  imperare.  31  malus.  32erigere.  33  pandere. 
34tollere.  3jet.  36jubere.  37 (acc.  with  inf.)  38  malle.  39  vel  40faber 
tignarius. 

(5)  Divitiacus  believed,  that  the  Germans  would  not  re¬ 
frain1  from2  going3  to  Italy,  if  they  should  take  the  whole  of 
Gaul.  The  tenth  legion  thanked  Caesar,  that  he  had  ex¬ 
pressed4  the  best  opinion  of  them,  and  they  assured  him,  that 
they  were  fully  prepared5  to6  wage  war.  The  Germans  could 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


343 


§401.] 

not  be  restrained7  from  casting8  their  missiles9  at  the  Romans. 
It  generally  happens  that  those  who  report10  anything  favora¬ 
ble,  add11  something,  in  order  to  render  what  they  announce12 
the  more  joyful.  That  was  the  greatest  gift  which  you  con¬ 
ferred)3  on  the  state,  that  you  abolished14  the  name  of  Dic¬ 
tator.  So  govern15  the  state,  that  your  fellow  citizens  may 
rejoice,  that  you  were  born.  Our  nature  has  nothing  bet¬ 
ter,  than  that  we  wish16  to  aid  as  many  as  possible17.  The 
powrer  of  conscience  is  so  great,  that  those  who  have  com¬ 
mitted18  nothing  are  without  fear19,  while  those  who  have  sin¬ 
ned20,  believe  that  punishment  is  always  floating21  before 
their  eyes.  Who  is  so  unreasonable  as  to  censure  this  in¬ 
stitution  of  Solon  ?  Curio  has  done  well22,  that  he  has  not 
sought23  for  the  tribuneship.  T  hope  that  men  will  perceive 
how  very  hateful24  cruelty  is25  to  all,  and  how  very  lovely 
honesty  and  gentleness  are.  In  what  danger26  my  welfare  is 
placed27,  you  can  know28  from  this,  that  we  have  abandoned 
our  houses  and  even29  our  country.  If  it  be  true,  that  the 
soul  and  body  perish  together30,  then  there  is  nothing  good 
and  nothing  evil  in  death.  What  could  have  been  more  ar- 
rogant,  than  that  a  Greek31,  who  had  never  seen  an  enemy 
or  a  camp,  should  give  instructions  to  Hannibal,  the  greatest 
general  of  his  time,  respecting  warfare32.  We  do  not  won¬ 
der  that  you,  as  a  distinguished33  artist,  were  pleased34  with 
your  works. 

temperare.  2  quin.  3contendere.  4  facere.  5  paratissimus.  6ad. 
7  cohibere.  8  mittere.  9telum.  10  afferre.  11  affingere.  12  nuntiare.  13  af- 

o 

ferre.  ,4  tollere.  15  gubernare.  16  velle.  17  quam  plurimus  (as — possi¬ 
ble).  18 committere.  19non  timere.  2upeccare.  21  versari.  22 laute.  23 pe¬ 
tere.  24 odium  (dative).  25  (§173).  26discrlmen.  27  versari.  28  scire. 
29  ipse.  30  alieujus  rei  idem  est  interitus  (perish  together).  31  Grae¬ 
cus  homo.  32  res  militaris.  33  egregius.  34  laetari. 

(6)  Do  you  believe1,  that  Cicero  would  more  willingly2 
have  heard  your  discourse  than  mine  7  Octavian  asked  par¬ 
don3,  that  he  used  a  Greek  word.  It  is  the  custom  of  men  to 
be  unwilling,  that  one  and  the  same  person4  should  excel  in 
several  things.  I  believe,  that  we  shall  be  considered5  as 
enemies  of  our  country.  In  all  these  afflictions,  there  is  this 
one  consolation,  that  we  were  born  under  such  a  condition, 
that  we  ought6  to  refuse  nothing  which  can  befal  a  man.  It 
is  certain,  that  we  were  born  to  be  just.  There  is  no  doubt, 
that  he  whom  we  call  liberal  and  beneficent7,  regards8  duty, 
not  gratification9.  Do  you  believe  that  Pompey  would  have 
rejoiced10  in  his  three  consulships  and  three  triumphs,  if  he 


344 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


[§  402. 


had  known,  that  he  would  be  murdered  in  the  desert11  of  the 
Egyptians  ;  and  that  such12  things  would  follow13  his  death, 
as14  we  cannot  relate15  without  tears  ?  But  what  do  we  be¬ 
lieve  Caesar  would  have  done,  if  he  could  have  foreseen16, 
that  he  would  be  assassinated  in  the  Curia  of  Pompey17  by 
noble  citizens,  and18  that  not  only  no  one  of  his  friends,  but 
not  even  one  of  his  servants,  would  approach19  his  corpse20? 
With  what  anguish  of  soul21  do  we  think  he  would  have  pass¬ 
ed22  his  life?  The  principal  thing23  in  the  management24  of 
all  business  and  public  trust25  is,  that  even  the  least  suspi¬ 
cion  of  avarice  should  be  avoided26.  We  have  heard27,  that 
it  was  counted28  an  honor  to  Cnaeus  Octavius,  that  he  had 
built  a  beautiful29  house  on  the  Palatine30  hill.  We  cannot 
doubt,  that  those  things  are  most31  expedient32,  which  are 
best33. 

1censere.  2  libenter.  3  venia.  4  (omitted  in  Latin).  6judicare.  ®  de¬ 
bere.  7  benignus.  8sequi.  9  fructus.  10  laetari.  11  solitudo. . 12 ea.  13  con¬ 
sequi.  14  qui.  15  dicere.  16  divinari.  17  Pompeius  (of  Pompey).  13  nec 
modo  quisquam.  19  accedere  ad  aliquem.  20  corpus.  21  cruciatus  animi. 
22agere.  23 caput.  24  procuratio.  25  munus.  26  pellere,  27  accipere.  28 du¬ 
cere  (§  173).  29 praeclarus.  30 Palatium.  31  maxime.  32 conducere. 
33  rectus. 


Further  Rem  arks  on  the  Co  nj  unction  that . 

402.  (1)  The  English  infinitive  present  often  supplies  the  place  of 
the  Latin  future  infinitive,  which  does  not  belong  to  our  language. 
Therefore,  when  the  present  infinitive  is  joined  to  an  English  verb, 
and  yet  the  thought  does  not  relate  to  the  present,  but  to  the  future, 
in  Latin  the  future  infinitive  must  be  employed.  This  is  very  often 
the  case  wTith  the  verbs  to  hope  (sperare)  and  to  sicear  (j  u  r  a  r  e), 
and  almost  always  with  the  verbs  to  promise  (polliceri,  spon¬ 
dere,  recipere  in  se,  promittere)  and  to  threaten  (mina- 
r  i),  and  some  others  ;  e.  g.  I  hope  to  come  home  soon ,  i.  e.  that  I  shall 
come  home  soon,  spero  me  mox  domum  venturum.  Regulus  took 
an  oath  to  return  to  Carthage ,  se  Carth.  rediturum.  I  promise  to 
send  you  money  as  soon  as  possible ,  me  missurum.  Caesar  threat¬ 
ened  to  destroy  the  city ,  se  diruturum.  So  with  others  in  a  sim¬ 
ilar  sense  ;  e.  g.  He  thought  to  effect  something  by  going  there.  I  think 
(expect)  to  be  there  the  first  of  January,  for  which  we  often  say,  1  think 
of  b  ring  there ,  1  think  of  doing  that,  where  the  Latin  uses  the  future 
infinitive. 

Sperare  (to  hope)  can  also  be  followed  by  an  infinitive  present, 
when,  in  the  nearest  clause,  reference  is  bad  only  to  the  present,  or 
when  the  thing  to  be  hoped  for  is  closely  connected  with  the  present, 
and  by  an  infinitive  perfect,  when  there  is  reference  to  past  time  ; 
e.  g.  I  hope  (that)  our  friendship  needs  no  witnesses,  non  egere.  / 
hope  (that)  /  have  obtained  the  praise  of  honesty,  me  consec  utum 
esse. 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


345 


§§  403—405.] 

403.  (‘d)  The  future  infinitive,  active  and  passive,  is  wanting,  in 
the  usual  form,  in  all  those  verbs  which  have  no  supine.  This  is  the 
case  with  discere ,  florere ,  patere,  timere ,  ingruere ,  silere ,  maerere , 
evanescere,  accidere,  poenitere,  obtinnire,  etc.  So  also  with  posse. 
Comp  §  383. 

Instead  of  this  infinitive,  the  Latins  use  the  periphrastic  fore  or 
futurum  (e  s  se),  u  t,  i.  e.  it  will  (would)  happen ,  that  ;  and  where 
something  is  already  accomplished,  futurum  fuisse,  ut,  it 
would  have  happened,  that.  But  everything  which  belongs  to  the  sen¬ 
tence  is  connected  by  ut,  and  the  verb  is  put  either  in  the  present  or 
imperfect;  in  the  first,  when  in  the  principal  clause,  there  is  a  pre¬ 
sent  ;  in  the  last,  when  there  is  a  past  tense  ;  e.  g.  I  hope  that  you  will 
learn  this  language  in  a  short  time,  spero  fore,  ut  discas.  I 
thought  that  a  tempest  would  fall  upon  us,  putabam  fore,  ut  in¬ 
grueret.  I  know  that  this  man  will  be  very  much  troubled ,  scio 
fore,  ut  angatur.  I  earnestly  hoped,  that  I  should  be  able  to  es¬ 
tablish  harmony,  fore,  u  t  p  o  s  s  e  m  constituere.  I  certainly  know, 
that  it  icould  have  been  for  my  interest  if  I  had  done  this,  futurum 
fuisse,  u  t  hoc  mihi  contingeret.  I  think  it  trill  be  lawful  for 
me,  fore,  ut  mi  hi  liceat.  If  other  verbs  follow,  which  have 
an  infinitive  future,  they  can  have  their  proper  form,  without  depend¬ 
ing  on  fore,  ut,  when  they  have  their  own  subjects;  e.  g.  fore,  ut 
Eudemus — c  onvalesceret  (will  regain  his  health  again),  et  Alex¬ 
andrum — p  e  r  i  t  u  r  u  m  (will  perish ). 

But  very  frequently,  also,  the  Latins  use  this  periphrasis  with  fore, 
ut,  where  the  verbs  really  have  a  supine  and  therefore  also  the  infini¬ 
tive  form  in  urum  esse  and  um  iri  ;  e.  g.  The  Stoics  think,  that  at  some 
time,  the  whole  world  will  be  burnt ,  fore  aliquando,  ut  omnis 
mundus  deflagret.  1  know,  that  you  will  be  praised  by  all ,  fore  ut 
ab  omnibus  collaudere. 

404.  (3)  Two  accusatives,  denoting  persons,  are  to  be  avoided 
with  an  infinitive  active,  when  they  leave  it  uncertain,  which  ac¬ 
cusative  is  the  subject ;  for,  e.  g.  scio,  te  me  amare,  can  signify, 
that  you  love  me,  or  that  I  love  you.  Hence  it  should  be  changed 
into  the  passive  ;  thus,  1  knotc  that  you  love  me,  scio  me  a  t  e  amari. 
I  know  that  I  love  you ,  scio  teame  amari.  /  believe  that  I  shall  see 
Brutus,  Brutum  visum  iri  a  m  e  puto,  not  me  Brutum  visurum 
esse.  /  did  not  wish  you  to  see  me,  me  a  te  videri  nolui. 

405.  (4)  The  impersonals  oportere  and  necesse  esse  properly  signify 
to  be  necessary,  but  they  are  often  also  translated  by  the  personal  verb 
must.  Hence,  in  every  sentence  in  which  must  is  used,  the  verb  to 
be  necessary  that  must  be  supplied  in  its  place.  Both  of  these  verbs 
are  followed  either  by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or  by  the 
nominative  with  the  subjunctive  without  ut;  e.  g.  I  must  come  to  you 
(it  is  necessary  that  J  should  come  to  you),  m  e  ad  vos  v  e  n  ire  opor¬ 
tet,  or  (ego)  ad  vos  veniam  oportet.  You  must  love  me  myself,  not 
mine,  te  oportet  me  ipsum  a  m  a  r  e,  non  mea,  or  (lu)  me  ipsum 
ames  oportet.  Such  a  man  must  be  taught,  tale  m  hominem 
oportet  doceri.  The  most  unhappy  life  must  result  from  this ,  ex 
hoc  vitam  amarissimam  necesse  est  effici,  or  v  i  t  a  ama¬ 
rissima  efficiatur.  It  was  necessary  for  us  to  use  this  means, 
hac  ratione  nos  uti  necesse  fuit,  or  hac  ratione  uteremur 
necesse  fuit.  Licet ,  in  the  same  manner  as  oportere  and  necesse  esse, 


346 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


[§§  406—410. 


is  followed  by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  or  by  the  nomina¬ 
tive  with  the  subjunctive,  ut  being  omitted  ;  necesse  esse ,  and  licet 
admit  also  a  dative  with  the  infinitive,  as  well  as  an  accusative  ;  e.  g. 
It  is  not  necessary  for  me  to  speak  of  myself ,  nihil  necesse  est  mi  hi 
de  me  ipso  dicere.  I  must  be  on  my  estates ,  in  praediis  meis  mihi 
necesse  est  esse.  I  can  no  longer  remain  neutra! ,  m  i  h  i  medio  or 
medium  esse  or  me  medium  jam  non  esse  licet.  Where 
the  person  is  not  expressed,  medium  or  medios  esse  jam  non 
licet,  is  used.  See  §  174. 

406.  (5)  Words  denoting  fear ,  anxiety,  danger  and  apprehension 
are  followed  by  ne,  ut  ne  or  ut  non ,  in  the  sense  of  that,  and  by  ut  or 
nc  non,  in  the  sense  of  that  not.  But  after  non  vereor,  non  timeo  and 
other  verbs  of  fearing  when  negatived,  ut  is  not  used,  but  in  its  place 
only  ne  non.  The  particles  ne  non  may  be  separated  not  only  by 
words,  but  also  by  intervening  clauses.  Examples  :  I  fear,  that  this 
war  will  not  terminate  favorably,  u  t  (n  e  non)  feliciter  cedat.  I 
fear,  that  Dolabella  may  become  a  disgrace  to  us,  n  e  fieri  possit.  The 
apprehension  remained,  that  Hasdrubal  would  protract  the  icar,  n  e  ex¬ 
traheret.  There  is  danger,  that  ice  may  be  overpowered,  n  e  oppri¬ 
mamur.  I  do  not  fear,  that  your  virtue  will  not  meet  the  expectation  of 
men,  n  e  non  respondeat.  The  clause  with  ut  expresses  what  we 
wish  may  happen,  but  fear  may  not  happen:  that  with  ne,  what  we 
wish  may  not  happen,  but  fear  may  happen.  In  both  cases,  it  will  be 
seen  that  ut  and  ne  point  to  the  implied  wish,  and  are  employed  as  if 
a  verb  of  wishing  had  preceded,  but  they  are  translated  respectively 
by  that  not  and  that ,  to  suit  the  verbs  of  fearing  actually  used. 
In  dependent  sentences,  a  future  is  never  used  after  verbs  and  nouns 
of  the  above  signification,  but  a  present,  imperfect  or  perfect.  Comp. 
§(251.  h.)  In  lively  and  confidential  statements,  Cicero  often  uses 
vide,  videte,  videndum  est,  ne,  in  the  sense  of,  I  fear  that.  But  when 
to  fear  means  to  be  afraid  to  do  something ,  it  is  followed  by  the  infini¬ 
tive  *,  e.  g.  He  fears  to  do  or  say  anything  unmanly ,  veretur  quidquam 
aut  facere  aut  1  o  q  u  i. 

407.  (6)  The  verbs  cavere  and  videre ,  in  the  sense  of  to  take  care,  to 
enjoin,  to  see  to,  are  followed  by  ut  in  affirmative  sentences,  and  ne 
in  negative  ones  ;  e.  g.  Epicurus  enjoined  in  his  icill,  that  his  birthday 
should  be  celebrated ,  cavit,  u  t  dies  ageretur.  We  must  see  to  it,  that 
we  use  that  generosity  which  is  useful,  u  t  ea  liberalitate  utamur,  quae 
prosit.  We  must  see  to  it,  that  generosity  does  not  prove  injurious , 
videndum  est,  ne  obsit  benignitas. 

408.  The  verb  cavere,  in  the  sense  of  to  beware  of,  is  followed,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  imperative,  by  the  subjunctive  merely,  ne  being  more 
seldom  used  ;  e.  g.  Beware  of  engaging  in  anything  new,  or  that  you 
do  not  engage,  cave  quidquam  novi  m  o  1  i  a  r  e.  Beware  of  saying  or 
doing  anything  foolishly,  cave,  ne  quid  stulte  aut  dicas  aut 
facias.  Beware  of  preferring  (or  how  you  prefer)  Socrates  to  Cato, 
cave  Catoni  anteponas  Socratem. 

409.  (7)  With  the  verb  excusare  (to  excuse),  that  which  one  excuses 

or  apologizes  for ,  is  expressed  by  quod,  and  that  by  which  he  excuses 
or  apologizes  for  anything,  by  the  accusative  and  the  infinitive,  in 
which  case  dicens  can  be  understood  ;  e.  g.  That  he  had  not  come  yes¬ 
terday,  he  excused  (by  saying)  that  he  icas  sick,  quod  heii  non  venis¬ 
set,  excusavit,  s e  aegrotasse.  . 

410.  (8)  The  phrases,  to  be  so  far  from  void  instead  of,  are  express- 


§411.] 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


*347 


ed  by  tantum  abesse.  Here  there  are  always  two  clauses  connected 
with  abesse,  the  second  of  which  wholly  reverses  the  statement  of  the 
first;  e.  or.  So  far  am  [from  censuring  this  murder ,  that  I  praise  it,  or, 
instead  of  censuring  this  murder ,f  praise  it.  The  Latins  often  place 
ab  eo  after  abesse,  for  the  purpose  of  directing  attention  to  the  nearest 
clause  containing  the  principal  idea. 

The  Latins  usually  connect  both  of  such  clauses  with  tantum  abesse , 
by  a  double  ut ;  thus,  tantum  abest,  ut  hanc  caedem  reprehendam, 
u  t  earn  laudem.  So  far  ivere  the  Rhodians  from  defending  our  fleet, 
that  they  even  kept  our  soldiers  from  the  harbor,  tantum  abfuit,  u  t  Rho¬ 
dii  nostram  classem  tuerentur,  ut  etiam  portu  prohiberent  nostros 
milites.  Instead  of  assenting  to  this  opinion,  I  shall  even  refute  it,  tan¬ 
tum  aberit,  ut  huic  ^ententiae  assentiar,  ut  eam  etiam  refellam.  The 
first  ut  depends  upon  abesse,  the  second  on  tantum. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  three  examples,  that  tantum  abesse  is  al¬ 
ways  in.  the  third  person  singular,  and  that  its  tense  depends  upon 
the  tense  of  the  clause  immediately  connected  with  it,  so  that  when 
the  action  is  present,  tantum  abest  is  used,  when  it  is  past,  tantum 
abfuit  or  aberat  or  abfuerat,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
case,  when  it  is  future,  tantum  aberit. 

Often,  however,  the  Latins  put  the  second  clause  without  ut,  mak¬ 
ing  it  a  principal  clause,  by  which  construction  that  clause  becomes 
more  prominent.  But  this  happens,  only  when  the  second  clause 
contains  a  complete  idea  of  itself ;  e.  g.  Instead  of  seeking  for  pleasure, 
they  endure  even  cares,  anxieties,  and  watchings,  tantum  abest  ut  hi 
voluptates  consectentur,  etiam  curas,  sollicitudines,  vi¬ 
gilias  perferunt.  Sometimes  they  express  the  first  clause  by  a 
substantive,  and  connect  it  by  the  preposition  a  with  abesse,  which  is 
then  a  personal  verb  ;  e.  g.  Your  similarity  of  age  is  so  far  from  cal¬ 
umny  and  envy,  that  it  seems  rather  to  unite  you ,  aequalitas  vestra  tan¬ 
tum  abest  ab  obtrectatione  invidiaque,  ut  ea  vos  concilia¬ 
re  videatur. 

Etiam  and  contra,  (rather  or  even)  serve  to  strengthen  the  second 
clause.  Later  writers  improperly  use  potius  also. 

411.  (9)  Verba  sentiendi  and  dicendi  in  the  passive. 

Verba  sentiendi  and  dicendi,  e.  g.  putare ,  existimare ,  dicere,  tradere, 
perhibere,  ferre  (to  relate,  to  declare),  nuntiare  (to  announce),  negare 
(to  deny),  audire,  etc.,  take  their  object  in  the  accusative,  even  when 
it  refers  to  persons;  for  one  may  say,  putat  me,  he  thinks  that  I ;  di¬ 
c'd  m  e,  he  says  that  1.  Hence,  in  the  passive,  these  are  personal 
verbs,  which  have  all  the  different  persons,  so  that  one  may  say,  di¬ 
cor,  diceris,  dicitur,  dicimur,  dicimini ,  dicuntur.  And  so  of  the  others. 
But  in  English,  we  very  frequently  translate  these  in  the  third  person 
singular,  as  impersonal,  e.  g.  It  is  said ,  it  is  related,  it  is  thought,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  clause  with  that ;  e.  g.  It  is  said,  that  I,  or  they  say,  that  I ; 
it  is  said,  that  we,  etc.  But,  as  the  Latin  verbs  in  the  passive,  have 
all  the  persons,  both  singular  and  plural,  the  subject  standing  in  the 
clause  with  that,  becomes  in  Latin,  the  subject  of  this  passive,  and 
hence  nothing  but  an  infinitive  can  follow  it.  Moreover,  as  the  pre¬ 
dicate  of  this  infinitive  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  passive,  it  must  be 
in  the  nominative.  These  verbs,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  take  a  no¬ 
minative  with  the  infinitive,  not  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive. 


348 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


[§§  412,  413. 


Examples  :  lam  thought  to  have  followed  him ,  or  it  is  thought  that  I 
have  followed  him ,  ego  hunc  secutus  esse  putor;  you  are 
thought ,  or  it  is  thought ,  that  you ,  t  u  —  putaris;  it  is  thought  that 
Epicurus ,  Epicurus  —  putatur;  it  is  thought  that  we  havefol- 
lowed  him ,  nos  hunc  secuti  esse  putamur;  it  was  announced 
that  the  bridge  was  built ,  pons  effectus  (esse)  nuntiabatur. 

412.  The  same  is  true  of  all  other  passive  verbs,  which  have  all  the 
persons  ;  e.  g.  I  am  found,  they  find,  that  I ;  it  is  found,  that  /,  r  e  pe¬ 
ri  o  r,  i  n  v  e  n  i  o  r  ;  /  am  order ed,  forbidden,  it  is  ordered,  forbidden 
to  me,  jubeor,  vetor.  These  and  all  similar  verbs  are  followed  by 
the  infinitive,  the  predicate  of  which  is  in  the  nominative  ;  e.  g.  It 
will  be  found  that  the  gods  have  gone  from  earth  to  Heaven ,  D  i  i  pro¬ 
fecti  esse  reperientur.  And  thus  this  attraction  of  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  the  second  or  dependent  verb  in  English^  so  as  to  become  the 
subject  (nominative)  of  the  principal  verb,  takes  place  with  many  oth¬ 
ers,  especially  where  such  a  construction  alone  is  possible  and  natu¬ 
ral  ;  e.  g.  Where  it  is  conceded,  that  these  things  were  done ,  there  it  will 
not  be  denied,  that  violence  was  used,  haec  (nominative)  ubi  conce¬ 
duntur  esse  facta,  ibi  vis  facta  (esse)  non  negabitur.  But  it  is  to 
be  noticed,  that  narrare  in  the  passive  is  never  so  found  in  a  good 
prose  writer,  and  that  only  the  poets  so  use  narratur.  Therefore  that 
use  of  it  is  not  admissible.  In  like  manner  traditur,  creditur,  nuntia¬ 
tur,  proditur,  especially  in  the  perfect  form  and  in  the  periphrastic 
conjugation,  e.  g.  nuntiatum  est,  credendam  est,  etc.,  very  frequently 
occur  with  the  accusative  and  the  infinitive. 

413.  The  above  principle  applies  especially  to  the  passive  videri, 
to  seem.  Although  we  can  say,  I  seem,  thou  seemest ,  he  stems ,  etc., 
yet  we  often  say  instead  of  these,  it  seems,  or  it  appears  to  me,  that  I, 
{you,  he),  etc.  But  in  Latin,  this  verb  is  only  a  personal  verb,  videor, 
videris ,  videtur,  etc.,  and  therefore  must  always  stand  in  a  definite 
person,  and  the  subject  must  be  attracted  to  it  from  the  dependent 
English  clause  ;  thus  :  It  seems,  that  /,  videor,  etc.,  which  also  can 
be  followed  only  by  an  infinitive,  the  predicate  of  the  infinitive  be¬ 
ing  in  the  nominative  ;  e.  g.  I  seem  to  be  free,  or  it  seems  that  I  am 
free ,  ego  liber  esse  videor;  it  s  ems  that  we  are  free,  nos  libe¬ 
ri  esse  videmur;  it  seems  to  me  that  men  were  born  for  justice , 
homines  n  a  t  i  esse  mihi  videntur;  it  has  seemed  to  me  that 
you  did  this  unwillingly ,  hoc  invitus  fecisse  mihi  v  i  s  u  s  e  s.  It 
is  only  when  mihi  videtur  signifies  it  is  my  opinion ,  the  same  as  pla¬ 
cet  mihi,  that  it  takes  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  which  is  the 
subject  of  videtur.  In  this  case,  which  rarely  occurs,  it  forms  a  sen¬ 
tence  by  itself. 

So  also  in  single  intermediate  sentences,  e.  g.  as  it  seems ,  although 
ut  is  used,,  the  verb  must  be  put  in  the  same  person  as  the  subject  of 
the  sentence  connected  with  it ;  e.  g.  Jls  it  seems,  you  do  not  judge 
rightly,  ut  v  i  d  e  r  i  s,  non  recte  judicas.  Hence  the  abridged  form, 
non  recte  judicare  videris.  And  so  in  all  persons  and  similar 
examples;  e.  g.  Iam  not  in  so  great  fear,  as  it  perhaps  seems  to  you., 
quam  tibi  fortasse  videor,  not  videtur;  these  toords  do  not  signi¬ 
fy  the  same,  as  it  seems,  ut  videntur. 


§§  414—410.] 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


349 


414.  (10)  The  English  of ,  or  in  respect  to ,  with  Verba 
sentiendi  and  dice  nd  i. 

With  verba  sentiendi  and  dicendi,  we  sometimes  mention  the  sub¬ 
ject  or  object  of  the  following  sentence  with  that,  twice  ;  first,  the- 
preposition  of,  then  by  a  new  pronoun  referring  to  that  substantive  or 
pronoun  which  stands  with  of;  e.  g.  Of  (in  respect  to)  Socrates,  we 
know  that,  he  teas  mild.  You  say  of  me,  that  I  err .  You  say  of  me, 
that  this  does  not  please  me.  So  also  in  passive  phrases  :  It  is  thought 
of  me,  that  I  did  this. —  Such  a  superfluous  use  of  words  the  Latins  do 
not  approve,  but  unite  both  sentences.  Hence  those  examples  are  ex¬ 
pressed  :  Scimus  Socratem  fuisse  clementem.  Me  errare  dicis. 
Mihi  hoc  non  placere  dicis.  Hoc  fecisse  putor.  The  English 
also  in  most  cases  avoids  this  repetition.  Yet  when  the  person  with 
of  is  to  be  made  particularly  emphatic,  the  Latins  also  use  de  ;  then 
the  sentence  is  expressed  thus  :  De  Socrate,  clementem  eum  fu¬ 
isse  scimus.  This  however  occurs  but  seldom. 

415.  But  witli  the  pronoun  who ,  which,  it  sometimes  happens,  that 
in  English  we  cannot  avoid  this  construction,  because  we  cannot  say, 
that  who,  which. —  Here  also  the  pronoun,  who,  which  (qui,  quae, 
quod)  in  Latin,  must  be  attracted  to  the  nearest  clause  with  that  ;  e.  g 
We  trust  him  (those),  of  whom  ice  think,  that  he  {they)  is  {are)  a  lover  of 
truth,  or  who,  we  think,  is  {are)  etc.,  qaem(quos)  veritatis  amantem 
(amantes)  esse  arbitramur.  I  found  him  of  whom  1  did  not  know ,  that' 
he  was  there.  Of  what  man  did  you  say ,  that  the  province  had  fallen  to 
him  by  lot?  cui  viro  provinciam  obtigisse  dixisti  P  We  esteem,  those 
of  whom  we  believe,  that  these  virtues  exist  in  them,  in  quibus  eas 
virtutes  esse  remur.  So  in  dependent  interrogative  sentences,  which 
stand  in  connection  with  a  relative  ;  Caesar ,  of  whom  it  is  at  least  un¬ 
certain,  whether  he  will  imitate  Phalaris  or  Pisistratus,  qui  quidem 
incertum  est  Phalarimne  an  Pisistratum  sit  imitaturus ;  my  property 
(res  familiaris ),  of  which  you  well  know,  how  it  has  been  diminished , 
quae  quemadmodum  fracta  sit,  non  ignoras. 

(11)  Abridgement  and  connection  of  two  sentences 
in  one. 

416.  Intermediate  clauses,  e.  g.  as  I  think,  I  think,  as  you  say,  as  it 
seems  ;  also  phrases,  e.  g.  according  to  (in)  my  opinion,  according  to 
the  account  (wish)  of  all ,  can  be  abridged  and  become  the  governing 
verbs  of  the  sentences  connected  with  them,  while  these  verbs  form 
a  sentence  with  that.  Then  instead  of  say  ing,  as  I  believe,  etc  ,  we 
say,  /  believe,  thou  sayest,  it  seems,  (comp.  §  415),  I  think,  all  relate 
(wish),  i '  is  known,  I  hope.  So  all  similar  examples  may  be  treated  ; 
e.  g.  As  I  hope,  you  will  soon  go  home,  or,  you  will ,  as  I  hope,  soon  go 
home,  i.  e.  /  hope,  that  you  —  spero  te  mox  domum  iturum;  the 
time  has  come,  as  you  sec,  tempus  venisse  vides;  this  is,  as  the  Sto¬ 
ics  icish  (in  the  opinion  of  the  Stoics),  to  live  virtuous ,  hoc  esse  Sto¬ 
ici  volunt  honeste  vivere  ;  the  letter  of  Brutus  had  not  yet  come , 
which,  as  I  certainly  know,  will  be  pill  of  fear,  q  u  a  s  certe  scio  plenas 
timoris  fore  ;  according  to  the  account  of  the  messenger ,  you  are  some¬ 
times  wont  to  be  altogether  too  much  troubled,  tabellarius  te  narra- 

30 


350 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERUS. 


[§§417,418. 


v  i  t  interdum  sollicitum  solere  esse  vehementius  ;  I  icas ,  I  remember, 
many  years  before ,  with  your  uncle ,  memini  me  adesse  ante  plures 
annos  avunculo  tuo  ;  /  dare not,  he  added ,  act  against  this  law ,  adde¬ 
bat  se  contra  hanc  legem  facere  non  audere  ;  was  he,  in  your  opin¬ 
ion,  troubled  in  his  mind,  f  num  ilium  censes  anxio  animo  fuisse  ? 
What  hope  have  you,  in  you.)  opinion ?  quam  spem  tibi  esse  putas? 
The  Gauls,  as  is  known,  first  passed  over  the  slips,  Gallos  primos  Al¬ 
pes  transisse  constat;  Piato ,  as  is  believed,  traversed  Egypt,  f  1  a- 
to  iEgyptum  peragrasse  putatur,  or  Platonem  iEgyptum  pe¬ 
ragrasse  putant. 

417.  With  the  verbs  audire  and  videre  (but  not  in  the  metaphorical 
sense  to  perceive),  the  present  participle  can  be  used  instead  of  the  in¬ 
finitive,  when  it  contains,  in  all  respects,  the  same  idea  of  duration  ; 
e.  g.  /  saw  Cato  sitting  in  the  library  of  Lucullus,  vidi  Catonem  se¬ 
dentem  (for  sede  re)  ;  I  heard,  the  aged  Cato  speak  of  old  age,  in 
this  assembly,  Catonem  loquentem  (for  1  o  q  u  i)  audivi.  So  the 
verbs  fingere,  fa  cere,  in  the  sense  of  represent  or  introduce,  are  always 
construed  with  the  participle  ;  e.  g.  Xenophon  represents  ( introduces ) 
Socrates  as  disputing,  Xenophon  facit  Socratem  disputantem. 
But  if  the  dependent  verb  is  passive,  then,  as  the  passive  has  no  pres¬ 
ent  participle,  the  infinitive  must  always  be  used  ;  e.  g.  Plato  repre¬ 
sents  the  world,  as  constructed  by  God,  mundum  construi  facit. 

418.  (12)  The  position  of  the  accusative  with  the  in¬ 
finitive. 

As  dependent  sentences  and  cases  are  very  often  placed  before 
the  words  on  which  they  depend,  e.  g.  ubi  sis,  nescio,  instead  of  nes¬ 
cio,  ubi  sis,  so  the  Latins  very  often  place  the  accusative  with  the  in¬ 
finitive  before  the  word  on  which  it  depends  ;  e.  g.  Ego  in  his  prae¬ 
ceptis  vim  et  utilitatem  quamdam  esse  arbitror.  Ille  mihi  fugisse 
a  Mutina  videtur.  Hirtium' perisse  nesciebam.  Ipsam  vero 
urbem  vastatam  esse,  quis  ignorat?  —  But  they  often  insert  the 
governing  verb  in  the  sentence,  and  then  usually  place  it  directly  af¬ 
ter  the  accusative  or  before  it ;  e.  g.  Ego  me  cupio  non  mendacem 
putari.  Te  intelligis  errasse.  Hi  se  fatentur  ne  manum 
quidem  versuros.  Cui  spero  me  satisfecisse. 

Examples  for  practice  on  §§  402 — 418. 

(1)1  hope  to  finish1  this  book  in  a  short  time.  Since  vir¬ 
tue  causes2  friendship,  therefore  Jove  must3  arise4  from  this, 
when  it  exists5.  Although6  you  must7  have  had  precepts  of 
life  in  abundance8,  yet  I  believe,  that  that  which  I  teach9 
you,  will  not  be  superfluous10.  T wo  Roman  knights  promised 
Catiline,  that  they  would  kill  Cicero  in  the  night.  It  is  said, 
that  the  Thessalian  Lapithae  were  the  first,  who  contended 
on  horseback11  ;  and  in  like  manner  it  is  said,  that  the  Phry¬ 
gians12  first  harnessed13  a  two-horse  chariot14.  Manlius  hopes 
by  this  my  letter  to  gain  your  favor15.  1  then  spoke  much  in 


§418.] 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


351 


the  Seriate,  and,  as  it  seemed,  I  especially16  moved  the  Senate 
by  mentioning17  your  good  will18.  I  give  you  the  greatest 
thanks,  that  you  have  shown19  me  so  great  respect20,  but  it 
seems  to  me,  that  T  cannot  reward21  you  for  it.  This  error, 
as  it  were  the  germ  of  all  evil,  philosophy  promises  utterly* 
to  eradicate22.  Not  only23  to  others,  at  least24,  as  it  seems, 
but  also23  to  myself,  am  I  displeasing. 

'conficere.  2  contrahere.  3  necesse  esse.  4exoriri.  5  contingere. 
®quanquam.  7  oportere.  8  abundare  (to  have  in  abundance).  9  tradere. 
10  supervacaneus.  11  ex  equis.  12  Phryx.  1:5 jungere.  14  bigae.  15  esse 
gratiosus  16  maxiine.  17  commemoratio.  18  voluntas  (good  will). 
19  praestare,  "officium.  21  referre  gratias.  *  stirpitus,  "extrahere, 
"cum  (not  only).  24quidem.  25  turn  (but  also). 

(*2)  So  far  is  death  from  being  considered  an  evil,  we 
think  rather  that  it  is  a  blessing  to  every  man,  and  that  men 
will  live  far  happier,  than  at  present.  If  it  seems  to  you  that 
I  am  foolish,  because1  I  hope,  know  that  you  yourself  have 
excited2  many  hopes  in  me3,  and  have  encouraged  me  not  to 
doubt,  that  future  times  would  be  better.  I  shall  be  zealously4 
anxious  for  everything,  of  which  I  shall  perceive,  that  it  is 
useful5  to  you.  No  one  can  doubt  that  the  state  of  Athens 
has  brought  many  arts  to  perfection6;  and,  as  it  is  said  of 
Polycletus,  that  he  had  perfected7  sculpture8,  so  it  is  certain, 
that  at  the  same  time  Sophocles  had  perfected9  poetry.  It 
seems  that  the  graces  themselves  formed10  the  style11  of  Xeno¬ 
phon.  It  can  be  doubtful  to  no  one,  that  the  reign  of  Pisis¬ 
tratus  was  very  beneficial12  to  Athens  ;  for  he  was  so  far  from 
being  tyrannical13  towards  his  fellow-citizens,  that  these  after¬ 
wards  even  said,  that,  under  him14,  there  was  a  kind15  of 
golden  age.  It  is  not  unjustly16  said  of  Julius  Caesar,  that 
he  was  an  accomplice17  of  Catiline’s  conspiracy. 

'qui.  2concitare.  3  (dative).  4studiose.  5  pertinere  ad.  6  perfecte  ab¬ 
solvere  (to  bring  to  perfection),  ’consummare.  8toreutTce.  9  perficere, 
"fingere.  11  oratio,  "salubris.  13  gravis.  14  eo  regnante  (under  him), 
"quidam  (which  agrees  with  the  noun).  'G falso,  "socius. 

(3)  It  is  said  of  the  foliage1  of  the  laurel,  that  it  is  not  struck 
by  lightning.  Aristotle  says  of  some  small  animals2,  that  they 
live  only  one  day;  and  such3  there  actually4  are,  as*  natural 
history  proves.  Historians5  say  with  justice  of  NTima  Pom¬ 
pilius  and  Servius  Tullius,  that  Rome  owes6  much  to  their 
wise7  regulations.  A  certain  Cynaegirus  held8,  as9  history 
says,  a  loaded10  ship  of  the  Persians,  first  with  his  hands, 
then  with  his  teeth.  If  it  is  true,  that  the  souls  of  all**  the 


352 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  418. 


truly  noble11  escape12  most  easily  at  death,  from  the  fetters  of 
the  body,  of  whom  do  we  believe,  that  his  flight13  to  the  gods 
was  more  easy,  than  that  of  Scipio  ?  I  came  to  Capua  yes¬ 
terday  in  a  very  severe14  storm,  as  I  had  been  commanded, 
for  the  command15  had  been  given  us  by  the  consuls  to  come 
hither.  The  emperor  Claudius  commanded15  a  guest16,  of 
whom  it  was  believed,  that  the  day  before17  he  had  stolen18  a 
golden  goblet19,  to  place  before20  him  an  earthen21  cup22,  the 
next  day.  Some,  of  whom  I  hear  that  they  have  been  con¬ 
sidered  wise  in  Greece,  as23  I  believe,  have  asserted  many24 
wonderful  things.  When  Deucalion25  and  Pyrrha  had  been 
answered  by  Apollo,  that  they  should  throw  the  bones  of  their 
great  mother  behind26  their  backs,  they  were  uncertain27  what 
Apollo  advised28.  Finally,  Deucalion  said,  We  are  certainly29 
commanded  by  Apollo  to  throw  stones  behind  our  backs. 
The  long30  friendship,  which,  as  you  well  know31,  I  and  my 
brother  had  with  Caesar,  was  most  serviceable32.  As  it  is 
said  of  a  patient,  that  he  has  hope  as  long  as33  he  has  breath34, 
so  I  have  not  ceased35  to  hope.  You  look  upon36  me,  and,  as 
it  seems,  in  anger37. 

1  frons.  2  bestiola  (small  animal).  3  is.  4  vere.  *  (according  to  §416). 
6  scriptor.  6  debere.  7  bene  institutum  (wise  regulation).  8  retinere. 
9  (according  to  §  416).  10  onustus.  **  quisque  (compare  §  481).  11  op¬ 
timus  (truly  noble).  12  evolare.  13  cursus.  14  magnus.  15  jubere.  16  con¬ 
viva.  17 pridie.  issurripere.  19  scyphus.  20 opponere.  21  fictilis.  22calix. 
23  (according  to  §  416).  24  quaedam.  25  (dative).  26  post.  27  pendere 
animis.  28  suadere.  29  certe.  30  vetus.  31  non  ignorare  (according  to 
§416).  32  valere.  33  dum  (as  —  as).  34  anima.  36  desistere.  36  adspi- 
cere.  37  iratus  (in  anger). 

(4)  If  the  interest1  of  the  hearer  is  wearied2,  the  orator 
must3  promise  to  speak  more  briefly  than  he  had  intended4. 
I  fear  that  you  do  not  know5  the  true  way  to  glory,  and  that 
you  consider6  it  glorious,  that  you  alone  are  more  powerful7 
than  all.  It  is  believed,  that  refinement8,  learning,  religion, 
fruits,  justice  and  laws  originated  in  Attica,  and  were  dis¬ 
seminated9  into  all  lands.  The  city  of  Athens  is  so  old,  that 
it  is  said,  that  she  produced  her  citizens  from  herself.  Who 
wonders  that  Catiline  died  fighting  against  his  country,  of 
whom  all  believe,  that  he  was  born  for  robber)  ?  We  judge 
rightly,  as10  it  seems  to  us.  Everything  which  you  have  writ¬ 
ten  to  me  of  hope,  is  weak11,  as  it  seems  to  me.  I  pass  by  this, 
that  it  may  not  seem  that  we  learned  that  elsewhere12,  of  which 
it  is  believed,  that  we  invented13  it  ourselves.  Avitus  commu¬ 
nicated14  what  he  had  heard  to  the  senator  Baebius,  of  whom 


§  418.J 


THE  CONJUNCTION  THAT. 


353 


all  know,  how15  faithful16  and  wise17  he  was.  Does  it  seem, 
that  we  are  so  narrow  minded18  as  to  think,  that  everything 
will  perish  together  with  us?  The  night  the  temple  of  the 
Ephesian  Diana  was  burnt19,  in  this  same,  as  is  known20,  Al¬ 
exander  was  born.  Those  men  seemed  to  use  so  gentle21  a 
poison,  that  it  seemed,  that  we  could  die  without  pain.  I 
would  rather  pass  over  the  circumstance  in  silence,  but  I  fear 
it  would  not  be  lawful.  So  far  are  these  precepts  from  illus¬ 
trating  human  nature,  that  they  rather  obscure  the  whole 
doctrine22  by  fictions  and  useless23  opinions.  We  hope,  that 
you  will  excel24  in  this  art.  I  well  knew25,  that  this  my  work 
would  be  exposed26  to  much  reproach27.  I  believe,  that  we 
shall  be  considered*  friends  of  our  country.  It  seems  that 
we  should  have  been  quiet28,  if  we  had  not  been  provoked29. 
It  seems  to  me,  that  you  do  what  seditious  citizens  are  wont 
to  do,  when  they  quote30  some  renowned  ancestors,  who,  they 
say,  were  friends  of  the  people31.  Will  it  be  denied,  that 
Appius  Caecus  terminated32  the  shameful33  peace,  by  the  force 
of  his  eloquence.  It  is  believed,  that  we  followed  the  opinion 
of  Epicurus  without  cause.  It  must  be  believed34,  that  we 
have  been  united35  with  the  gods  by  sound36  reason. 

1  studium.  2  defatigatus.  3  commodum  esse  (with  acc.  and  inf.).  4  pa- 
*  ratus.  5  ignorare.  6  ducere.  7  posse.  8  humanitas.  9  distribuere.  10  ut. 
11  infirmus.  12aliunde.  13  parere.  14  communicare  cum  aliquo.  15  quae. 
16  fides  (ablative).  17  prudentia.  1S  parvus  animus.  19  deflagrare,  ^con¬ 
stare  (according  to  §  4J6).  21  lenis.  22  doctrina.  23  inanis.  24  excellere 
(according  to  §  493).  25  non  esse  nescium.  26  incurrere  in  (according 
to  §  403).  27  reprehensio.  *  (according  to  §  403).  28  quiescere.  29  laces¬ 
sere.  39proferre.  31  popularis  (friend  of  people).  32dirimere.  ^defor¬ 
mis.  34  putare  (verbal  adjective).  35  conciliare.  36rectus. 

(5)  We  hope  to  be  at  home  in  the  month  of  January. 
You  must1  love  me,  not  mine,  if  we  would  be  true  friends. 
Whoever  distrusts2  the  perpetuity  of  his  possessions,  must  al¬ 
ways  fear,  that  he  will  sometime3  lose  them.  King  Philip 
was  in  fear,  that  he  should  lose  his  life.  So  far  were  our 
soldiers  from  being  put  in  confusion4  by  this  slaughter5,  that, 
on  the  contrary,  they  were  still  more  incited  and  inflamed6 
with  anger.  I  feared  I  should  enlarge  your  work,  while  I 
wished  to  lessen7  it.  It  will  be  found,  that  those  who  are 
considered  as  gods,  have  ascended8  to  Heaven  from  among 
men.  I  would  hear  why  you  are  dissatisfied9  with  him,  who 
alone,  I  believe,  has  seen  the  truth.  I  did  not  fear,  that  I 
could  not  support10  your  innumerable  kindnesses  towards11 
me. 


30* 


354 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§419,  420. 


Oportere,  diffidere.  3  aliquando.  5  perturbare.  5  clades.  6accen- 
dSre.  7  minuere.  8 proficisci.  9  non  probare.  10  sustinere.  11  in. 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 

419.  The  words,  precepts  and  opinions  of  another  are  either 
stated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  undergo  no  change,  or  so,  as 
to  depend  upon  the  verbum  dicendi,  which  introduces  a  speak¬ 
er  making  his  own  statement, —  in  which  case,  the  discourse 
assumes  the  form  of  narrative. 

Discourse  which  undergoes  no  change ,  and  is  independent 
of  the  verbum  dicendi ,  is  called  the  oratio  recta ;  e.  g.  Cicero 
said  :  Then  all  justice  was  violated  by  the  wiclcedness  of  aban¬ 
doned  citizens ;  my  household  gods  were  filed  with  anxiety. 
Consider  in  your  own  minds  the  results  which  have  followed. 
Those  who  were  the  instigators  oj  these  offences  have  suffered 
the  punishment  they  deserve.  In  this  example,  we  hear  the 
speaker  uttering  his  own  words,  without  any  change. 

Discourse  that  is  changed,  and  is  made  to  depend  upon 
the  verbum  dicendi,  is  called  the  oratio  obliqua;  e.  g.  Ci¬ 
cero  said,  that  then  all  justice  was  violated  by  the  wickedness 
of  abandoned  citizens,  that  his  household  gods  w  ere  filed  with 
anxiety.  They  should  consider  in  their  own  minds  the  residts 
which  followed,  etc.  In  this  last  example,  we  hear  the  speak¬ 
er,  not  in  his  own  words,  but  another  narrates  them  as  if  in 
his  name. 

420.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  oratio  obliqua , 
whether  it  be  longer  or  shorter,  is  nothing  else  than  a  dis¬ 
course  depending  upon  a  verbum  dicendi,  and  that  a  single 
clause  even,  which  we  make  dependent  upon  the  verb  by  the 
conjunction  that,  is  oratio  obliqua;  e.  g.  Cicero  said,  that 
Catiline  was  an  enemy  of  his  country, — instead  of,  Cicero 
said  :  “  Catiline  is  an  enemy  of  his  country .” 

In  a  continued  discourse,  we  often  begin  the  first  principal 
sentence  with  that,  and  state  all  the  others  merely  by  the  sub¬ 
junctive  or  potential  mode,  as  the  above  quotation  from  Ci- 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 


355 


§§  421—423.] 


cero  shows  ;  e.  g.  They  should  consider  in  their  own  minds , 
etc.  Often,  indeed,  the  first  principal  sentence  is  stated  with¬ 
out  that. 

The  following  sentence  may  make  the  distinction  between  direct 
and  indirect  discourse  still  more  manifest :  Thus  born ,  and  thus  elected 
king,  he  has  favored  the  meanest  class  of  mankind,  whence  he  himself  is 
sprung ;  and  the  burdens,  which  were  formerly  common,  he  has  laid  on 
the  principal  citizens.  These  words  of  Tarquin,  speaking  himself, 
would  be  thus  rendered :  Ita  natus,  ita  creatus  rex,  fautor  infimi  ge¬ 
neris  hominum,  ex  quo  ipse  est,  omnia  onera,  quae  communia  quon¬ 
dam  fuerunt,  in  primores  civitatis  inclinavit.  But  when  Livy,  instead 
of  introducing  Tarquin  as  speaking  in  his  own  words,  merely  relates 
the  sentiment  which  he  expressed,  he  writes  thus:  Ita  n  at  u  m,  ita 
creatum  regem,  fautorem  infimi  generis  hominum,  ex  quo 
ipse  s  i  t,  onera,  quae  communia  quondam  fuerint,  inclinasse 
in  primores  civitatis. — Crombie's  Gymnasium. 

It  is  necessary  here,  to  distinguish  the  principal  from  the 
subordinate  sentences. 


1.  Principal  Sentences. 

421.  Principal  sentences  are  those  which  contain  the  prin¬ 
cipal  thought.  They  are  either  not  preceded  by  a  conjunc¬ 
tion,  or  not  by  such  as  form  an  introductory  sentence.  Thus 
the  conjunctions  for,  hence ,  therefore,  thus  and  the  like,  form 
only  principal  sentences.  On  the  contrary,  the  conjunction 
hut  forms  either  principal  sentences,  when  it  continues  prin¬ 
cipal  sentences,  e.  g.  He  has  indeed  heard  this,  but  he  does 
not  believe  the  report,  or  intermediate  sentences,  when  it  con¬ 
tinues  introductory  ones,  e.  g.  Since  the  body  is  mortal,  but 
the  mind  is  immortal.  So  the  particle  although  (quanquam, 
etsi)  does  not  always  form  introductory,  but  also  principal 
sentences. 

422.  Principal  sentences  contain  either  an  event,  which 
happens,  has  happened,  or  will  happen ;  or  a  command, 
which,  in  oratio  recta,  the  Latin  puts  either  in  the  imperative 
or  the  subjunctive;  e.  g.  Cicero  said,  that  then  all  justice  was 
violated.  They  must  consider .  Here  the  first  clause  contains 
an  event  in  the  form  of  a  narrative,  the  second  a  command. 

423.  Since,  therefore,  after  verba  dicendi ,  according  to 
§  377,  imperative  sentences  are  expressed  by  ut ,  and  where 


356 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  424. 

there  is  a  prohibition,  by  ne ,  and  on  the  other  hand,  narrated 
events ,  according  to  §§380  and  386,  by  the  accusative  with 
the  infinitive,  so  in  oratio  obliqua ,  special  reference  must  be 
had  to  this  principle.  Hence  the  words  of  Cicero  just  men¬ 
tioned,  are  expressed :  Cicero  dixit,  omnia  turn  jura 
polluta  esse.  Circumspicerent  animo.  Therefore 
it  depends  wholly  upon  the  thought  of  the  sentence,  wheth¬ 
er  ut  (ne)  or  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  to  be  used. 

424.  Imperative  sentences  are  indeed  expressed  by  ut ; 
but  this  conjunction  is  used  at  the  most,  only  when  such  a 
sentence  is  the  first  in  a  discourse.  But  when  this  sentence 
follows  another  of  a  narrative  kind,  containing  the  accusative 
and  infinitive,  ut  is  omitted,  and  its  imperative  force  is  indi¬ 
cated  only  by  the  subjunctive;  but  the  prohibiting  ne  cannot 
be  omitted;  e.  g.  The  messengers  announced  to  the  Senate, 
that  the  fEqui  had  pitched  their  camp  in  their  territory ,  and 
had  desolated  their  borders ;  that  the  Romans  should  come  and 
bring  aid  to  them ,  Legati  Senatui  nuntiant,  in  agro  suo 
iEquos  castra  posuisse,  et  fines  suos  depop¬ 
ulari  (narrative),  Romani  venirent  sibiqueaux- 
ilium  ferrent  (imperative). 


Parallel  Examples. 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 

The  patricians  exclaimed,  that 
they  (the  citizens)  should  go,  and 
elect  consuls  from  the  plebeians , 
should  transfer  the  auspices  (im¬ 
perative)  ;  that  the  patricians  might 
by  a  decree  of  the  people  be  dispos¬ 
sessed  of  their  honors ,  but  had  this 
inauspicious  law  prevailed  also 
against  the  immortal  gods ?  that 
these  had  vindicated  their  own  au¬ 
thority  (narrative).  Patres  fre¬ 
munt,  irent,  crearent  consu¬ 
les,  transferrent  auspicia  (im- 
per.)  ;potuisse  patre  s — pelli, 
num — legem  val  uis se?  Vin¬ 
dicasse  ipsos  sua  numina. — 


ORATIO  RECTA. 

The  patricians  exclaimed  : 
“  Go,  elect  consuls  from  the  ple¬ 
beians,  transfer  the  auspices  ;  the 
patricians  may  have  been  dispos¬ 
sessed  of  their  honors,  but  has  this 
inauspicious  law  prevailed  also 
against  the  immortal  gods  ?  These 
have  vindicated  their  own  author¬ 
ity.”  Patres  fremunt:  “Ite, 
create  consules,  transferte 
auspicia  ;  potuerunt  patres — 
pelli,  num  lex  valuit?  Vin¬ 
dicarunt  ipsi  sua  numina. 


§  425.] 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 


357 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA.  ORATIO  RECTA. 

Hirtii  necessarii  fidem  implora-  Hirtii  necessarii  fidem  necessa- 
runt  Pompeii,  praestaret,  rii  implorarunt  Pompeii:  prae- 
quod  recepisset. — Dux  dixit,  om-  sta,  quod  recepisti. — Dux  dix- 
nia  esse  perdita;  milites  suae  it:  omnia  sunt  perdita;  con- 
saluti  consulerent.  sulite,  milites,  vestrae  saluti. 

The  verbum  dicendi ,  which  introduces  the  discourse,  is  sometimes 
of  such  a  nature,  that  it  seems  to  admit  only  one  of  the  two  kinds  of 
sentences,  i.  e.  either  the  narrative  or  imperative  ;  e.  g.  nuntiare, 
to  announce ,  admits  only  narrative  sentences,  petere,  orare,  to 
ask,  only  imperative  ones.  But  very  fiequently  the  orator  changes 
the  train  of  his  thought,  and  such  a  definite  and  more  restricted  verb 
is  selected,  only  with  reference  to  the  first  sentence.  Therefore 
where  the  construction  is  changed,  such  a  word  as  dicens  or  orans  is 
understood  ;  e.  g.  Caesar  entreated  his  soldiers ,  that  they  icould  fight 
bravely  ;  (saying)  that  victory  could  not  be  gained  without  the  greatest 
exertion ,  Caesar  oravit  milites  acriter  pugnarent;  (dicens)  sine 
summa  contentione  victoriam  reportari  non  posse.  So  in 
the  example  above,  the  word  nuntiant  is  appropriate  only  to  the  ac¬ 
cusative  and  the  infinitive,  and  not  to  the  subjunctives  venirent  and 
ferrent. 

2.  Subordinate  Sentences. 

425.  Subordinate  sentences  are  formed  either  by  such  con¬ 
junctions  as  designate  introductory  ones,  e.  g.  since,  because, 
if,  when,  after,  etc.,  or  by  the  pronoun  who,  which.  Those 
formed  by  conjunctions  are  connected  with  a  principal  clause, 
and  either  precede  it,  as  introductory  sentences,  or  follow  it 
as  adjunct,  or  are  inserted  in  it,  as  intermediate  clauses. 

In  these  subordinate  sentences,  the  subjunctive  is  used  ex¬ 
clusively,  and  therefore  the  conjunctions  have  here  no  influ¬ 
ence  upon  the  modes,  because  the  language  is  wholly  narrative. 
Examples :  My  father  said  that  he  rejoiced  that  I  had  re¬ 
turned  from  my  journey,  Pater  dixit,  se  gaudere,  quod 
ex  itinere  redissem.  —  Caesar  said,  that  he  would  fortify 
the  camp,  after  the  enemy  had  been  routed,  Caesar  d  i  x  i  t,  se, 
postquam  hostes  fusi  essent,  castra  muniturum  esse. 
So:  Ennius  non  censebat  lugendam  esse  mortem,  quam 
immortalitas  consequeretur. 

The  tenses,  which  are  used  in  subordinate  sentences,  and 
even  in  principal  ones,  which  contain  a  command,  depend 


358 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  426,  427. 


upon  the  tense  of  the  verbum  dicendi,  which  governs  the 
whole  discourse.  The  laws  of  the  dependence  of  tenses 
must  therefore  determine  whether  a  present  or  an  imperfect, 
a  perfect  or  a  pluperfect  should  he  used. 

426.  When  the  verbum  dicendi  is  in  the  present  or  future, 
the  prevailing  tenses  in  what  follows,  are  the  present,  perfect 
and  future,  according  as  the  one  or  the  other  is  necessary. 
The  perfect  here  also  takes  the  place  of  the  future-perfect, 
because  in  oratio  obliqua  with  the  future-perfect,  there  is  re¬ 
ference  only  to  what  is  past.  But  if  the  present  of  the  ver¬ 
bum  dicendi  is  a  historical  present,  e.  g.  nuntiant  for  nuntia¬ 
runt,  then  in  what  follows,  an  imperfect  also  can  be  used  in¬ 
stead  of  the  present,  and  a  pluperfect  instead  of  the  perfect. 
Hence  both  are  often  interchanged.  Some  examples  :  Epi¬ 
curus  said,  that,  among  all  things  which  wisdom  had  provided 
for  a  happy  life,  nothing  was  more  important  than  friendship, 
dicit,  omnium  rerum,  quas  ad  beate  vivendum  sapientia 
comparaverit,  nihil  esse  majus  amicitia.  Epicurus 
teaches,  that  every  animal,  as  soon  as  it  is  born,  seeks  for 
pleasure,  and  avoids  pain  as  much  as  it  can,  E.  docet,  omne 
animal,  simul  atque  natum  sit,  voluptatem  appetere,  et 
dolorem,  quantum  possit,  a  se  repellere.  Liscus  affirms, 
that  he  does  not  doubt ,  that,  if  the  Romans  should  conquer 
(future-perfect)  the  Helvetii,  they  ivould  deprive  the  yEdui  of 
liberty,  L.  p  r  op  o n  i  t,  se  non  dubitare,  quin,  si  Helvetios 
superaverint  Romani,  JEduis  libertatem  sint  ereptu¬ 
ri.  The  Gauls  send  messengers  to  Crassus  (to  say),  that  he 
should  send  back  their  hostages,  if  he  wished  to  receive  his 
friends  again,  Galli  mittunt,  si  velit  suos  recipere, 
obsides  sibi  remittat.  Fabius  wrote  to  Marcellus,  either 
to  come  himself,  or,  if  Nola  detained  him,  to  send  Gracchus 
to  him,  Fabius  Marcello  scribit,  vel  ipse  veniret  (veil  i- 
a  t),  vel,  si  eum  Nola  teneret  (teneat),  Gracchum  ad  se 
mitteret  (mittat). 

427.  After  a  historical  present  or  historical  infinitive, 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 


359 


§428.] 


when  they  describe  events  in  the  narrative  form,  the  Latins, 
for  the  most  part,  used  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect.  On 
the  contrary,  when  precepts,  opinions  and  general  principles 
are  denoted,  the  present  is  followed  by  the  present  and  perfect. 

428.  But  when  the  verbum  dicendi  is  in  the  imperfect,  per¬ 
fect  or  pluperfect,  then  the  prevailing  tenses,  in  what  follows, 
agreeably  to  the  dependence  of  tenses,  are  the  imperfect,  the 
pluperfect,  and  to  denote  what  is  future,  the  imperfect  of  the 
periphrastic  conjugation.  Then  the  pluperfect  takes  the 
place  of  the  future-perfect,  as  does  the  perfect,  according  to 
§426,  where  the  verbum  dicendi  is  a  present.  But  to  pre¬ 
vent  confounding  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect,  it  must  be  re¬ 
membered,  when  the  one  and  when  the  other  is  to  be  used, 
since,  in  English,  we  sometimes  use  the  latter,  where  the 
Latins  cannot.  The  conjunctions  quum  (cum)  and  dum , 
both  in  the  sense  of  while,  cannot  have  a  pluperfect,  but  only 
an  imperfect.  Some  examples  :  Scipio  said,  that  great  dis¬ 
sensions  usually  arose,  when  one  demanded  something  of  his 
friends,  which  was  not  just,  magna  dissidia  nasci  plerumque, 
quum  aliquid  ab  amicis,  quod  rectum  non  esset,  postu¬ 
laretur.  The  senators  proclaimed,  that  no  one  should  make 
Quinctius  a  consul;  if  any  one  should  have  made  him  such 
(fut.  perf.),  they  icould  not  regard  his  vote,  ne  quis  Quinctium 
consulem  faceret;  si  quis  fecisset,  se  id  suffragium 
non  observaturos.  Aristotle  relates,  that  while  Eudcmus  teas 
on  his  way  to  Macedonia,  he  came  to  Pherae,  quum  in  Mace¬ 
doniam  iter  face  ret,  Pheras  venisse.  Caligula  boasted  to 
Caesonia  after  she  awoke,  that  he  had  done  great  things,  while 
she  had  been  (or  was)  asleep,  se  magnas  res  gessisse,  dum 
meridiaret  (not  meri  d  i  a  s  s  e  t). 

Finally,  the  Latins  often  put  a  present  instead  of  the  imper¬ 
fect,  and  a  perfect  instead  of  the  pluperfect,  for  the  purpose 
of  expressing  and  exhibiting  with  more  vivacity,  that  some¬ 
thing  must  happen,  or  must  have  happened ;  and  especially 
is  this  done,  when  not  an  actual  event,  but  a  general  remark 
applicable  at  all  times ,  is  introduced  in  the  discourse. 


360 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  429, 430. 


Some  further  Remarks. 

429.  (1)  Questions  belong  either  to  the  principal  or  the  subordi¬ 
nate  sentences. 

To  the  principal  sentences  belong  those  questions  which  may  be 
called  oratorical , —  which  the  spirited  orator  introduces,  without  wish¬ 
ing  an  answer,  because  he  himself  imagines  one  in  his  own  mind. 
Therefore,  they  are  only  interrogative  exclamations ,  or  expressions  of 
wonder ,  and  could  be  expressed  with  less  vivacity  without  an  inter¬ 
rogative,  either  affirmative  or  negative  ;  e.  g.  Who  doubts  this?  c  u  i 
dubium  esse?  What  use  is  it  to  shut  up  the  harbor  ?  quid  atti¬ 
nere  claudi  portum  ?  For  what  slave  were  ever  chains  the  punishment 
of  falsehood?  c  u  i  servo  unquam  mendacii  poenam  vincula  fu  isse? 
Would  they  not  hope  to  be  able  to  ascend  the  Capitolium  ?  nonne  se 
speraturos  Capitolium  ascendere  posse?  When  such  principal 
sentences  are  in  the  form  of  a  narrative,  they  stand  in  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive.  Sometimes  interrogative  pronouns  precede,  some¬ 
times  interrogative  particles.  Some  historians,  however,  as  Julius 
Caesar,  seem  to  have  preferred  the  subjunctive  to  the  infinitive. 

But  to  subordinate  sentences  belong  the  actual  questions ,  to  which 
the  speaker  expects  an  answer.  Hence  they  are  also  joined  to  verba 
dicendi ,  and  depend  upon  them  ;  therefore,  their  verb  stands  in  the 
subjunctive,  as  something  yet  uncertain  to  the  speaker  ;  e.  g.  The  sen¬ 
ators  ordered  that  it  be  proposed  to  the  people  :  Do  you  tcish  and  com¬ 
mand  (whether  they  wished  and  commanded),  that  war  should  be 
commenced?  vellentne,  juberentne.  The  consul  asked  the 
Fetiales  :  Shall  war  be  declared  on  king  Jlntiochvs  himself  (whether 
war  should  be  declared  on  king  Antiochus  himself)?  or — Consul 
ad  Fetiales  retulit,  ipsi  ne  regi  Antiocho  bellum  indiceretur — . 

If  questions  in  oratio  recta  are  already  dependent  questions  in  the 
subjunctive,  they  remain  so  in  oratio  obliqua. 

430.-  (2)  The  pronoun  qui  properly  forms  intermediate  dr  parenthetic 
sentences ,  by  which  a  preceding  thought  is  to  be  completed  and  more 
definitely  explained,  and  therefore  these  are  not  independent  sen¬ 
tences  ;  but  when  qui  stands  for  et  hie ,  nam  hie ,  and  is  only  a  for¬ 
mally  connecting  word,  and  the  clause  contains  the  ground  and  rea¬ 
son  of  the  preceding  statement,  then  it  can  form  principal  sentences  ; 
— especially  is  this  the  case  when  qui ,  quae ,  quod ,  does  net  refer  to  a 
single  word  of  the  preceding  sentence;  e.  g.  There  is  no  greater  evil 
than  the  desire  of  wealth ,  and  the  struggle  for  glory  and  honor ,  from 
which  (for  from  this)  the  most  bitter  enmities  have  often  arisen ,  ex  quo 
inimicitias  maximas  saepe  extitisse.  Your  city ,  like  a 
bulwark ,  opposes  the  enemy ,  near  which  the  royal  fleet  has  twice  suffered 
shipwreck ,  apud  quam  classes — fecisse.  Bcttius  named  Lucullus , 
by  whom  Tannins  had  usually  been  sent  to  him ,  a  quo  solitum 
esse  ad  se  mitti  Fanni  u  m,  and  then  Domitius ,  ichose  house  had  been 
fixed  upon  (as  the  place)  from  whence  to  break  forth ,  cujus  domu  m 
constitutam  esse,  unde  eruptio  fieret.  Yet  similar  pas¬ 
sages  in  Cicero  and  others  are  found,  in  which  we  expect  the  same 
treatment  of  sentences  as  principal,  and  nevertheless  they  are  treated 
as  relative,  and  stand  in  the  subjunctive.  Upon  many  passages, 
opinions  are  divided,  especially  since  many  sentences  may  be  repre¬ 
sented  both  as  principal  and  subordinate  sentences. 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 


361 


§§  431,432  ] 


431.  (3)  As  qui,  quar,  quod  often  forms  an  independent  principal 
sentence,  so  also  the  conjunctions  quia  and  quippe  analogous  to  it  in 
signification,  and  standing  for  nam  (although  they  have  no  qui  with 
them,  for  with  qui  they  take  only  the  subjunctive),  moreover  quan- 
quam  and  etsi ,  often  form  independent  principal  sentences  and  take- 
the  place  of  nam,  etenim  and  tamen  ;  e.  g.  The  Campanians  were  more 
hostile  to  everything  which  bore  the  Roman  name,  than  any  other  people. 
Therefore,  he  kept  them  shut  vp  within  the  walls,  because  (for)  whoever 
had  escaped  by  any  means,  wandered  through  the  country,  like  wild 
beasts ,  and  tore  in  pieces  and  destroyed  whatever  fell  in  their  way,  ideo 
se  tenere  eos  ;  q  u  i  a,  si  qui  evasissent  aliqua,  velut  feras  bestias, 
per  agros  vagari,  et  laniare  et  trucidare,  quodeumque  ob¬ 
viam  detur.  Here  quia  does  not  refer  to  ideo,  otherwise  the  subjunc¬ 
tive  must  have  been  used,  for  the  sentence  because,  etc.  does  not  give 
a  reason  of  the  immediately  preceding  sentence,  but  simply  expands 
the  first  principal  sentence,  and  quia  takes  the  place  of  nam,  and  thus 
forms  an  independent  principal  sentence.  The  conjunction  quippe, 
when  not  followed  by  qui  expressing  a  leason,  has,  in  oratio  obliqua, 
only  the  accusative  and  the  infinitive,  because  it  is  always  used  merely 
to  connect  one  principal  sentence  with  another  ;  e.  g.  The  Fundani  and 
the  Formiani  had  not  been  excited  to  rebellion  by  them,  for  they  could  be 
satisfied  with  their  own  strength ,  if  they  desired  war,  quippe  minime 
poenitere  se  virium  suarum,  si  bellum  placeat  (Liv.  8,  23). 

The  use  of  the  particles  of  comparison,  quemadmodum  and  vt  (sicut) 
with  the  accusative  and  the  infinitive,  where  ita  or  sic  follows,  is  also 
worthy  of  notice.  The  last  sentence  with  ita  or  sic,  as  an  actual  prin¬ 
cipal  sentence,  requires  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  but  the 
first  does  not.  For  it  is  only  when  in  both  sentences  but  one  subject 
is  spoken  of,  and  the  actions  of  both  sentences  fall  within  the  same 
time  (so  that  the  relation  is  expressed  by  as  well  —  as  ;  not  only  —  but 
also ;  on  the  one  hand —  on  the  other),  that  both  sentences  are  in  the 
accusative  with  the  infinitive,  because  then  the  first  also  is  regarded  as 
an  independent  principal  sentence  ;  e.  g  Ashe  would  consider  the  treaty 
as  broken .  if  she  was  not  given  up  to  him ,  so  he  would  return  her  inviolate 
to  her  frit  nds,  when  she  was  given  up,  quemadmodu  m,  si  non  de¬ 
datur,  pro  rupto  se  foedus  habiturum,  sic  deditam  inviolatam  ad 
suos  remissurum  (Liv.  2,  13).  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  particle  as 
(quemadmodu  m,  u  t)  with  the  following  so,  signifies  in  the  same 
manner  as,  then  the  sentence  is  treated  as  a  merely  subordinate  sen¬ 
tence  belonging  to  another,  and  the  verb  is  put  in  the  subjunctive  ; 
e.  g.  As  he  anew  and  repeatedly  appealed  to  the  people,  so  he  anew  and- 
repeatedly  summoned  him  before  the  judge,  proinde  u  t  ilfe  iterum  ac 
saepius  provocet,  sic  se  iterum  ac  saep-us  judicem  illi  ferre  (Liv. 
3,  57).  Yet  when  there  is  a  real  comparison  drawn  from  nature,  the 
sentence  is  sometimes  treated  as  a  general,  principal  sentence,  stand¬ 
ing  independent,  and  is  expressed  by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  ; 
e.  g.  As  some  animals  never  become  tame,  so  the  heart  of  this  man  is 
cruel  and  implacable,  ut  fe  r  a  s  quasdam  nunquam  mitesce  re, 
sic  immitem  ('t  implacabilem  ejus  viri  animum  esse  (Liv.  33,  45). 

432.  (4)  The  classical  writers  use  the  verb  inquam  almost  exclu¬ 
sively  in  direct  discourse,  and  aio  in  indirect.  Hence,  in  changingdi- 
rwtf  discourse  to  indirect,  the  verb  aio  must  be  substituted  for  inquam, 
and  in  changing  the  indirect  to  the  direct ,  inquam  for  aio.  Aio  can  be 


31 


362 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  433,  434. 


used  in  direct  discourse ,  only  when  ut  is  placed  before  it ;  e.  g.  Plato 
says ,  Philosophy  is  nothing  else  than  a  gift  of  the  gods ,  philosophia,  u  t 
a  i  t  Plato,  nihil  est  aliud  ;  but  without  ut,  the  idea  must  be  expressed  : 
Philosophiam  ait  Plato  nihil  esse  aliud,  or:  Philosophia,  inquit 
Plato,  nihil  est  aliud. 

433.  (5)  Vocatives  can  be  introduced  into  oratio  obliqua,  only  by  a 
change  of  case  ;  e.  g.  Quirites ,  resume  that  disposition  ;  in  oratio  ob¬ 
liqua,  that  they  should  resume  that  disposition ,  illos  repeterent  animos 
Quirites. 

Interjections  must  be  wholly  omitted  in  oratio  obliqua  ;  but  words 
of  asseveration,  e.  g.  the  ancient  Hercule,  are  introduced  into  indirect 
discourse;  e.  g.  And  it  teas  truly  to  be  wondered  at,  et  Hercule 
mirandum  fuisse. 

434.  (6)  It  is  important  to  notice  the  use  of  the  reflexive  and  de¬ 
monstrative  pronouns  in  oratio  obliqua.  According  to  the  rules  given 
above,  §§  110  and  115,  the  reflexive  refers  to  the  speaker  and  those 
for  whom  he  speaks;  the  demonstrative,  on  the  contrary,  is  used  in 
reference  to  all  subordinate  persons.  But  if  the  speaker  gives  his  own 
words  in  a  narrative  form,  the  first  person  remains  in  everything  which 
refers  to  him. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  also,  that  the  words  he,  she  or  they,  when 
they  refer  to  the  speakers,  are  to  be  expressed  by  se.  Yet  when  many 
principal  sentences,  which  have  for  their  subject  he,  she  or  they,  follow 
one  another,  it  is  sufficient  to  use  the  pronoun  with  the  first  only.  - 

If,  by  the  use  of  the  pronouns,  there  would  be  doubt  to  whom  they 
referred,  it  is  better  to  use  the  name  of  the  persons,  who  are  de¬ 
noted  by  the  pronouns;  e.  g.  He  had  delivered  the  Falerii  into  their 
(the  Romans)  hands,  Falerios  se  in  manus  Romanis  (for  e  i  s)  tradi¬ 
disse.  Further  ;  that  which  is  present  to  the  speaker,  and  which  he  ex¬ 
presses  by  hie  or  iste,  is  past  to  another,  who  narrates  it.  Hence, 
in  oratio  obliqua,  ille  or  is  is  generally  used  instead  of  hie  and  iste. 
Therefore,  it  is  said  :  This  is  not  the  first  day  of  his  fidelity,  non  i  1- 
lum  primum  diem  fidei  suae  esse,  not  hunc.  So  also  even  now  in 
such  discourse  is  expressed  by  etiam  tum,  not  by  etiam  nunc 
or  etiamnum. 

The  indirect  narrative  form  of  discourse  prevails  in  the  first  part  of 
the  following  examples  for  practice  ;  then  follows  a  series  of  examples, 
from  which  narrative  sentences  are  to  be  formed. 

Examples  on  §§  419 — 434. 

(1)  Dicearchus  says,  the  soul  is  absolutely1  nothing;  nei¬ 
ther  in  a  man  nor  in  a  beast  is  there  a  soul,  and  all  that  power 
by  which  we  either  do2  or  perceive  anything,  is  diffused3  alike4 
in  all  living  bodies,  nor  is  it  separable5  from  the  body. — 
Simonides, while  at  table, was  requested  to  go  out  (being*  told) 
that  two  young  met)  were  standing  at  the  door,  who  wished  to 
speak  with  him. — Orgetorix  persuaded  the  Helvetii  to6  de¬ 
part7  from  their  territory8  with  all  their  effects9;  (saying)  it 
was  very  easy  for  them  to  obtain10  the  government  of  all  Gaul, 
since  they  excelled11  all  in  valor. — Caesar  replied  to  the  am- 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 


363 


§  434.1 

bassadors  of  the  Helvetii,  that  he  would  appoint  a  day  for  de¬ 
liberation12;  that  they  should  return  the  thirteenth  of  April13, 
if  they  wished  anything. — Scipio  said,  that,  in  a  situation14  so 
disastrous,  there  must  be  daring15  and  action,  and  that  they 
should  immediately  go  with  him,  armed. — Polyaenus  said,  he 
praised  them,  that  they  had  taken  arms  promptly16;  but  he 
would  praise  them  still  more,  if  they  would  use  them,  only17 
when  forced  by  the  last18  necessity. — Scipio  said,  that  great 
and  generally  just  contentions19  arise20,  when  something  is 
demanded  by  friends,  which  is  unjust21.  Scipio  told  the  Sen¬ 
ators,  if  they  would  appoint22  his  brother  L.  Scipio  to  the 
province  of  Greece,  that  he  would  go  with  him  as  legate. 

1  esse  omnino  nihil  (is  —  nothing).  2agere.  3  fundi.  4 aequabiliter. 

6  separabilis.  *  (omitted  in  Latin).  s  ut.  7exire.  8fines.  9copiae.  10  po¬ 
tiri.  11  praestare.  12  deliberare.  13  Idus  Apriles.  14  tantum  malum  (situa¬ 
tion  so  disastrous).  13  audere  (part,  in  dus).  16impigre.  17  nisi.  18  ulti¬ 
mus.  19  dissidium.  20nasci.  21  non  rectus.  22decernere. 

(2)  The  senators  cried  out1  in  indignation2,  that,  if  there 
were  magistrates  in  the  state,  there  would  have  been  no  as¬ 
sembly3,  except4  one  commanded  by  the  state5.  Now  the 
state  was  dispersed  and  divided6  into  a  thousand  curiae  and 
assemblies7.  Truly8,  a  single  man,  such9  as  Appius  Claudius 
was,  would  have  scattered10  those  assemblies11  in  the  twink¬ 
ling  of  an  eye12. — Tullus  cried13  out  to  his  horsemen  with  a 
loud14  voice,  to15  return;  that  there  was  no  need  of  fear16; 
that,  at  his  command,  the  Albanian  army  wheeled17 round,  for 
the  purpose18  of  assaulting19  theFideni. — Tanaquil  addressed20 
the  people  from  the  upper21  part  of  the  house,  (telling22  them) 
to  be  of  good  courage23 ;  that  the  king  had  been  stunned24  by 
a  sudden25  blow26,  that  the  weapon  had  not  descended  deep27 
into  his  body,  that  he  had  already  come  to  himself,28  and  she 
confidently  hoped29  that  they  would  see  him  the  next  day.  In 
the  mean  time,  they  should  obey  Servius  Tullius;  he  would 
discharge30  the  duties31  of  the  king. — I  exhorted  the  king  to 
use  the  royal  prerogative32  against  those  who  plotted33  for  his 
life,  to  punish34  those  who  must35  be  punished,  and  to  use  the 
protection36  of  my  army,  as  a  terror  to  those  who  are  in  fault37  ; 
(saying)  that  all  would  perceive,  as  soon  as38  they  could  learn 
the  decree  of  the  Senate,  that  I  would  assist39  him,  if  it  was 
necessary. 

'clamare.  2  indignans.  3  concilium.  4  nisi.  5  publicus  (one  —  state). 
c  dissipatus.  7  concio.  8  profecto.  9  qualis  (such  as).  10  discutere .  "coe¬ 
tus.  12  momento  temporis.  13  acclamare.  14  clarus.  15  ut.  16  trepidatio. 
17  circumduci.  18  ut.  19  invadere  in  aliquem.  20  alloqui.  21  superior. 


364 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§434. 


29  (omitted  in  Latin).  "animus.  24  sopitus.  25  subitus.  26  ictus.  27 alto, 
"redire,  "confidere  (confidently  hoped).  *  propediem.  30 obire.  31  mu¬ 
nera.  32  jus.  33  insidiatores  (those  who  plot).  34  poena  afficere.  35  ne- 
cesse  esse.  36  praesidium.  37  esse  in  culpa.  33quuin(as — as),  "prae¬ 
sidio  esse. 

(3)  The  ambassador  of  the  Helvetii  spoke1  with  Caesar  in 
the  following  manner2:  If  the  Roman  people  would  make 
peace  with  them,  they  would  go  to  that  quarter3  and  there 
remain*,  where  Caesar  had  appointed4  and  wished  them  to 
remain;  but  if  he  should  continue5  to  pursue  them  with  war, 
he  should  remember  not  only  the  old  defeat6  of  the  Roman 
people,  but  also  the  ancient7  bravery  of  the  Helvetii.  That 
he  had  unexpectedly8  attacked9  one  district10,  when  those, 
who  had  gone  over  the  river,  could  not  assist  their  friends; 
therefore  lie  should  neither  attribute  too  much  to  his  bravery, 
nor  despise'1  them;  they  had  learned12  from  their  parents  and 
ancestors,  that  they  should  contend  more  by  bravery  than  by 
art,  or  (than)  they  should  rely13  upon  treachery14.  Therefore 
he  should  not  permit15,  that  that  place,  where  they  had  en¬ 
camped16,  should  receive17  its  name  or  be  remembered18  by19 
a  defeat20  of  the  Roman  people. 

‘aggre.  2  ita  (following  manner).  3ea  pars.  *esse.  4  constituere. 
5  perseverare.  6  incommodum.  7  pristinus.  s  improviso.  9  adoriri.  10  pa¬ 
gus.  11  despicere.  12  ita  discere.  13  niti.  14  insidiae.  15  committere. 
13 consistere.  17 capere,  "prodere  memorite.  19ex.  20  internecio. 

(4)  Caecinna  told  his  soldiers,  that  their  only  deliverance 
was  in  arms;  but  that  these  must  be  used1  with  judgment2, 
and  they  must  remain  within  the  rampart3,  until  the  enemy 
should  come  up4  nearer;  then  they  must  break5  forth  on6 
all  sides;  by  this  sally7,  they  would  come  to  the  Rhine.  But 
if8  they  should  flee,  still  more  forests  and  deeper9  marshes10 
would  remain11 ;  but  honor  and  glory  would  be  the  lot12  of 
the  conquerors. — Romulus  visited13  the  indignant  Sabine 
women  and  informed14  them,  that  this  had  happened  by  the 
arrogance  of  their  fathers,  who  had  refused15  marriage16  to 
their  neighbors;  yet  they  (the  women)  would  live  in  matri¬ 
mony,  and  share17  in  all  their  fortunes  and  in  the  state.  That 
they  should  only  mitigate18  their  auger,  and  give  their  affec¬ 
tions19  to  them,  to  whom  fate  had  given  their  bodies.  That 
friendship20  had  often  afterwards  arisen  from  injury,  and  they 
would  have*  so  much  better  husbands21,  because  each  would 
strive22  to  his  utmost23  to  allay24  desire  for  their  parents25 
and  country. 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 


365 


§  434.] 

1  temperare.  2  consilium.  3  vallum.  4  succedere.  s  erumpere.  6  ab. 

7  eruptio.  8  quod  si.  9  profundus.  10  palus.  11  superesse.  12  obtingere. 
13  circumire.  14  docere.  15  negare.  10  connubium.  17  in  societate  esse. 
18  mollire.  19  animus.  20  gratia.  *  uti.  21  vir.  22  eniti.  23  pro  se  (to  his 
utmost).  24  explere.  25  (genitive). 

(5)  After  the  death  of  Augustus,  Tiberius  discoursed1 
much,  in  the  senate,  of  the  extent  of  the  empire,  with  the 
modesty  peculiar2  to  himself.  He  said,  that  the  mind3  of  the 
divine  Augustus  alone4  was  capable5  of  so  great  a  weight6, 
that  he  (Tiberius),  whom  Augustus  had  called  to  share7  his 
duties,  had  learned  by  experience8,  how  arduous  and  subject9 
to  fate  is  the  charge  of  ruling'0  everything.  Hence,  in  a 
state,  which  had  such  an  abundance11  of  distinguished  men, 
they  should  not  impose12  all  things  on  one ;  if  several  would 
unite13  their  labors,  they  would  perform14  the  duties15  of  the 
state  more  easily. 

When,  after  the  death  of  Augustus,  disturbances16  had 
broken  out17  in  Pannonia,  Blesus  said  with  much  art,  that 
the  wishes18  of  the  soldiers  must  not  be  conveyed  to  Caesar 
by  sedition  and  insurrections19.  Neither  the  ancient20  sol¬ 
diers  had  demanded21  of  their  commanders  anything  so  un¬ 
precedented22,  nor  had  they  themselves,  of  the  deceased23 
Augustus;  that  the  cares  of  the  new  sovereign  had  been  in¬ 
creased24  at  an  unfavorable  time25.  Yet,  if26  they  endeavor¬ 
ed27  to  seek28  it  peacefully29,  why  did  they  think30  of  violtnce? 
They  should  appoint31  ambassadors,  and  should  give  com¬ 
mands  to  them  in  his  presence32. 

1  disserere.  2  suus  (peculiar  to  himself).  3  mens.  4  solus.  5  capax. 
6  moles.  7  in  partem.  8experiri.  9subjectus.  10regere.  11  refertum  esse 
(to  have  abundance).  12  deferre  ad  aliquem.  13  sociare.  14  exsequi. 
15  munia.  16  motus.  17  exoriri.  18  desiderium.  19  turba.  20  vetus.  21  ex¬ 
postulare.  22  novus.  23  divus.  24  onerare.  25  parum  in  tempore  (at  — 
time).  26  si  tamen.  27tentare.  28  tendere.  29  in  pace.  30  meditari.  31  de¬ 
cernere.  32  coram  (in  presence). 

(6)  The  ancients  relate  a  very  wonderful  dream:  When 
two  friends1,  from  Arcadia,  were  travelling2  together3,  and 
had  come  to  Megara,  one  took  lodgings4  with  a  landlord5,  the 
other  with  a  friend*.  When  (ut)  they  had  retired  to  rest6 
after  eating7,  at  midnight8,  while  asleep,  it  seemed  to  the  one 
who  was  entertained9  by  his  friend,  that  the  other  asked  him 
to  come  to  his  help10,  because  the  landlord  was  preparing  to 
kill  him.  He,  frightened11  by  the.  dream,  at  first  rose  up ; 
afterwards,  when  he  had  collected  himself,  and  thought  that 
he  must  consider12  the  dream  as  nothing,  he  laid  down  again13. 

31* 


366 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS, 


[§  434. 


Then  it  seemed  to  him,  while  asleep14,  as  though15  the  same 
asked  him,  because**  he  had  not  come  to  help  him  while 
alive16,  not  to  suffer17  his  death  to  be  unrevenged18;  that  he 
had  been  murdered  by  the  landlord,  and  placed19  in  a  cart,  and 
that  dung20  had  been  thrown21  over22  him ;  he  asked  him  to 
be  at23  the  gate  in  the  morning24,  before  the  cart  went  out  of 
the  city.  Moved  by  this  dream,  he  was  present25  at  the  gate 
early  with  the  teamster26;  he  asked  him,  what  be  had  in  the 
cart;  he  frightened,  fled, — the  dead  man  was  dug27  out,  and 
the  landlord,  after  the  affair  had  been  made  known28,  was 
punished29. 

1  familiaris  Arcas  (a  friend  from  A.).  2  iter  facere.  3  una.  4  deverte¬ 
re  ad  aliquem.  5  caupcf.  *  hospes.  6  quiescere.  7  coenatus  (after  eat¬ 
ing).  “concubia  nox.  9  in  hospitio  esse  (who —  friend).  10  subvenire. 
11  perterritus.  12  visum  pro  nihilo  habere  (dream — nothing).  13  recum¬ 
bere.  14  dormiens.  15  ut.  **  quoniam.  16  vivus.  17  pati.  18  inultus.  19  in¬ 
jicere.  20  stercus.  21  conjicere.  22  supra.  23  adesse.  24  mane.  25  praesto 
alicui  esse.  26  bubulcus.  27  eruere.  28  patefacere.  29  poenas  dare. 

II.  Examples  of  direct  discourse,  from  io  hick 
narrative  discourse  is  to  be  formed. 

(1)  Caesar  Octavianus  wrote  back1  to  Tiberius,  who  asked 
for  a  Grecian  client :  I  will  not  grant2  it,  unless  I  shall  have 
persuaded3  myself,  with  my  own  eyes*,  how  just  reasons  you 
have  to  ask.  Drusus  read  aloud4  the  letter  of  his  father,  in 
which  it  was  written :  1  have5  a  special  concern  for  the 
bravest  legions,  with  whom  I  have  waged  very  many  wars. 
As  soon  as  my  mind  shall  have  recovered6  from  grief7,  I 
will  deliberate8  with  the  fathers  respecting9  your  demands10. 
In  the  mean  time,  I  have  sent  my  son  to  grant11,  without  de¬ 
lay12,  what  can  be  immediately  allowed13;  the  rest  must  be 
reserved14  for  the  Senate. 

Tiberius,  who  wished  Germanicus  to  return  from  Germany, 
reminded  him  in  many15  letters  (saying):  Return  to  the 
appointed16  triumph :  you  have  fought  successful  and  great 
battles;  but  remember17  also  the  dreadful18  losses19  which  the 
wind  and  floods  have  occasioned20.  I  was  sent  nine  times21, 
by  the  god-like22  Augustus,  to  Germany,  and  have  accom¬ 
plished23  more  by  wisdom24  than  by  force.  The  Cherusci 
and  the  other  people  of  the  insurgents25  can  be  left26  to  their 
internal27  dissensions28,  if  the  resentment29  of  the  Romans  is 
satisfied. 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 


367 


§434.] 

describere.  2  dare.  3  persuadere.  *  praesens  (with — eyes).  4  reci¬ 
tare.  5esse.  °  requiescere.  7luctus.  8  agere.  9  de.  10  postulatum.  "con¬ 
cedere.  12  cunctatio.  13  tribuere.  14  servare.  15  creber.  16  decretus. 
17  meminisse.  18saevus.  19  damnum.  20  inferre.  21  novies  22  divus. 
23  perficere.  24  consilium.  23  rebellis.  26  relinquere.  27  domesticus. 
28  dissidium.  29  ultio  Romana  (resentment  of  Rom.). 

(2)  The  inhabitants1  of  Praeneste,  enemies  of  the  Romans, 
pitched2  their  camp  not  far  from  the  river  Allia,  and  boast¬ 
ed3  to*  each  other  :  We  have  occupied  a  place  unfortunate4 
for  the  city  Rome.  There  will  be  fear  and  flight  from  this 
place,  as5  there  was  in  the  Gallic  war.  For,  if  the  Romans 
fear6  the  day,  distinguished7  by  the  name  of  this  place,  how 
much  more  will  they  tremble8  before  Allia  itself.  Truly,  the 
fierce9  forms10  of  the  Gauls,  and  the  sound  of  their  voices  will 
be  before  their  eyes  and  ears. 

The  Romans,  on  the  contrary,  said11 :  Wherever  the  La¬ 
tins  are,  there  we  know  well,  that  they  are  such12  as  we  have 
conquered13  at  lake  Regillus,  and,  by  a  peace  of  a  hundred 
years,  held**  subjects14  to  us.  The  place,  distinguished  by 
the  memory  of  the  defeat,  will  rather  incite15  us  to  efface  the 
remembrance  of  the  disgrace16,  than  cause17  fear,  that  any 
ground  will  be  inauspicious18  to  our  victory.  Nay19,  if  the 
Gauls  even20  should  present21  themselves  to  us  in  this  place, 
we  would  fight  as  we  fought  at  Rome,  in  regaining22  our 
country,  and  as  at  Gabii,  on  the  following  day,  we  effected23 
that  no  enemy,  w'ho  had  entered24  the  city25  Rome,  could 
carry26  home  the  news  of  success27  or  defeat. 

'Praenestini.  2  ponere.  3  jactare.  *  inter.  4  fatalis.  5  ac.  6  timere. 
7  insignis.  8  reformidare.  9  trux.  10  species.  11  (omitted).  12  is.  ^devic¬ 
tus.  **  tenere.  14  obnoxius.  15  irritare.  16  dedecus.  17  facere.  18  nefas¬ 
tus.  19quin.  20ipse.  21  offerre.  22  repetere.  23efficere.  24  intrare  locum. 
25  moenia  Romana.  26  perferre.  27  secunda  advereaque  fortuna  (success 
or  defeat). 

(3)  When  Scipio  had  conducted1  very  kindly2  towards  the 
Spaniards,  the  multitude  which  had  crowded3  around  him, 
with  great  unanimity4  called  him  king.  Then,  when  he  had 
requested*  silence  by  a  herald,  he  said  :  My  greatest  name 
is  Imperator,  by  u'hich  my  soldiers  have  named  me;  the 
name  of  king  is,  in  other  places5,  great;  in  Rome,  intolera¬ 
ble;  I  have6  a  kingly  heart:  if  you  consider  that  noble7  in 
the  mind8  of  man,  think9  so  in  silence10,  but  forbear11  the 
use12  of  that  word13. 

Answer  was  made14  by  the  Gauls  to  the  ambassadors  of  the 
Romans :  Although  we,  for  the  first  time,  hear  of  the  name 


368 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


ft  434. 

of  the  Romans,  yet  we  believe,  that  you  are  brave  men,  since 
the  inhabitants15  of  Clusium,  in  their  trouble16,  have  asked17 
your  aid  ;  and  because18  you  have  preferred19  to  protect  your 
allies  by  an  embassy20,  rather  than  by  arms,  we  by  no  means 
refuse21  the  peace  which  you  offer,  if  the  inhabitants  of  Clu¬ 
sium,  who  have  more22  land  than  they  cultivate,  will  give23 
to  us  who  are  in  need24,  a  part  of  their  territory25  ;  otherwise26 
peace  cannot  be  obtained27.  We  wish  not  only  to  hear  and 
answer  in  your  presence28,  but,  if  the  land  is  refused29  us, 
we  will  also30  fight  in  your  presence,  in  order  that  you  may 
be  able  to  announce31  at  home,  how  far  the  Gauls  excel32 
other  men  in  bravery. 

gerere.  2  perhumaniter.  3  circumfusus  (which — him).  4  consen¬ 
sus.  *  facere.  5  alibi.  6  esse  in  aliquo.  7  amplus.  8  ingenium.  9 judicare. 
10 tacite,  "abstinere.  12 usurpatio.  13 vox.  14  dare.  15  Clusini.  16 res 
trepida.  17  implorare.  18  quoniam.  19  malle.  20  legatio.  21  aspernari. 
22 latius.  23  concedere.  24 egere  (participle.)  25 fines.  26 aliter,  ^impe¬ 
trare.  28  coram.  29  negare.  30  idem.  31  nuntiare.  32  praestare. 

(4)  Hannibal  sent  messengers  to  the  petty  kings1  of  Gaul 
with  this  commission:  I  wish  in  person2  to  speak  with  you; 
either  do  you  come3  nearer  to  Illiberi,  or  I  will  come*  to 
Ruscino,  that  the  meeting4  may  be  easier  from  a  near5  place; 
for  I  will  receive  you  early  at  rny  tent,  nor  will  I  delay6  to 
come  to  you  myself.  For  I  have  come,  as  a  friend7  of  Gaul, 
not  as  an  enemy,  and,  if  you  permit8  it,  I  will  not  draw9  the 
sword,  until  I  shall  have  come  to  Italy. 

Alexander,  at  a  feast,  dared  to  disparage10  the  actions  of 
his  father.  The  famous  battle  at  Chaeronea  was  my  work11, 
said  he,  and  the  glory  of  the  great  achievement  has  been 
taken12  from  me  by  the  envy13  and  jealousy  of  my  father  ;  I 
protected14  the  body  of  my  father  by  my  shield,  and  his  as¬ 
sailants15  were  killed16  by  my  hand.  This  he  never  willing¬ 
ly17  acknowledged18,  since  he  was  unwilling19  to  owe20  his  life 
to  his  son. 

’regulus.  2  ipse.  3  accedere.  *  procedere.  4  congressus.  5  propin¬ 
quum,  (near  place).  6  procedere  cunctanter  (delay  to  come).  7hospes. 
8  per  me  licet  (I  permit).  9  stringere.  10  obterere.  11  opus  (in  geni¬ 
tive).  12  adimere.  13  malignitas,  "protegere.  l5ruere.  16occidere. 
17  aequo  animo.  18  confiteri.  19  invitus.  20  debere  (indicative). 

(5)  When  the  report  of  Alexander’s  death  had  been  brought 
to  the  wife  of  Darius,  she  lamented1  the  dead  and  the  living 
at  the  same  time.  For  who,  said  she,  will  now  care2  for  me 
and  my  daughter  ?  Who  will  be  another  Alexander  ?  Twice3 


§  434.] 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 


369 


have  we  been  taken  prisoners;  twice  have  we  lost4  the  king¬ 
dom.  Truly5,  we  shall  find  no  one  who  regards6  us. 

After  Syracuse  was  taken,  Titus  Manlius  spoke  as  follows 
in  the  Senate:  War  must  be  waged  with  tyrants;  Syracuse, 
that  most  beautiful  and  famous  city,  the  granary7  and  formerly8 
the  treasury9  of  the  Roman  people,  has  been  destroyed10,  by 
whose  munificence  and  gifts,  the  state  has  been  assisted  and 
embellished11  in  many  times  of  difficulty19,  and,  finally13,  in 
this  very14  Punic  war.  If  king  Hiero,  the  most  faithful  ad¬ 
herent15  of  the  Roman  government,  should  arise16  from  the 
grave17,  with  what  countenance18  could  one  show19  to  him 
Syracuse  or  Rome,  since,  when20  he  has  beheld  the  half-de¬ 
stroyed21  and  plundered22  country,  he  will  see,  as  he  enters23 
Rome,  the  spoils  of  his  country  at  the  vestibule  of  the  city. 

‘deplorare.  2  agere  curam.  3  iterum.  4  excidere  aliqua  re.  5  utique. 
6respicere.  7  horreum,  ^quondam.  9aerarium.  10  perire.  11  ornare. 
12  tempestas  (time  of  difficulty).  “denique.  14  ipse.  “cultor.  ‘6exis- 
tere.  17  inferi.  18  os.  19(see  §  218).  20  ubi.  21  semirutus.  22  spoliatus. 
23  ingredieris  locum. 

(6)  Gracchus,  when  surrounded1  by  the  multitude  of  the 
enemy,  sprang2  from  his  horse,  and  ordered3  the  soldiers  to  do 
the  same,  and  animated  them,  (saying) :  Let  us  honor4  by 
our  bravery  the  only  thing  which5  fortune  has  left6  to  us. 
But  what  is  left  to  some  few,  who  have  been  surrounded  in  a 
valley,  shut7  in  by  woods  and  mountains,  but8  death?  The 
only  question9  now  is,  whether  we,  delivering10  up  our  bodies 
like  beasts*,  shall  be  slain11  unrevenged12,  or  whether,  stain¬ 
ed13  with  their  blood,  we  shall  fall  among  the  accumulated14 
corpses  of  the  expiring  enemy. — Furius  impaired15  the  author¬ 
ity  of  his  colleague  Camillus,  when  he  said:  Wars  are  de¬ 
signed16  for  young  men.  Courage  grows17  and  decays18  with 
the  body;  from  a  most  efficient19  warrior20,  Camillus  has  be¬ 
come  a  loiterer21,  and  he,  who  at  his  coming22,  was  wont  to 
capture23  camps  and  cities,  in  the  first  assault24,  now  sits  in¬ 
active25  within26  the  walls,  and  wastes27  time.  The  measures28 
of  an  old29  man  are  inefficient30  and  weak31 ;  and  he  has  not 
only  lived32  long  enough,  but  has  obtained33  glory  enough. 
Of  what  use34  is  it  to  suffer35,  that  the  strength  of  the  state, 
which  ought36  to  be  immortal,  should  grow  feeble37  with  a 
single  mortal  body  ? 

‘circumvenire.  2desilire.  3jubere.  4  cohonestare.  5 quod  unura  (the 
only  thing  which).  6  reliquus  facere.  7  septus.  8  praeter.  9  id  modo  re¬ 
ferre.  10  praebere.  *  modo.  “trucidare.  12  inultus.  13  perfundere,  “cu¬ 
mulare.  “elevare.  16 dare.  17  vigere.  18  deflorescere.  19  acerrimus. 


370 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  434. 

20  bellator.  21  cunctator.  22  adveniens.  23  rapere.  24  impetus.  25  esse  re- 
sidem.  20  intra.  27  terere.  28  consilium.  29  senex.  30  frigere.  31  torpere. 
32  vitae  satis  alicui  esse.  33es se.  34attinere.  35 pati.  36decere.  37  conse¬ 
nescere. 

(7)  After  Perseus  had  given  a  successful  battle  to  the  Ro¬ 
man  consul,  and  the  king  was  holding1  a  consultation2  re¬ 
specting  his  situation3,  some  friends  ventured  to  give  him 
counsel,  to  use  his  good  fortune4  for5  the  stipulation  of  an 
honorable6  peace.  A  man,  prudent  and  deservedly7  successful, 
said  they,  knows8  how9  to  be  moderate10  in  his  success*,  and 
not  to  trust11  too  much  the  serenity12  of  present  fortune.  Send 
ambassadors  to  the  consul,  to13  renew  an  alliance  on14  the 
same  conditions15,  on  which  your  father  Philip  obtained  peace 
of  the  Romans.  A  war  is  not  ended  more  honorably  than 
after16  so  remarkable17  a  battle.  But  if  even  then,  the  Romans, 
according  to  their  natural18  stubbornness19,  reject20  just21  con¬ 
ditions,  gods  and  men  will  be  witnesses  both  of  your  modera¬ 
tion  and  of  their  insolent22  haughtiness. — When  Alexander 
had  treated  the  captive  wife  of  Darius  very  kindly23,  she  thus 
said  :  O  king,  you  deserve24  that  we  should  entreat25  for  you 
what  we  once  entreated  for  our  Darius;  and  you  are  worthy, 
since  you  have  surpassed  so  great  a  king,  not  only  in  fortune, 
but  also  in  equity.  You,  indeed26,  call  me  mother  and  queen  ; 
but  I  confess  that  I  am  your  slave27.  It  concerns28  you  very 
much  to  show29  rather  by  kindness30  than  by  cruelty,  what 
you  have  the  power31  to  do  towards  us. 

habere.  2consilium.  3summa.  4fortuna  secunda.  5  in  (with  acc.). 
6honestus.  7  merito.  8esse  alicujus.  9  (omitted  in  Latin).  10 modum 
imponere.  *  res  secundae.  Hconfidere.  ,2serenitas.  13(see  §  311). 
14  in  (with  acc.).  15  lex.  16  a.  17  memorabilis.  18  insitus.  19  pertinacia. 
20 aspernari.  21  aequa  (just  conditions).  22  pervicax.  23 humaniter. 
24  mereri.  25  precari.  26  quidem.  27  famula.  28  interesse.  29  testari.  30  cle¬ 
mentia.  31  licere  (to  have  the  power). 

(8)  Because  many  embassies  of  Antiochus  had  before 
been  in  vain1  sent  to  the  Romans,  respecting2  peace,  a  new 
ambassador  appeared,  who  said:  I  have3  confidence4,  that  I 
shall  obtain5  what  former  ambassadors  have  not  obtained. 
For  hitherto  many  cities  in  Asia  Minor  and  Lysimachia  in 
Europe,  have  been  a  bone6  of  contention  in  those  quarrels7. 
Of  these,  the  king  has  given8  up  Lysimachia,  that  it  may  not 
be  said,  he  possesses  anything  in  Europe.  But  those  cities, 
which  are  in  Asia,  he  is  ready  to  surrender,  and  whatever9 
others  the  Romans  wish  to  claim10  from  the  royal  dominion, 
because  they  hav  e  been  on  our  side11 ;  the  king  will  also  pay12 


§§  435,  436. 


SUPINES. 


371 


half13  of  the  expense  to  the  Roman  people.  The  rest  of  his 
speech  was  nearly  as  follows :  Remember  human  destiny14, 
and  be  sober15  in  your  prosperity16,  and  do  not  aggravate17 
the  misfortune18  of  another.  Terminate  your  kingdom  by 
Europe;  this  is  already  immeasurable.  Single  parts19  can 
be  more  easily  obtained20  by  conquest21,  than  the  whole22  can 
be  held23  together.  But  if  you  wish  to  take24  a  part  of  Asia 
also,  only25  do  not  bound26  your  kingdom  by  doubtful27  lands. 
For  the  sake28  of  peace  and  union,  the  king  will  permit29  his 
moderation  to  be  surpassed30  by  Roman  cupidity. 

'nequicquam.  2de.  3  esse.  4  fiducia.  5  impetrare.  6  jactari  (to  be  — 
contention).  7  disceptatio.  8  cedere  aliqua  re.  9  si  quis  alius.  10  vindi¬ 
care.  11  partium  alicujus  esse.  12  praestare.  13  pars  dimidia  impensarum. 
14res  humanae.  15inoderari.  16fortuna.  17  urgere.  18  fortuna  aliena 
(misfortune  of  another).  19  singula  (single  parts).  29  parare.  21  acqui¬ 
rere.  22  universa.  23  tenere  (held  together).  24  abstrahere.  20  dummodo 
ne.  26 finire.  27 dubius.  28 causa.  29 pati.  30  vincere. 

SUPINES. 

435.  Both  the  supines  are  considered  as  parts  of  the  verb. 
But  only  the  first  in  urn  can  be  properly  so  viewed,  inas¬ 
much  as  it  alone  can  govern  the  same  case  as  its  verb.  On 
the  contrary,  the  second,  in  u,  never  governs  a  case,  and  actu¬ 
ally  occurs  only  in  a  very  few  verbs.  Neither  of  them  ad¬ 
mits  an  adverb  ;  we  cannot  say,  suppliciter  rogatum,  to 
ask  in  a  suppliant  manner  ;  patienter  toleratu,  to  he  home 
patiently.  Their  use  is  as  follows  : 

First  S  up  in  e  in  u  m. 

436.  This  supine  depends  upon  a  verb,  which  implies  a 
motion ,  in  order  to  do  something.  The  English  verb  which 
denotes  the  design  of  that  motion,  is  expressed  by  the  supine 
in  urn.  We  indicate  this  design  by  to  or  in  order  to.  This 
supine  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb;  e.  g.  I  have  come 
to  ask  you,  t  e  oratum  (rogatum);  Hannibal  was  re¬ 
called  to  defend  his  country,  patriam  defensum.  It 
also  occurs  without  an  accusative;  e.  g.  I  give  him  a  place 
to  sit,  eum  sessum  recipio ;  the  hoys  go  to  play,  lusum 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


372 


[§§  437—439. 


eunt ;  the  cattle  go  to  drink,  aquatum;  let  us  go  to  bathe , 
lavatum. 

437.  Sometimes  also  it  can  be  rendered  by  a  substantive 
or  a  preposition  and  a  substantive,  especially  after  the  verb 
to  go;  e.  g.  To  go  a  fishing,  piscatum  ire;  to  go  a 
hunting,  ire  venatum;  to  bed,  dormitum  or  cubi¬ 
tum;  into  exile,  e  x  u  I  a  t  u  m  ;  to  go  for  plunder,  prae¬ 
datum  ire,  etc. 

438.  The  verb  ire  with  the  supine,  denotes  the  aiming  at 
something,  to  wish,  to  be  ready,  to  make  preparations,  to  in¬ 
tend,  the  resolution  to  do  something ;  it  is  often  used,  also, 
for  the  simple  verb  from  which  the  gerund  comes,  to  express 
the  idea  with  more  vivacity  and  force  ;  e.  g.  Why  do  you 
hurry  to  destruction,  or  why  will  you  destroy  yourself  ?  Cur 
te  is  perditum?  instead  of  perdes;  dishonest  men  will 
take  ( are  ready  to  take)  from  the  deserving  their  rewards, 
ereptum  eunt;  preparations  are  making  to  besiege  the 
city,  urbem  oppugnatum  itur.  Hence  ire  with  the 
supine  can  be  used  in  many  connections  for  the  future  active 
infinitive  ;  e.  g.  I  believe  that  he  will  besiege  the  city,  eum 
urbem  oppugnatum  ire,  for  oppugnaturum  esse. 
So  also,  the  future  infinitive  passive  consists  of  iri  and  the 
supine. 

According  to  the  preceding  remarks,  verbs  of  motion,  when 
they  denote  that  for  which  the  action  is  done,  often  take  a  su¬ 
pine.  But  it  is  to  be  noticed,  that  verbs  of  haste,  fe  s  t  i  n  a  r  e, 
properare,  accelerare,  maturare  are  exceptions, 
as  they  never  admit  a  supine,  but  take  the  infinitive  simply; 
e.  g.  Scipio  hastened  to  besiege  the  city,  oppugn  a  r  e  fes¬ 
tinavit ;  Caesar  hastened  to  return  to  his  country,  redire 
properavit. 

439.  As  even  this  first  supine  occurs  but  seldom,  not  be¬ 
ing  found  at  all  in  many  verbs,  and  in  others,  although  it  has 
an  apparent  existence,  not  being  used,  other  constructions 
supply  its  place. 


§  440.] 


SUPINES. 


373 


Here  belong : 

(1)  Constructions  with  ut,  for  which  also  qui  can  be  sub¬ 
stituted  ;  e.  g.  instead  of  veni  vos  liberatu  m,  I  came  to 
free  you ,  it  can  also  be  written,  ut  (q  u  i)  vos  liberarem. 
Antiochus  sent  ambassadors  thither  to  manage  the  affair  bet¬ 
ter,  ut  (qui)  rem  melius  agerent;  where,  on  account  of 
melius,  a  supine  is  never  admissible. 

(2)  With  causa  and  the  genitive  of  the  gerund,  or  the  ver¬ 
bal  adjective,  where  it  occurs ;  e.  g.  V  o  s  1  i  b  e  r  a  n  d  i  cau¬ 
sa,  or  vestri  liberandi  causa;  rem  melius  agen¬ 
di  causa,  or  rei  melius  agendae  causa. 

(3)  With  ad  and  the  accusative  of  the  gerund  or  verbal' 
adjective;  e.  g.  Ad  vos  liberandos,  ad  rem  melius 
agendam. 

(4)  With  the  future  active  participle,  which  must  refer  to 
the  person,  whether  expressed  by  a  substantive  or  pronoun, 
who  is  described  as  wishing  to  do  something,  e.  g.  Vos  li¬ 
beraturus  (I  who  would  wish  to  free  you)  ;  legatos  rem 
melius  acturos  (ambassadors  who  would  wish  to  do). 

Care  should  be  taken,  not  to  use  this  supine  after  words  which 
do  not  imply  motion,  although  the  purpose  is  denoted  by  to  or  in  or¬ 
der  to  ;  e.  g  He  gave  me  a  book  to  read,  not  lectum;  I  have  selected 
this  country-seat  to  spend  my  life  there ,  not  actum. 

Second  Supine  in  u. 

440.  This  supine,  which  occurs  still  less  frequently  than 
the  other,  and  which  we  translate  sometimes  actively,  and 
sometimes  passively,  is  used  : 

(1)  With  some  adjectives,  in  order  to  show  more  definite¬ 
ly,  in  what  respect  the  adjective  belongs  to  the  substantive, 
which  it  qualifies.  Thus,  e.  g.  Auditu,  lectu,  cognitu,  dictu , 
signify,  in  respect  to  hearing,  reading,  knowing,  saying  or 
relating.  This  supine  depends  on  such  adjectives  as  worthy, 
useful,  remarkable,  easy,  difficult,  pleasant,  unpleasant,  cred¬ 
ible,  incredible,  clear,  dark,  likely ,  fit,  disgraceful,  laudable , 
large,  etc. ;  e.  g.  This  book  is  useful  to  read,  lectu  utilis 

32 


374 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  441,442. 


est;  this  wine  is  pleasant  to  drink,  potu  est  jucundum; 
what  is  better  to  be  avoided,  what  to  be  sought,  quid  est  melius 
vitatu,  quid  petitu?  Here,  also,  belong  the  substan¬ 
tives,/^,  nefas  and  opus,  which  are  so  often  used. 

441.  (2)  With  some  verbs  which  denote  a  removal  from 
some  place  or  thing.  But  the  few  supines  occurring  in  such 
connections,  are  evidently  nothing  but  substantives  ;  e.  g.  To 
arise  from  bed,  c  u  bl  t  u  surgere  ;  to  return  from  hunting, 
venatu  redire. 

442.  Since  this  second  supine  occurs  so  seldom,  and  with 
most  verbs  is  not  used  at  all,  its  place  can  easily  be  supplied 
by  another  construction.  Thus  with  dignus  and  indignus, 
qui  is  oftener  used.  Comp.  §  309.  The  use  of  ad  with  the 
gerund  particularly  belongs  here.  Thus,  in  Cicero,  difficilis 
ad  intelligendum,  for  intellectu;  facilis  ad  ju¬ 
dica  n  d  u  m,  for  j  u  d  i  c  a  t  u ;  jucundus  ad  audiendum, 
for  auditu,  and  so  others.  Cicero  says  of  pain,  which  is 
difficult  to  be  borne,  in  one  place,  difficilis  perpessu,  in 
other  places,  difficilis  ad  patiendum  tolerandum  que. 

Examples  on  §§  435 — 442. 

In  panegyrics1,  it  is  most  pleasant  to  hear  the  virtues  of 
justice,  clemency  and  generosity.  Alexander  determined  to 
cross  the  Hyphasis,  which  was  difficult  to  cross.  The  sol¬ 
diers,  who,  for  the  purpose  of  forage2,  had  gone  too  far,  could 
not  return.  Whoever  goes  to  bed  at3  the  tenth  hour  and  rises 
at  the  fifth  hour,  follows4  the  prescriptions  of  physicians.  To 
go  a  hunting  is  a  healthful  exercise.  It  is  an  excellent  pre¬ 
cept  of  Quintilian,  that  parents  should  do  nothing  in  the 
presence5  of  their  children,  which  is  base6,  nor  say  what  it  is 
disgraceful  to  hear.  A  common7  soldier,  who  had  gone  from 
the  camp  to  fetch  water8,  found  a  concealed9  way  to  the 
fortress10,  which  was  very  difficult  to  ascend.  Although  every¬ 
thing  which  happens  here,  is  painful11  to  hear,  yet  it  is  more 
supportable12  to  hear  than  to  see  it.  The  shorter  a  narration 
is,  the  more  clear13  and  easy  to  be  understood14  will  it  be15. 
If  the  sleeping  did  everything  they  dream16,  all  who  go  to  bed, 
ought  to  be  bound17.  Tarpeia,  at  that  time,  had  perchance18 


§  443.] 


PARTICIPLES. 


375 


gone  out  of  the  fort,  to  fetch19  water  for  the  sacrifice20.  The 
sons  of  Ancus  went  to  Suessa  Pometia  into  exile.  Pain  is 
something  which  is  severe21,  contrary  to  nature22  and  hard  to 
endure23.  A  united24  cry  is  something  which  is  unimportant25 
to  mention26,  but  of  great  importance27  in  an  engagement28. 
When  Virgil  and  Maecenas  had  come  to  Capua,  the  former 
went  to  sleep,  but  the  latter  to  play.  You  came  into  these 
regions  rather  to  weep29  than  to  swim30.  How31  is  it,  Cassius  1 
Shall32  we  sit,  although  we  have  not  come  to  annoy*,  but  to 
encourage  you  ?  The  human  mind  can  be  compared  with  no 
other33  than  with  God  himself,  if  it  is  proper34  to  say  this. 

'laudatio.  2  pabulari.  3  sub.  4  sequi.  5  coram.  e  foedus.  7  miles  gre¬ 
garius.  8  aquari.  9  opertus.  10 castellum,  "acerbus.  32  tolerabilis. 
13  dilucidus.  14  cognoscere.  15  fieri.  16  somniare.  17  alligare.  18  forte. 
19  petere.  20  saera, -orum.  21  asper.  22  contra  naturam.  23  perpeti.  24  con¬ 
gruens.  25  parvus.  26  dicere.  27  momentum.  28  res  agenda.  29  plorare. 
30  natare.  31  quid.  32  ire  (with  the  interrogative  ne).  *  flagitare.  33  alius 
nullus.  34  fas. 

PARTICIPLES. 

443.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  a  present  and  perfect 
participle,  the  former  active,  denoting  a  continued  or  cotem¬ 
porary  action ,  e.  g.  amans,  loving ,  the  latter  passive,  inclu¬ 
ding  our  perfect  and  compound  perfect,  denoting  an  action 
completed  or  prior  to  some  other  ;  e.  g.  a  m  a  t  u  s,  loving ,  hav¬ 
ing  been  loved.  The  Latin  has  no  participle  corresponding  with 
the  English  comp.  perf.  active,  except  in  deponent  verbs; 
e.  g.  locutus,  having  said.  Besides  the  above,  the  Latin  has 
a  future  active  participle,  and  a  passive  verbal  adjective  or 
fut.  pass.  part,  in  andus  or  tndus ,  which  denotes  what  must 
be  done.  Deponent  verbs  have  all  the  participles  for  the  three 
different  relations  of  time,  present,  past  and  future.  Accord- 
ingly,  from  the  verb  doceo  and  hortor ,  the  following  participles 
come : 

( 1 )  Docens,  one  who  teaches ,  teaching  ;  hortans,  one 
who  exhorts ,  exhorting. 

(2)  Docturus,  one  who  will  teach  ;  hortaturus,  one 
who  will  exhort. 

<3)  Doctu»,  one  who  has  been  taught ,  had  been,  will  have 
been  ;  hortatus,  one  who  exhorted ,  has ,  had ,  will  have. 


376  CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS.  [§§  444 - 447. 

(4)  Docendus,  one  who  must  be  taught ;  hortandus, 
one  who  must  be  exhorted. 

The  verbal  adjective  has  been  treated  above  in  its  appro¬ 
priate  place.  Here  the  usage  of  the  other  participles  will  be 
spoken  of. 

444.  Participles  abridge  the  discourse,  as  the  English  par¬ 
ticiples  also  show  ;  for,  the  singing  bird  enlivens  the  woods , 
is  the  same  as  the  bird,  when  it  sings  (which  sings),  enlivens 
the  woods.  Here  the  participle  serves  merely  to  explain  or  de¬ 
fine  the  substantive. 

445.  Not  only  relative  sentences  with  who,  which,  can  be 
abridged  by  participles,  but  also  such  as  begin  with  con¬ 
junctions,  e.  g.  since,  if,  when,  because,  while,  after ,  although, 
and  the  like,  and  properly  form  introductory  sentences. 

Sentences,  also,  connected  by  and,  can  be  abridged,  and, 
as  will  be  shown  in  the  sequel,  many  substantives  governed 
by  prepositions,  can  be  changed  into  participial  sentences,  be¬ 
cause  they  can  be  resolved  and  expressed  by  conjunctions 
with  a  verb. 

446.  In  Latin,  the  participles  unite  two  sentences  in  one. 
Where  this  is  done,  the  case  of  the  participle  and  the  noun 
or  pronoun  with  which  it  agrees,  either  depends  upon  a  verb 
or  another  word  in  the  sentence  and  is  governed  by  them,  or 
the  participle  with  its  noun  or  pronoun  is  independent  of  any 
other  word.  The  English  uses  the  former  construction  more 
frequently  than  the  latter;  e.  g.  You  heard  me  when  I  said 
this,  me  id  dicentem  audivisti.  An  example  of  the  lat¬ 
ter  is :  t e  recte  loquente,  gaudeo,  when  you  speak 
rightly ,  I  rejoice, — where  the  ablative  te  does  not  depend 
on  gaudeo.  Two  sentences,  therefore,  are  either  connected 
with  and  are  dependent  on  each  other,  or  they  are  not.  The 
former  may  be  called  dependent,  the  latter  independent  sen¬ 
tences. 

447.  When  the  subject  of  that  sentence  which  can  become 
a  participle,  that  is,  the  subject  of  a  participial  sentence,  is 


PARTICIPLES, 


377 


§§  448,  449.] 

repeated  in  the  principal  clause,  and  thus  both  sentences  are 
in  an  intimate  grammatical  connection,  they  are  dependent 
sentences,  and  therefore,  even  in  English,  can  be  abridged 
by  a  participle ;  e.  g.  When  I  say  something  to  you ,  you  believe , 
i,  e,  you  believe  me  saying  something  to  you.  Here  the  subject  /, 
refers  to  the  word  me,  in  the  principal  clause.  When  I  speak , 
my  father  beholds  me,  i.  e.  my  father  beholds  me  speaking . 
Here  also  the  subject  I,  refers  to  (he  word  me,  in  the  princi¬ 
pal  clause.  Thus  both  sentences  are  connected  with,  and  are 
dependent  on,  each  other. 

448.  But  when  the  subject  of  the  participial  sentence  is 
not  repeated  in  the  principal  clause,  and  so  the  two  sentences 
do  not  stand  in  an  intimate  grammatical  connection  with 
each  other,  they  are  independent  sentences,  and,  in  English, 
are  not  usually  abridged  by  a  participle;  When  I  say  any¬ 
thing  to  you,  do  not  believe  all.  When  you  speak,  let  the 
other  keep  silence.  In  both  these  examples,  the  subjects  of 
the  participial  sentences,  viz.  I  and  you ,  are  not  repeated  in 
the  accompanying  principal  clauses.  These  introductory  sen¬ 
tences,  therefore,  can  indeed  be  abridged  in  Latin,  but  they 
form  independent  sentences,  containing  a  complete  idea  in 
themselves. 

The  Latin  usage  will  now  be  more  definitely  stated. 

449.  When  participles  are  used,  the  conjunctions  and  rela¬ 
tive  pronoun  qui  are  omitted,  and  the  English  verb  becomes 
a  participle,  and  such  a  participle  as  the  sentence  and  con¬ 
nection  require. 

The  tenses  compounded  with  the  auxiliary  sum,,  omit  the 
auxiliary  and  retain  the  participle.  Hence  pater  qui  docet 
(docebat),  is  equivalent  to  pater  docens;  pater,  qui  doce¬ 
bit  (docturus  est)  =  pater  docturus;  pater,  qui  doc¬ 
tus  est  (erat,  erit)  =  pater  doctus. 

Since,  as  above  remarked,  participial  sentences  differ  according  to 
the  difference  of  the  sentences  from  which  they  are  formed,  this  wilt 
now  be  considered  more  definitely. 

32* 


378  CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS.  [§§450 - 452. 

(1)  D  epen  dent  ( or  united)  Participial  Sen¬ 
tences. 

450.  Dependent  participial  sentences,  therefore,  are  those 
whose  subject  is  repeated  in  the  principal  clause,  and  thus 
the  two  form  a  whole.  By  rejecting  the  conjunction  or  the 
relative  who,  which ,  one  sentence  is  formed  of  two,  while  the 
verb  of  the  principal  clause  becomes  the  governing  verb,  and, 
hence,  often  changes  the  case  of  the  subject.  The  subject, 
therefore,  with  its  participle,  is  put  in  that  case,  in  which  the 
word  referring  to  it  in  the  principal  sentence,  stands;  e.  g. 
When  the  sun  rises ,  the  Persian  worships  it ;  or,  the  Persian 
worships  the  sun,  when  it  rises.  This  is  expressed  in  one  sen¬ 
tence;  The  Persian  worships  the  rising  sun,  Persa  sol  e  rn 
orientem  adorat. 

When  tico  sentences  are  thus  brought  into  one ,  the  word  which  now 
becomes  superfluous,  must  be  omitted,  consequently  all  pronouns, 
which  refer  to  a  substantive  that  is  now  definite.  But  the  substan¬ 
tive  should  not  be  separated  too  far  from  its  participle,  and  should 
rather  be  placed  before,  than  after  it ;  e.  g.  When  you  are  dead,  how 
will  the  bite  of  wild  beasts  injure  you?  or  ;  How  icill  the  bite  of  icild 
beasts  injure  you,  when,  etc.  ?  Quid  tibi  mortuo  ferarum  morsus 
oberit  ? 

Such  united  sentences  are  formed  : 

451.  (1)  By  the  pronoun  who,  which,  when  it  is  in  the 
nominative.  As  the  participle  contains  that  pronoun  in  it¬ 
self,  it  is  considered  as  a  clause  explanatory  of  that,  to  which 
the  pronoun  refers ;  e.  g.  This  could  perhaps  have  hap¬ 
pened  to  Hercules,  who  teas  the  son  of  Jupiter ,  Herculi  Jo¬ 
vis  satu  edito.  Many  employ  eloquence,  which  has  been  given 
by  nature  for  the  safety  of  man,  to  destroy  the  good ,  elo¬ 
quentiam  a  natura  ad  salutem  hominum  datam. 

452.  When  the  pronoun  who,  which,  is  indefinite  and  is  equi¬ 
valent  to  he,  who,  i.  e.  any  one ,  such,  those,  who,  or  that  or  those, 
which,  these  pronouns  are  omitted,  because  they  are  contained 
in  the  participle ;  for  docens  signifies  he,  who  teaches,  i.  e.  any 
one,  who ;  e.  g.  The  knowledge  of  heavenly  things  gives  en¬ 
larged  views  to  those  (indefinite)  who  behold  the  works  of  God, 


PARTICIPLES. 


379 


§§  453,  454.] 

affert  Dei  opera  cernentibus.  We  readily  yield  to  those 
who  speak  the  truth ,  verum  dicentibus  facile  cedimus  ; 
that  which  is  lightly  got ,  is  lightly  spent ,  male  parta  male 
dilabuntur.  So:  Imperaturus  (one  who  is  to  command) 
omnibus  eligi  debet  omnibus.  Facilius  est  currentem 
(one  who  is  running)  incitare  quam  commovere  1  angue  n- 
t  e  m  (one  who  is  faint).  But  when  who,  ichich ,  refers  to  a 
definite  pronoun,  e.  g.  this,  that  person  or  thing  and  the  like, 
this  pronoun  must  be  used  in  Latin ;  e.  g.  We  must  gratify 
him  (definite),  who,  perhaps  now  for  the  first  time ,  hears  this, 
h  u  i  c  nunc  hoc  primum  fortasse  audienti. 

453.  (’2)  Such  sentences  are  also  formed  by  conjunctions 
which  mark  introductory  sentences,  viz.  as,  since,  because, 
when,  after,  while,  although,  etc.  When  the  subjects  of  these 
introductory  sentences  are  repeated  in  the  principal  senten¬ 
ces,  with  which  they  are  connected,  then  they  become  united 
or  dependent  sentences ;  e.  g.  When  Masinissa  heard  this , 
he  wept  profusely,  Masinissae  haec  audienti  lacrimae  ob¬ 
ortae  sunt.  When  we  look  upon  the  heavens,  it  is  certain  to  us 
that  the  world  is  the  work  of  God,  nobis  coelum  conspi¬ 
cientibus  certum  est.  The  loss  of  time  is  irreparable , 
when  it  is  spent  in  idleness,  jactura  temporis  segnitie 
peracti.  After  Romulus  died,  Numa  Pompilius  succeeded 
him,  Romulo  mortuo  (dative)  successit  N.  P.  The 
authority  of  these,  even  when  they  are  dead,  might  continue 
to  live !  horum  etiam  mortuorum  auctoritas ! 

The  following’ examples  arc  of  the  same  nature:  When  the  Athe¬ 
nians  made  known  their  distress,  help  was  procnised  (promittere)  them. 
What  hope  have  (esse)  you,  when  you  stand  here  idle  ?  After  the  enemy 
had  been  driven  into  the  valley,  the  Romans  surrounded  (cingere)  them. 
The  Grecian  language  must  be  well  understood  by  him,  who  wishes  to 
read  this  book.  The  Romans  levelled  (aequare)  Corinth  with  the  ground, 
after  it  had  been  taken. 


(2)  /  n  d  ep  en  d  cn  t  Participial  Sentences. 

454.  Independent  participial  sentences  are  those  whose 
subject  is  not  repeated  in  the  principal  sentence,  and  where, 


380 


CONSTRUCTION  OR  VERBS. 


[§§  455, 456. 

consequently,  each  sentence  stands  by  itself.  The  Latins 
abridge  such  sentences  by  the  use  of  their  independent  ab¬ 
lative,  which,  on  account  of  the  completeness  of  the  idea,  is 
called  ablative  absolute.  The  ablative  is  particularly  appro¬ 
priate,  because  it  denotes  time,  cause ,  and  other  relations. 
Here  the  subject  and  participle  are  put  in  the  ablative,  and 
the  conjunction  is  omitted. 

455.  Such  sentences  are  formed  only  by  the  conjunctions 
mentioned  above  (§  453) ;  e.  g.  When  the  sun  rises,  the  stars 
vanish,  sole  oriente.  After  Tar  quin  had  been  banished 
from  Rome,  Brutus  was  chosen  consul ,  Tarquinio  urbe 
expulso.  Friendship  prevails  between  good,  men  and  God , 
because  virtue  unites  them ,  virtute  conciliante.  The 
Romans  wished  to  fght,  although  Cicero  opposed,  Cice¬ 
rone  clamante.  When  the  nature  of  all  things  is  known , 
we  are  free  from  fear,  omnium  rerum  natura  cognita. 

Perfect  passive  participles  in  the  neuter,  are  also  used  in 
the  ablative  absolute  without  a  substantive;  e.  g.  audito , 
cognito,  etc.,  for  quum  auditum,  cognitum  esset.  This  is  fre¬ 
quent  in  the  historians.  So  also  auspicato ,  augurato,  for 
quum  auspicatum,  auguratum  esset,  after  the  auspices,  etc., 
had  been  consulted;  sortito,  when  the  lot  was  cast.  Cicero 
and  others  use  these  often  in  the  ablative. 


Remarks. 

456.  (1)  As  many  of  the  foregoing  examples  show,  participial  senten¬ 
ces  in  Latin,  can  denote  the  various  relations  of  time,  manner,  cu  use,  mo¬ 
tive  or  purpose,  and  condition  or  concession.  For  the  sake  of  a  complete 
and  connected  view  of  the  subject,  some  examples  are  here  added  to 
illustrate  each  of  these  relations.  (1)  Time:  e.  g  Pluto  died  while 
writing,  scribens;  after  the  death  of  Trajan,  Hadrian  was  made 
emperor,  mortuo  Trajano;  Tiberius,  when  he  was  about  to  cross 
the  Rhine ,  sent  over  his  provisions ,  trajecturus.  (2)  Manner  :  So¬ 
crates  often,  uttered  truth  in  a  jesting  wav,  ridens.  (3)  Cause  :  I  as¬ 
sert  nothing ,  from  doubt  and  distrust  of  myself ,  dubitans  et  imhi 
ipse  diffidens;  the  Athenians  alleged,  that  Alcibiades  was  unwilling 
to  take  Cyme,  •because  he  had  been  bribed  by  the  king,  corruptum 
noluisse;  Cue!  ms  writes  that  Flaminius  fell  at  Thrusimenvs,  because 
sacred  duties  had  been  neglected  (because  he  had  neglected,  or  on  ac¬ 
count  of  his  neglect  of  sacred  duties),  religione  neglecta.  (4) 


PARTICIPLES. 


381 


§§  457,  458.] 

Motive  or  purpose  :  The  general  retired  to  a  hill  to  defend  himself 
se  defensurus.  Comp.  §  465.  (5)  Condition  or  concession: 

Letters  displease,  if  not  delivered  at  a  fitting  time ,  non  loco  redditae; 
the  greatest  virtues  must  lie  dormant ,  if.  pleasure  rules ,  voluptate 
dominante;  if  ( although )  all  be  lost ,  yet  virtue  can  sustain  itself , 
perditis  omnibus  rebus.  Laughter  bursts  out  so  suddenly , 
that  we  cannot  restrain  it,  if  ( although  or  however  much )  we  desire  to, 
ut  cupientes  tenere  nequeamus. 

(2)  As  there  is  no  participle  to  mark  past  action  in  the  active,  and 
the  sentences  so  expressed  are  often  better  in  an  abridged  form,  such 
active  English  sentences  may  be  changed  into  passive  ones,  because 
the  passive  has  a  past  participle  :  for  is,  quern  amavimus,  is  the 
same  as  amatus  a  nobis  ;  urbem,  quam  v  i  d  i  s  t  i  =  urbem  a 
te  visa  in. 

When  such  a  change  takes  place,  different  participial  sentences 
arise,  for  the  introductory  sentence  either  does,  or  does  not  refer  to  its 
principal  sentence  ;  consequently,  the  participial  sentence  is  either 
united  with  the  principal  sentence  as  one,  or  it  is  expressed  independ¬ 
ently  by  the  ablative  absolute.  It  is  here  to  be  noticed,  that,  when  the 
subject  of  the  principal  sentence  occurs  in  both  sentences,  it  is  stated 
but  once ,  in  Latin,  and  is  joined  with  the  principal  verb.  Examples  : 
After  Alexander  had  taken  Thebes,  he  commanded  it  to  be  destroyed,  i.e. 
Alexander,  after  Thebes  had  been  taken  by  him ,  commanded  it  to  be  de¬ 
stroyed  (a  depend,  particip.  sentence),  Alexander  Thebas  captas 
dirui  jussit(  the  words  by  him  to  be  omitted).  Many  employ  eloquence , 
which  nature  has  given  for  the  safety  of  man  (which  has  been  given 
by  nature),  to  destroy  the  good,  eloquentiam  a  natura  ad  salutem 
h.  datam.  Our  ancestors  lost  this  field,  which  they  received  from 
their  fathers,  hunc  agrum  acceptum  a  patribus  suis.  Cleom¬ 
brotus,  after  he  had  read  Plato's  booh  (  after  Plato’s  book  had  been 
read),  threw  himself  from  the  wall  into  the  sea,  lecto  Platonis  libro. 
After  Horatius  had  killed  the  three  Curiatii,  and  had  lost  his  txco  bro¬ 
thers,  he  returned  home  victorious,  i.  e.  H.,  after  the  three  Curiatii  had 
been  killed  by  him,  and  his  two  brothers  had  been  lost,  returned ,  occi¬ 
sis  tribus  Curiatiis  et  duobus  amissis  fratribus. 

457.  It  is  very  easy  to  translate  such  a  sentence  actively,  when  a 
deponent  verb  can  be  used,  because  then  there  is  a  past  participle 
with  an  active  sense,  therefore,  no  change  into  the  passive  is  needed; 
e.  g.  After  the  consul  had  taken  much  booty,  he  returned  to  his  camp,  ' 
consul  ingenti  praeda  potitus  in  castra  rediit.  A  fierce  contest 
threatened  with  the  Vejentes,  who  began  the  war,  cum  Vej  entibus 
bellum  exorsis.  And  so  conspicari  can  be  used  for  videre  or 
conspicere  ;  opitulari,  auxiliari,  for  opem  ferre  ;  loqui  for 
dicere  ;  hortari,  exhortari,  for  monere,  admonere  ;  nancis- 

c  i  for  accipere  ;  pati,  perpeti,  for  tolerare,  sustinere  ;  egredi, 
for  exire  ;  digredi  for  discedere,  and  many  others. 

The  following  participial  forms  have  such  an  active  sense  :  c  e  na¬ 
tu  s  (c  o  e  n  a  t  u  s),  after  he  had  supped;  juratus,  when  he  had 
sworn  ;  injuratus,  conjuratus,  pransus  and  potus;  e.  g. 
When  the  boys  had  taken  their  supper,  they  went  to  bed ,  pueri  cenati 
cubitum  ierunt,  for  quum  cenassent. 

458.  (3)  When  two  principal  sentences  are  connected  by  and,  and 
one  of  these  can  be  resolved  by  which  or  a  conjunction,  a  participial 


382 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§§  459—461. 


sentence  can  be  formed  from  it.  When  a  participle  is  used,  and  is 
omitted  ;  e.  g.  Decius  left  the  curia ,  and  mounted  his  horse ,  i.  e.  Decius , 
after  he  left  the  curia ,  mounted  — ,  Decius  egressus  c  u  r  i  a  or  cu¬ 
ria  relicta  equum  ascendit.  The  ambassadors  were  plundered  by 
robbers ,  and  came  trembling  into  the  city ,  Legati  a  latronibus  spo¬ 
liati  veniunt.  The  ambassadors  asked  for  friendship ,  and  were  an¬ 
swered,  Legatis  amicitiam  petentibus  responsum  est.  The 
consul  praised  the  soldier ,  and  then  honored  him  with  many  presents , 
consul  militem  collaudatum  multis  praemiis  ornat,  The 
Egyptians  embalmed  their  dead  and  buried,  them ,  iEgyptii  mortuos 
inunctos  condebant.  The  Latins  look  the  Volsci ,  and  led  them  to 
Rome ,  comprehensos  Volscos  duxerunt.  An  opportunity 
was  given  me ,  and  1  went  to  Rome ,  i.  e.  when  an  oppor.,  etc.,  occasi¬ 
one  oblata  R.  profectus  sum.  Alexander  threw  aicay  his  arms ,  and 
plunged  into  the  cold  stream ,  A.  projectis  armis  se  dejecit. 

459.  (4)  When  of  two  or  more  introductory  sentences  with  a  con¬ 
junction,  or  of  two  or  more  intermediate  sentences  with  the  pronoun 
who ,  which ,  only  one  can  be  abridged  by  the  participle,  the  conjunc¬ 
tion  or  pronoun  must  remain  with  the  one  which  is  not  changed,  but 
the  connective  and  must  be  omitted;  e.  g.  Fabius  said  to  Salinator , 
who  had  fled  into  the  fortress  and  ivas  boasting — ,  Salinatori,  qui 
fugerat  in  arcem,  g  1  o  r  i  a  n  t  i  dixit  Fabius.  When  the  feelings  of  both 
parties  had  been  irritated ,  and  the  people  had  become  courageous ,  the 
senators  dared ,  irritatis  utri  usque  partis  animis,  quum  spiri¬ 
tum  plebs  sumpsisset,  patres  ausi  sunt.  When  they  were  deliberating 
respecting  the  conditions ,  and  the  ambassadors  inquired  what  were  the 
demands  of  the  people ,  Icilius  asked ,  q  u  u  m  de  conditionibus  agere¬ 
tur,  quaerentibus  legatis,  quae  — . 

460.  (5)  But  when  both  introductory  sentences  connected  by  and,  are 
changed  into  participial  sentences,  then  the  word  and  (et)  must  not  con¬ 
nect  them,  if  the  sentences  are  of  a  different  kind,  that  is,  if  one  sen¬ 
tence  has  an  ablative  absolute,  while  the  other  is  united  in  one  with 
the  principal  sentence  ;  e.  g.  The  Carthaginians  put  Regulus  to  death 
by  watching ,  after  they  had  cut  off  his  eye-lids ,  and  confined  him  upon  a 
machine ,  C.  Regulum  resectis  palpebris  illigatum  in  ma¬ 
china  vigilando  necaverunt.  On  the  contrary,  two  ablatives  absolute 
are  connected  by  Cicero  and  others,  sometimes  with,  sometimes  with¬ 
out  et ;  e.  g.  After  Xerxes  had  built  a  bridge  over  the  Hellespont ,  and 
dug  through  Athos ,  he  icent  on  foot  over  the  sea ,  X.  Hellesponto 
juncto,  Athone  perfosso,  mare  ambulavit.  After  Horatius 
had  killed  the  three  Curiatii ,  and  had  lost  his  tico  brothers  — ,  Hora¬ 
tius,  occisis  tribus  Curiatiis  et  duobus  amissis 
fratribus. 

461.  (6)  The  conjunctions  velui ,  ut,  quasi,  tamquam  (as  if),  remain, 
even  when  the  verb  is  changed  into  the  participle  ;  e.  g.  You  live  as 
if  you  would  live  always,  vivitis  tamquam  semper  victuri. 

It  must  also  be  noticed,  that  the  genitive  plural  of  the  future  active 
participle  is  to  be  carefully  avoided  on  account  of  the  harshness  of  its 
sound,  except  in  futurus ,  a,  um.  Hence,  not  auditurorum,  auditu¬ 
rarum. 

Too  many  participial  sentences,  in  succession,  should  be  avoided, 
that  the  clearness  or  fulness  of  the  idea  may  not  be  lost  by  abridging 
it.  and  that  the  period  may  not  be  injured.  Moreover,  no  sentence, 


PARTICIPLES. 


383 


§  461.] 

which  is  to  be  made  emphatic  by  its  relative  pronoun  or  conjunction, 
can  be  expressed  by  a  participle. 

Other  remarks  will  be  made  on  the  participle  hereafter.  But  pre¬ 
viously,  the  following  examples  on  the  rules  already  given,  may  be 
written. 


Examples  on  §§  443 — 461 . 

(1)  Even1  death  will  not  terrify2  the  wise  man,  who  fears 
nothing  in3  the  world.  When  we  die,  the  hope  of  immortali¬ 
ty  consoles  us.  When  Servius  Tullius  reigned  at  Rome,  Pi¬ 
sistratus  was  tyrant  at  Athens.  The  Stoics  call  bravery  the 
virtue  which  contends5  for  right.  Lucretius  triumphed  over5 
the  Aequi  and  Volsci,  who  had  been  conquered,  and  his  le¬ 
gions  followed  him,  when  he  was  triumphing.  The  good¬ 
ness6  of  God,  that  cares  even  for  beasts,  which  are  without* 
reason,  is  so  great,  that  it  cares  for  even  the  smallest  beast. 
O  schools,  you  are  the  only  hope  of  the  country ;  when  you 
are  healthful7  the  state  is  health  ul,  when  you  are  sickly8,  the 
hope  of  the  country  expires.  It  is  known9,  that  Julius  Cae¬ 
sar,  when  he  saw  the  head  of  Pompey  torn10  off,  shed11  tears. 
When  we  consider12  the  aspect  of  the  world,  the  thought13 
must14  immediately  come  to  our  minds,  that  there  is  a  being15 
greater  than  man.  When  Romulus  was  king,  almost  con¬ 
stant16  wars  were  waged  with  the  neighbors.  Many  wander17 
about  without18  a  purpose,  and  seek  business.  How19  can 
those  who  fear  death,  which  threatens20  hourly21,  be  com¬ 
posed22?  Will  you  rather23  believe  that  man,  when  he  has 
sworn24  in  his  own  case25,  or  these,  who  have  not  sworn  in 
another’s  ? 

1  neque  (even  not).  2  terrere.  3  omnium  rerum.  4  propugnare.  5  de. 
6  benignitas.  *  carere.  7  valere.  8  aegrotare.  9 constare.  10  avellere, 
"fundere.  12 contemplari.  13  cogitatio.  ,4necesse  esse.  15  natura. 
16  continuus,  "vagari.  18  carere.  19  qui.  20  impendere.  21  omnibus  ho¬ 
ris.  22  animo  consistere.  23  potius.  24  jurare.  25  lis. 

(2)  When  men  observe1  certain  bounds2  in  food,  dress  and 
other  expenses*,  frugality  is  ascribed  to  them  ;  and  when  they 
exceed3  these,  luxury.  Antony  first  gave  to  Caesar,  when  he 
wished4  to  disturb5  all  things,  a  cause  for  waging6  war  against 
his  country.  When  the  Greeks  of  Europe  had  taken7  the  sea- 
coast8  of  Asia,  they  surrounded9  it  with  cities.  After  Pompey 
the  Great  had  taken10  Jerusalem11,  he  touched12  nothing  of  the 
renowned  temple.  Polyidus  foretold  the  death  of  his  son,  when 
he  went13  to  Troy.  Why  are  trees  planted14,  which  will  give 


384 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


[§  461. 


nothing  but  shade  1  What  anxiety15  would  trouble16  the  wick¬ 
ed17,  if  the  fear  of  punishment  were  removed18  ?  When  this 
has  been  granted19,  that  also  must  be  granted.  When  Quinc¬ 
tius  Cincinnatus,  the  deliverer  of  a  besieged20  consul  and  ar¬ 
my,  had  been  called21  from  the  plough,  he  became22  Dictator, 
and,  after23  he  had  laid24  down  the  fasces,  returned  again  to 
his  forsaken25  estate26;  and  so  Fabricius  returned,  after  Pyrr¬ 
hus  had  been  driven  from  the  bounds27  of  Italy,  and  Curius 
returned  again  to  his  paternal  lands28,  after  he  had  subju¬ 
gated29  the  Sabines.  Caesar  saved30  these  men  of  Pompey,  and 
sent  them  home.  The  faults  of  Dolabella  were  unknown31  to 
me,  because  I  did  not  inquire32.  T wo  Arcadians  supped33  to¬ 
gether34  in  a  tavern35,  and  when  they  had  supped,  they  laid 
down36.  When  physicians  have  found  the  cause  of  a  disease, 
they  think  the  cure37  has  been  found. 

Servare.  2  modus.  *  cultus.  3  transire.  4cupere.  5  perturbare.  6  in¬ 
ferre.  7occupare.  8  ora  maritima.  9  cingere.  10capere.  n  Hierosolyma, 
-orum.  12  attingere.  13  proficisci  (compare  §  71.4).  14  conserere.  15  sol¬ 
licitudo.  16  vexare.  17  impius.  18  tollere.  19  dare.  20  obsidere.  21  vocare. 
22  venire.  23  (contained  in  partic.).  24  deponere.  25  relinquere.  26  here¬ 
diolum.  27  fines.  28  rus.  29  domare.  30  conservare  (part.).  31  occultus. 
32  inquirere.  33coenare.  34  simul.  35  caupona.  36  discumbere.  37  curatio. 

(3)  The  dignity1  of  Sparta’s  government  was  shaken2  by 
the  battle  at  Leuctra3,  and  fell4.  When5  an  important  letter 
had  been  given  to  Archias,  while  he  was  sitting6  at7  the  feast, 
he  put  it  under8  his  cushion9,  sealed10  as  it  was,  and  said  : 
Serious11  matters  I  postpone12  till  the  morning.  The  tyrant, 
Alexander,  seized13  Pelopidas  and  threw14  him  into  prison. 
Epaminondas  made  war15  upon  the  former16  and  recovered17 
the  latter.  Every  man,  when  he  has  committed18  a  crime19, 
is  tormented20  by  the  stings21  of  conscience ;  for  the  crime 
pursues22  him,  when  he  sits23  at  the  table,  floats24  before  his 
mind,  when  he  sleeps25,  and  rises26  anew27,  when  he  wakes28. 
Should  a  tempest  arise,  he  fears  he  shall  be  struck  with  light¬ 
ning29  ;  he  does  not  draw30  a  peaceful  breath31,  because  con¬ 
science  always  keeps  the  crime  before32  him,  and  threatens33 
him  with  punishment  which  will  follow.  Alexander  besieged 
Miletus,  which  resisted  him,  and  when  he  had  taken34  it,  he 
marched35  to  Halicarnassus;  and,  after  he  had  taken  all  the 
intervening36  cities,  he  besieged  this  strongly-fortified37  city, 
and  having  conquered  it  without  trouble,  levelled38  it  with  the 
ground39.  Then,  when  he  had  subjugated40  all  Caria,  he  went41 
to  Lycia,  and  from  thence,  when  he  had  subdued42  the  rebel¬ 
lious  people  of  Pisidia,  marched43  against  Darius  and  entered44 


§§  462,  463.] 


PARTICIPLES. 


385 


Phrygia.  Shortly  after  he  came  to  Tarsus,  and  there  the 
clearness'15  of  the  river  invited  the  king,  who  was  covered46 
with  dust  and  sweat,  to*  wash47  his  body,  still  warm.  There¬ 
fore,  he  put  off48  his  dress,  and,  in  the  sight49  of  the  army, 
descended  into  the  river.  But,  when  he  had  entered50,  his 
limbs51  began  to  stiffen52  from  the  sudden53  chill54.  His  ser¬ 
vants  carried55  him,  nearly  senseless56,  to  his  tent57.  Although 
the  disease  increased58  from  day  to  day,  yet  by  the  skill59  of 
his-  physician,  in  a  short  time,  he  was  restored60,  and  went 
against  the  army61  of  Darius.  After  Pompey  had  conquered 
Mithridates  in  a  battle,  he  compelled  him  to  flee  to  the  Bos¬ 
phorus. 

‘majestas.  2  percellere.  3  Leuctricus  (at  Leuctra).  4  concid&re. 
°  Archias  quum  ei — .  6accubare.  7  in.  8  subjicere  (part.).  9pulvlnus. 
10  signare,  “serius.  12dilferre.  13comprehendere.  (part.).  14 conjicere. 
15  bello  persequi  (part.).  16  ille.  17  recuperare.  18  patrare.  19  scelus. 
20  conficere.  21  morsus.  22exagitare.  23  accumbere.  24  observari.  25  dor¬ 
mire.  28  insurgere.  27  denuo.  28  evigilare.  29  de  coelo  tangere.  30ducSre. 
31  spiritus.  32  objicere  (to  keep  before).  33  comminari.  34  potiri.  35  profici¬ 
sci.  36  interjacere.  37  munire.  38  aequare.  39  solum.  40  subigere.  41  ten¬ 
dere.  42  vincere.  43  contendere.  44  ingredi.  45  liquor.  48  perfundere. 
*  ut.  47  abluere  48  deponere  (part.).  49  conspectus,  "ingredi.  61artus. 
52  rigere.  53  subitus.  54  horror.  55  deferre.  56  non  satis  compos  mentis 
(nearly  senseless).  57  tabernaculum.  58  ingravescere.  59  peritia. 
60  restituere  (part.).  61  copiae. 

Other  Remarks  on  the  Participles. 

462.  (1)  Although  the  verb  esse  has  no  participle  in  the  present  and 
imperfect,  yet  even  when  this  is  wanting,  a  substantive  arid  adjecti  ve,  a 
pronoun  and  adjective,  or  two  substantives,  are  often  considered  as 
participial  sentences.  English  clauses,  containing  the  pronouns  w/to , 
which ,  and  the  verb  to  be,  or  such  as  contain  the  introductory  con¬ 
junctions,  then,  while,  after,  etc.,  can  frequently  be  translated  by  such 
participial  sentences.  The  subject  of  the  participial  sentence  with  its 
predicate  (whether  it  be  a  substanti  ve  or  an  adjective),  either  agrees  in 
case  with  the  word  to  which  the  subject  refers,  or,  when  the  sentence 
is  independent,  is  put  in  the  ablative  absolute.  The  predicate  word, 
therefore,  whether  it  be  a  substantive  or  an  adjective,  must  here  sup¬ 
ply  the  place  of  the  omitted  participle.  Examples  :  I  began  to  honor 
him,  when  he  was  not  yet  very  old ,  eum  nondum  admodum  gran¬ 
dem  natu.  Let  us  honor  nature,  since  she  is  our  teacher  and  guide , 
naturam,  nostram  magistram  et  duce  in.  Modesty  must  bo 
preserved.,  especially  when  nature  herself  is  our  teacher  and.  guide,  prae¬ 
sertim  natura  ipsa  magistra  et  duce.  This  happened  when 
/im.«  a  /;ow  (when  we  were  boys),  puero  me  (pueris  nobis). 

463.  (2)  Instead  of  many  conjunctions,  in  English  we  use  prepo¬ 
sitions  ;  and  instead  of  verbs,  substantives.  Such  prepositions  ares 
in,  during,  after,  upon,  icith,  by,  etc.,  when  they  can  be  resolved  by  a 

33 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


386 


l§  464. 


conjunction  and  a  verb  ;  e.  g.  at  his  death ,  i.  e.  when  he  died,  raoriens; 
after  his  death ,  i.  e.  after  he  died ,  mortuus. 

Many  substantives  contain  not  precisely  a  verb,  but  a  personal  sub¬ 
stantive  with  the  verb  to  be;  e.  g.  the  consulship ,  i.  e.  to  be  a  consul; 
e.  g.  in  my  consulship ,  i.  e.  ze/te/i  I  was  consul.  So  others:  leading , 
direction ,  i.  e.  to  be  a  leader ,  etc.  In  like  manner,  the  word  advice  is 
often  translated  by  adviser ,  auctor ,  suasor ,  —  impulse  by  impulsor , 
assistance  by  adjutor ,  and  so  with  others. 

Other  substantives  contain  the  force  of  an  adjective  ;  e.  g.  presence 
—  present ,  praesens;  absence  —  absent ,  absens;  life  —  living ,  v  i- 
vus.  So  we  express  ?c/7//  consent,  by  libens  or  non  invitus; 
with  full  consent ,  the  greatest  willingness ,  libent  issimus;  against 
my  will,  invitus;  knowledge,  sciens  ;  xcithout  hnoicledge, 

inscius,  insciens. 

The  resolution  by  a  conjunction  will  show  the  necessary  changes 
to  be  made  in  translating  such  a  sentence. 

>SWc  Examples. 

The  most  honorable  men  were  accused  in  their  absence  (when  they 
were  absent),  honestissimi  homines  a  bsentes.  Pythagoras  came  to 
Italy  in  the  reign  of  Superbus  (when  S.  was  reigning),  Superbo 
regnante.  The  conqueror  must  do  many  things,  even  against  his 
own  will ,  victori  etiam  invito  multa  facienda  sunt.  This  hap¬ 
pened  against  my  will  (while  [  did  not  wish  it),  me  invito.  This 
was  done  with  your  approbation,  vobis  approbantibus;  with  the 
approbation  of  gods  and  men,  diis  hominibusque  approban¬ 
tibus;  before  my  eyes ,  me  inspectante;  during  the  consulship  of 
Caninius,  no  one  breakfasted  (while  C.  was  consul),  Caninio  con¬ 
sule.  I  know  not  whether  Capio  died  during  the  life ,  or  after  the 
death,  of  his  father  (when  his  father  was  alive,  etc.),  vivone  patre 
suo,  an  mortuo.  This  happened  in  my  questorskip  (when  I,  etc.), 
me  quaestore.  This  'ook  place  under  my  direction  and  counsel , 
me  duce  et  me  auctore.  Defend  me  in  my  absence,  me  ab¬ 
sente  in.  You  did  it  in  my  absence,  me  absente.  I  consoled,  my¬ 
self  by  believing,  existimans.  Who  does  not  esteem  Aristides  after 
his  death  ?  Aristidem  mortuum?  I  believe  that  nothing  is  better , 
with  the  exception  of  wisdom ,  excepta  sapientia  (abi.  absol.). 
In  the  beginning  of  spring  (ineunte  vere),  the  buds  put  forth. 
The  son  bought  the  house  with  the  permission  and  advice  of  his  father, 
permittente  patre  ac  suadente. 

464.  (3)  Other  prepositions,  however,  remain  in  Latin,  because 
their  force  cannot  be  expressed  by  a  participle  ;  but  yet  the  English 
substantive  can  be  translated  by  a  participle  of  the  verb  having  the 
same  signification  as  the  substantive.  Such  prepositions  are  :  before, 
ante;  on  account  of,  o  b,  propter;  until,  to,  a  d,  u  s  q  u  e  ad;  for, 
pro;  from,  after,  since ,  a,  a  b  ;  concerning,  out  of,  d  e,  e  x.  Also  af¬ 
ter  (post)  is  often  used,  when  a  limitation  of  time  precedes,  or  when 
post  signifies  since ,  and  something  is  stated,  which  took  place  in  the 
period  subsequent.  But  with  all  of  these,  the  perfect  passive  partici¬ 
ple  is  used,  only  when  an  event  already  actually  accomplished,  is  spo¬ 
ken  of;  for  when  a  continuing  or  future  action  is  spoken  of,  the  ver¬ 
bal  adjective  or  participle  in  andus  or  endus  is  used. 


§§  465—407.] 


PARTICIPLES. 


387 


Some  Examples. 

Homer  and  Hesiod  lived  before  the  building  of  Rome ,  ante  Ho¬ 
rn  a  m  c  o  n  d  i  t  a  in.  A  few  years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  pau¬ 
cis  annis  post  reges  ex  pu.lsos.  After  the  recovery  of  Capua., 
there  teas  more  anxiety  for  Spain  than  for  Italy,  post  receptam 
Capua  m.  From  the  building  of  Rome  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  a  b  ur¬ 
be  Roma  condita  (usque)  ad  Christum  natum.  The  re¬ 
gal  government  of  Rome  continued  from  the  building  of  the  city,  till  its 
liberation ,  ab  condita  urbe  ad  liberatam.  On  account  of 
the  fortification  (completed)  of  the  city  Verrugo ,  ob  communitam 
urbem  Verruginem.  On  account  of  fortifying  (not  yet  done) 
this  city,  ob  communiendam  hanc  urbem.  For  the  restora¬ 
tion  (completed)  of  your  health,  p  r  o  valetudine  tua  restituta. 
For  the  restoration  (not  yet  done)  of  your  health,  pro  valetudine 
tua  restituenda. 

465.  It  was  said  above,  when  treating  of  the  supine,  §  439,  that  the 
purpose  of  a  person  who  wishes  to  do  or  is  to  do  something,  can  also 
be  denoted  by  the  future  active  participle.  When,  on  the  contrary, 
the  person  or  thing  is  passive,  i.  e.  when  something  is  to  be  done  to 
them,  the  verbal  adjective  or  participle  in  andus  or  endus  is  used, 
which  has  been  treated  at  length  above,  §  362.  The  sentences,  in 
both  instances,  are  dependent.  In  English,  we  often  translate  parti¬ 
ciples  in  andus  and  endus  actively,  especially  after  verbs  signifying 
to  give,  commit  to,  intrust  to. 

Some  Examples. 

The  Athenians  sent  ambassadors  to  Delphi ,  to  consult  the  oracle,  1  e- 
gatos  oraculum  consulturos.  A  hundred  knights  ivere  sent  to 
plunder,  centum  equites  praedaturi  missi  sunt.  Faustulus  gave 
Romulus  and  Remus  to  Acca,  to  tiring  up,  Romulum  et  Remum  nu¬ 
triendos.  Romulus  and  Remus  were  given  to  Acca,  to  bring  up, 
Romulus  et  Remus  nutriendi. 

466.  (5)  Also  sentences  with  that,  which  depend  upon  a  substan¬ 
tive,  can  be  formed  by  the  genitive  of  a  participle.  Here  also  one 
must  consider,  whether  an  action  already  accomplished ,  or  yet  unac¬ 
complished,  is  spoken  of.  In  the  former  case,  the  perfect  participle 
is  used  )  in  the  latter,  the  verbal  adjective  in  andus  or  endus. 

Some  Examples. 

The  report.,  that  the  city  Vaga  had  been  taken,  nuntius  urbis  Va¬ 
gae  captae.  The  consciousness,  that  danger  is  incurred  by  guilt , 
conscientia  contracti  culpa  periculi.  Pompey  gave  Cicero  evi¬ 
dence,  that  he  had  saved  his  country,  testimonium  patriae  conser¬ 
vatae. 

467.  (6)  So  the  preposition  without,  with  a  substantive  or  participle, 
is  translated  by  a  participle  with  non,  or  another  negative  word.  With¬ 
out  anything ,  is  nihil,  non  quidquam  ;  icithout  any,  nullus.  Instead  of 
non,  nisi  can  also  sometimes  be  used,  when  there  is  already  a  nega¬ 
tion  in  the  sentence.  Comp,  also  §  538. 


388 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  VERBS. 


L§  467. 


/Some  Examples. 

Kind  nature  gives  the  flowers  food  and  clothing  without  their  labor , 
floribus  non  laborantibus.  Many  men  eat  without  being  hungry , 
non  esurientes.  /  never  drink  without  being  thirsty,  nunquam 
nisi  sitiens  bibo.  Oar  tears  often  flow  without  our  will,  nob  i  s 
nolenti  bus.  Whoever  acts  without  regard  to  God  and  virtue,  will 
seldom  act  right,  nulla  Dei  virtutisque  habita  ratione.  The 
nature  of  man  pursues  knowledge  without  being  induced  by  any  advan¬ 
tage,  nullo  emolumento  invitata.  The.  mother  sent  array  her  son, 
without  suspecting  any  evil,  nihil  m  a  li  suspicans.  Without 
having  used  any  violence,  nulla  adhibita  vi. 

Examples  on  §§  462 — 467. 

(1)  By  the  advice1  and  under  the  direction2  of  a  deserter3, 
the  Bruttii  blockaded4  Crotona.  It  was  the  Persian  Magi,  by 
whose  advice  Xerxes  commanded5  the  temples  of  Greece  to 
be  set  on  fire6.  Innumerable  arts  have  been  invented,  under 
the  instruction7  of  nature.  The  Stoics  changed8  the  names9, 
without  changing10  the  things.  Ancient  historians11  tell  us, 
in  whose  consulship12  the  embassy  of  philosophers  came  from 
Athens  to  Rome.  Tell13  me,  whether  Crassus  died  during 
the  lifetime14  of  his  father,  the  ex-consul  Publius  Crassus. 
The  glory  of  great  deeds15  will  be  taken  from  no  one  in  his 
life,  and  the  knowledge16  of  the  best17  arts,  not  even  after  his 
death18.  All  the  rest  of  the  booty,  the  commanders  gave  to 
the  soldiers  to  plunder19.  Few  have  been  found,  since20  the 
human  race  was  born,  who,  for  their  country,  have  exposed21 
their  lives  to  the  weapons  of  the  enemy,  without  the  prom¬ 
ise22  of  reward.  Many  men  range23  through  houses,  theatres 
and  markets24.  If  you  ask  one  of  these,  at  his  departure25, 
Whither  do  you  wish  to  go  1  he  will  answer  you,  Truly,  I 
know  not.  Without  knowing26  why  they  live,  they  ramble 
about  and  seek  employment.  The  Lacedemonians,  from 
jealousy27  of  the  Athenians,  and  from  their  indignation28  that 
they  had  lost  the  command  of  the  sea29,  attempted30  to  rouse31 
many  of  the  cities  of  Greece  against  them.  The  emperor 
Constantine,  who,  after  the  murder  of  Licinius,  had  usurped 
the  government,  conquered32  the  Goths,  who  were  plunder¬ 
ing33  Thrace,  and  obtained34  a  glorious  victory  over35  the 
Barbarians.  Two  years  after  peace  was  obtained36,  Indian 
ambassadors  came  to  him  with  gifts.  With  your  assistance37, 
we  will  resist  this38  detestable39  barbarity.  As  long  as  these 
two  live40,  we  shall  never  have  a  republic.  Alexander  went  to 


PARTICIPLES. 


389 


§  467.] 

Jupiter  Ammon  to  consult  respecting41  his  origin.  The  cap¬ 
tives  were  hewn  in  pieces42,  in  the  presence43  of  many  thou¬ 
sand  men.  Piso  and  Gabinius  took44  the  two  provinces,  Syria 
and  Macedonia,  as45  a  reward  for46  the  destruction47  of  the 
state,  wliolly  against  their  will48.  All  this  happened  without 
my  knowledge49  and  will50.  I  hope,  that  this  will  yet  hap¬ 
pen51  in  our  life14. 

1  auctor.  2  dux.  3  profuga.  4  corona  cingere.  5jubere.  6  inflammare. 
7  docere.  8  immutare.  9  vocabulum.  10  commutare.  11  auctor.  12  consul. 
13 certiorem  facere.  14  vivus.  15res.  16scientia.  17  bonus.  18  mori.  19  di¬ 
ripere.  20  post.  21  objicere  22  proponere.  23  pererrare.  24  forum.  25  ex¬ 
ire.  28  insciens.  27  invidere.  28  indignari.  29  imperium  maritimum. 
30tentare.  31  concitare.  32  perdomare.  33  populari.  34  reportare.  35  a. 
36  parere  37  adjutor.  38  iste.  39  immanis.  40  vivus.  41  de.  42occIdere. 
43  inspectare.  44  occupare.  45pro.  46  (omitted).  47evertere.  48  invitus 
(superlative).  49  imprudens.  50  invitus.  51  esse. 

(2)  The  Athenians  sent  Cimon  to  Asia,  to  recover1  the 
confederate  cities,  which  the  Persians  had  taken2.  When  he 
had  conquered  many  cities  in  Lycia  and  Caria,  he  dispersed3 
the  fleet  of  the  Persians,  which  fought  bravely  under  the 
command  of  Tithraustes.  When  Germanicus  was  returning 
from  Egypt,  a  violent  disease  attacked4  him.  The  terrible5 
violence  of  this  strengthened  the  conviction6,  that7  he  had 
received*  poison  from  Piso.  Amulius  gave  the  boys,  born 
of  Rhea  Silvia,  to  his  servants  to  throw8  them  into  the  Tiber. 
But  they  were  preserved9,  as  the  Tiber  by  some  accident10 
had  overflowed11  its  banks  When  they  had  been  left  by  the 
retiring  stream,  the  shepherd  Faustulus  found  them,  by  whom 
they  were  brought  to  Laurentia,  his  wife,  to  be  educated. 
Cicero  made  journeys  in  the  company12  of  his  freed-man, 
Tiro.  The  enemy  made  an  assault13  without  our  men  fear¬ 
ing  anything.  Verres  stole  two  silver  goblets,  in  the  presence 
of  the  guests.  It  is  known,  that  Diogenes,  when  Alexander 
came  to  Corinth  to  him,  remained  sitting14,  without  paying 
any  regard15  to  the  majesty  of  the  king.  Many  years  before 
the  right  of  citizenship16  was  given  at  Heraclea,  the  renowned 
poet,  Archias,  settled17  at  Rome.  The  Roman  people,  under 
the  command18  of  Lucullus,  opened19  Pontus,  which  was  de¬ 
fended20  by  the  very21  nature  of  the  country;  the  army  of  the 
Roman  people,  under  the  direction22  of  the  same,  routed23 
innumerable  armies  of  the  Armenians  ;  also  the  enemy’s  fleet 
was  sunk24,  when  Lucullus  fought.  That  Fulvius,  who 
waged  war  with  the  JEtolians  in  company25  with  Ennius,  did 
not  hesitate26  to  consecrate  the  spoils27  of  Mars  to  the  Muses* 

33* 


390 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§§  468—470. 

Something  useful  will  grow28  from  fertile29  land90,  even  with¬ 
out  the  cultivation31  of  any  one.  Virgil  consented32,  that 
the  JEneid  should  be  published  by  the  poets,  Tucca  and 
Varus,  but  without  adding  or  changing  any33  thing.  The 
earth  spontaneously34  gives35  various  food36  to  animals,  with¬ 
out  their  labor.  It  has  happened37  to  me  and  Cotta,  contra¬ 
ry  to  our  hope38,  but  according  to  the  wish39  of  both40  of  us, 
that  we  have  come  to  you  to-day.  Now  I  am  destitute  of  all 
the  friends  by  whose  help41  I  once  defended  the  state.  At 
the  instigation42  of  Caesar,  and  by  his  help,  Metellus  was  re¬ 
conciled43  with  Cicero. 

1recuperare.  2occupare.  3  tundere.  4  tentare.  5 saevus.  6  persuasio. 
7  (particip.).  *  accipere.  8  mittere.  9servare.  10 forte  quadam  (by — 
accident).  11  effundere.  12  comitari.  13 impetus.  14  immotus,  ^ratio¬ 
nem  habere.  16  civitas  (right  of  cit.).  17  collocare  domicilium.  18  impe¬ 
rare.  19  aperire.  20  vallare.  21  ipse.  22  dux.  23  fundere.  24  deprimere. 
25  comes.  26  dubitare.  27  manubiae.  28 nasci.  29  uber.  30  terra.  31  colere. 
32  permittere.  33  ulla  res.  34  ipse.  35  fundere.  36  pastus  (plural).  37  cade¬ 
re.  38  insperans.  39 optare.  40  uterque.  41  adjutor.  42 impulsor.  43  in  gra¬ 
tiam  redire. 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 

468.  Many  words  have  a  definite,  and,  among  good  prose 
writers,  an  almost  uniform  place  in  a  sentence.  The  place 
of  other  words  is  more  dependent  on  the  idea,  which  is  con¬ 
tained  in  the  sentence.  Both  of  these  will  now  be  treated. 
It  is  to  be  particularly  noticed,  that  words,  which  are  con¬ 
nected  together  by  the  sense,  are  not  to  be  separated,  other¬ 
wise  the  sentence  is  unintelligible  and  wholly  unmeaning. 

Some  words  stand  only  in  th ejirst,  others  only  in  the  sec¬ 
ond  or  still  more  remote  place,  in  the  sentence;  others 
again  must  stand  before  or  after  the  word  to  which  they  be¬ 
long. 

469.  (1)  The  conjunctions  sed,  at ,  verum ,  sin,  nam,  nam¬ 
que  and  etenim,  stand  first  in  a  sentence.  Of  this  no  exam¬ 
ple  is  needed.  Yet  nam,  designed  to  strengthen  an  interrog¬ 
ative,  stands  as  an  enclitic  after  that  word ;  e.  g.  Quisnam  — 
numnam  —  numquisnam. 

470.  (2)  The  conjunctions  vero,  autem  and  enim,  stand 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


391 


§  470.] 

after  one  or  two  words  of  a  sentence,  seldom  after  more ; 
they  generally  separate  the  substantive  and  adjective ;  e.  g. 
Negat  enim;  uterque  enim;  ipse  enim  Cicero;  qui 
autem  voluptatem;  illud  autem  ipsum;  tu  autem 
considera;  id  est  autem  malum;  quum  vero  illa;  Spar¬ 
tae  vero  pueri;  omne  e  n  i  m  malum.  On  the  contrary, 
the  strengthening  vero  (truly),  in  answer  to  a  question,  can 
stand ;  e.  g.  V  er  o  ac  libenter. 

When  the  sentence  begins  with  a  preposition,  these  words 
(also  etiam  and  igitur )  do  not  come  between  the  preposition 
and  the  word  governed  by  it,  but  stand  in  the  third  place; 
e.  g.  In  principiis  autem,  in  quo  v  e  r  o,  cum  his  e  n  i  m,  a 
me  autem,  ex  hac  enim  parte,  de  nostris  autem  re¬ 
bus. 

The  monosyllabic  enclitics  que,  ve ,  and  the  interrogative 
nc  are  appended  to  the  words  to  which  they  belong ;  e.  g. 
Propter  summam  familiaritatem  summumgwe  amorem  ;  quae 
audivit,  viditve;  videswe  —  ? 

When  que  connects  a  sentence  containing  a  preposition,  it  is  very 
seldom  appended  to  the  preposition,  but  to  the  word  following  it;  e.  g. 
In  foro que — in  r eque — ex  Hispania^wfi — ad  nummosywe — abs  t eque — a 
meque  ipso — inter  nos  que — ab  eodemjwe — ob  eam  que  causam,  etc.  So 
also  quam  primum^we,  and  as  soon  as  possible. 

In  a  sentence,  which  unites  the  predicate  with  the  subject 
by  the  verb  esse,  these  particles  (also  etiam  and  igitur)  stand 
sometimes  before  and  sometimes  after  the  verb.  It  will  be 
observed : 

(a)  They  stand  before  the  declarative  esse,  when  the  sen¬ 
tence  is  complete,  and  the  subject  stands  before  the  verb,  and 
the  predicate  follows  it,  even  if  this  predicate  forms  a  sen¬ 
tence  of  its  own  w7ith  the  infinitive  or  at;  e.  g.  Cupiditates 
e  n  i  m  sunt  insatiabiles.  Id  autem  incognitum  est  minus. 
Id  en  i  m  est  maxime  vitandum.  Omnia  enim  sunt  posita 
ante  oculos.  Haec  enim  plena  sunt.  Genus  autem 
est  id,  quod  sui  similes  —  duas  aut  plures  complectitur  par¬ 
tes.  Sanctitas  autem  est  scientia  colendorum  deorum. 


392  POSITION  OP  WORDS.  [§  471. 

This  is  especially  the  case  in  definitions,  as  in  the  last  two 
examples. 

General  and  indefinite  sentences,  whose  subjects  are  either  the  in¬ 
terrogative  quis,  quae,  quid,  or  the  negative  nemo ,  nihil ,  generally 
form  an  exception  to  this  rule;  e.  g.  Quis  est  en  i  m  tarn  excors  ! 
Quid  est  e  n  i  in  praeclarius  ?  Nihil  est  enim  tam  insigne.  Nemo 
est  enim  tain  senex  (Cic.  De  Sen.  7),  not  Nemo  enim  .est — . 

(b)  But  when  such  a  sentence  begins  with  the  predicate, 
whether  this  be  a  substantive,  adjective  or  participle,  or  in¬ 
deed,  when  the  subject  stands  first,  but  its  predicate  follows 
in  a  sentence  of  its  own  with  qui  or  with  quin  containing 
this  qui,  or  when  the  verb  with  or  without  non  is  emphatical¬ 
ly  placed  first,  these  particles  are  properly  always  placed 
after  the  verb ;  e.  g.  Ars  est  e  n  i  m  philosophia  vitae.  Alia  est 
enim  verborum  definitio.  Haec  est  enim  vetus  et  Socra¬ 
tica  ratio.  Facilius  est  enim  currentem  incitare.  Incre¬ 
dibile  est  e  n  i  m.  Suavis  est  autem  et  vehementer  saepe 
utilis  locus.  Satis  est  enim.  Necesse  est  enim.  Lon¬ 
gum  est  e  n  i  m.  Tanta  est  e  n  i  m.  Moriendum  est  enim 
omnibus.  Verisimile  est  igitur.  Cluis  est  enim,  cui 
non. — duid  est  a  u  te  m,  quod  deos  veneremur  ?  Temperantia 
est  enim,  quae  monet.  Ratio  est  enim,  quae  praestet 
omnibus. — Nemo  est  enim,  quin  putet.  Nihil  est  enim, 
quod  ad  artem  redigi  possit.  Sapientia  est  enim  Hna,  quae 
maestitiam  pellat.  Non  est  e  n  i  m  philosophia  similis  artium 
reliquarum.  Non  sunt  e  n  i  m  alia  sermonis.  Sunt  enim 
quaedam  animi  similitudines  cum  corpore.  Est  autem  im¬ 
pudens  luctus. 

When  the  first  clause  is  complete,  and  therefore  contains  a  subject 
and  predicate,  then,  where  the  predicate  stands  first,  the  particle  can 
occupy  even  the  second  place,  when  the  verb  is  further  removed ; 
e.  g.  Fundamentum  autem  justitiae  est  fides.  Habenda  autem 
ratio  est. 

Yet  this  position,  in  very  many  passages,  in  the  Latin  writers,  is 
questionable, — and  some  scholars  consider  the  position  of  the  parti¬ 
cles  after  esse  as  the  only  right  one,  although  quis  enim  est,  qui  _ 

occurs  frequently.  Therefore,  both  positions  seem  to  have  been  used 
together  with  little  difference  in  the  sense. 

471.  (3)  The  conjunctions  quoque  (also)  and  quidem  (at 


§  472.] 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


393 


least,  indeed),  stand  immediately  after  the  words  to  which 
they  refer;  etiam ,  on  the  contrary,  stands  before  the  word  to 
which  it  gives  emphasis  ;  e.  g.  I  doubt  not  that  this  is  trou¬ 
blesome  to  you  also,  t  i  b  i  quoque.  A  matter  o  f  great  im¬ 
portance  requires  experience  also  (usum  quoque)  and  prac¬ 
tice.  At  least  according  to  my  opinion,  mea  quidem  sen¬ 
tentia.  This  is  pleasing  in  appearance  at  least,  specie 
quidem.  I  add  this  also,  etiam  illud  — . 

The  conjunction  quidem  is  often  added  to  the  pronouns  ille 
or  is,  which  are  used  after  some  other  words  that  contain  ad¬ 
ditional  remarks,  to  make  the  nouns  to  which  they  refer,  more 
prominent;  e.  g.  Lycurgus  ysQOvrag  Lacedaemone  appellavit 
nimis  is  quidem  paucos  duodetriginta.  Respecting  ille 
equidem,  comp.  §  552.  5. 

So  quidem  is  often  joined  to  et,  ut  and  certe,  where  it  gen¬ 
erally  strengthens  the  thought  and  signifies  truly,  indeed; 
e.  g.  And  truly  all  things  of  great  excellence  are  rare,  et 
quidem  omnia  praeclara  rara  ;  as  indeed  I  think,  u  t  qui¬ 
dem  ego  sentio ;  as  indeed  the  cause  now  is,  u  t  quidem 
nunc  se  causa  habet.  The  following  is  different ;  As  the 
cause  is  now  at  least,  ut  nunc  quidem  se  causa  habet. 

When  quidem  is  connected  with  the  name  of  a  Roman, 
who  is  also  designated  by  his  given  name,  it  usually  stands 
after  the  given  name  :  Lucius  quidem  Philippus.  Also 
etiam ,  enim ,  eque  and  the  other  postpositive  particles,  as  well  as 
the  pronoun  ille  take  the  same  place  ;  e.  g.  Publius  etiam  Po¬ 
pilius,  duintus  enim  Pompeius,  Caiusgwe  Tuditanus,  Cneii 
autem  Octavii  eloquentia,  Lucius  vero  Appuleius,  Cn. 
ille  Pompeius.  So  also  with  given  names  subsequent  to 
the  time  of  the  Romans,  the  particles  are  generally  placed 
only  after  the  first ;  e.  g.  Hieronymus  e  n  i  in  (quidem, 
a  u  t  e  m — )  Wolfius ;  Johannes  e  n  i  m  (q  u  i  d  e  m — )  Frede- 
ricus  Gronovius. 

472.  (4)  Hence,  the  particles  ne  quidem,  not  even , 
cannot  stand  together,  because  ne  stands  before  the  word  to 


394 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§§  473,  474. 


which  it  belongs,  but  quidcm  after  it.  Therefore,  the  word 
or  words,  and  even  the  sentence,  to  which  the  negation  in  the 
ne  quidcm  refers,  stands  between  the  two  particles.  So  with 
n  e  c  quidem,  and  not  even  ;  e.  g.  Your  philosophers  un¬ 
derstand  not  even  this,  ne  hoc  quidem:  he  was  not  even 
then  unhappy,  ne  t  u  m  quidem  ;  I  cannot  even  be  angry  at 
those,  whom  1  love  much,  ego  ne  irasci  possum  quidem 
iis  —  ;  I  have  not  heard  even  Xenocrates,  ne  Xenocra¬ 
tem  quidem  ;  the  old  man  has  not  even  anything  to  hope,  ne 
quod  speret  quidem;  and  this  not  even  wild  beasts  them¬ 
selves  do,  nec  fer  ae  quidem  ipsae;  also  not  even  in  one,  ne 
in  u  n  o  quidem  quoque. 

473.  (5)  The  particle  of  wonder,  tandem,/  ask,  I  pray, 
in  all  the  world,  then,  usually  stands  directly  after  relative 
words,  when  it  belongs  to  them ;  hence,  after  quis,  qualis, 
quantus,  etc.,  seldom  does  any  other  word  or  words  come  be¬ 
tween ;  e.  g.  What  I  ask?  quae  tandem?  Of  what  kind 
is  this,  I  ask  ?  quale  tandem  hoc  est  ?  How  long,  I  pray, 
will  you  suffer  ?  quousque  tandem  patiere?  How  much, 
I  ask,  do  you  value  this  ?  quanti  tandem  aestimatis  ?  But 
when  the  particle  relates  to  another  word,  it  is  put  after  that ; 
e.  g.  What  must  we  then  do,  —  ?  quid  nos  tandem  fa- 
cere  debemus  ?  Here  it  refers  to  nos.  So,  quis  me  tan¬ 
dem  jure  reprehendat  ? 

474.  (6)  The  particles  itaque,  idcirco,  igitur,  ergo,  are, 
for  the  most  part,  so  placed  in  the  sentence,  that  itaque  and 
idcirco,  as  they  have  a  connective  and  demonstrative  force, 
stand  first,  igitur  generally  takes  the  second  or  third  place; 
— the  place  of  ergo,  on  the  contrary,  is  almost  wholly  arbi¬ 
trary,  sometimes  before,  sometimes  after  other  emphatic  words. 
The  position  of  igitur,  also,  is  somewhat  arbitrary,  but  only 
in  conclusions  and  questions,  where  it  often  stands  first ;  e.  g. 
Therefore,  this  custom  always  pleases  me,  itaque  mihi  sem¬ 
per  —  ;  therefore,  let  us  despise  all  folly,  contemnamus  i  gi- 
t  u  r  ;  therefore,  this  whole  circumstance  must  not  be  regarded, 


§§  475,  470.] 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


395 


totus  igitur  locus ;  therefore ,  that  which  is  good,  is  honor¬ 
able ,  bonum  igitur  quod  est,  honestum  est,  or  igitur 
omne  bonum  honestum  ;  consequently ,  no  fool  is  happy,  i  gl- 
tur  nemo  stultus  beatus;  therefore,  the  men  must  not  be 
heard,  non  ergo  erunt  homines  — ;  therefore,  shall  a  vete¬ 
ran  soldier  be  able  to  do  these  things,  but  a  sage  not,  ergo 
haec  veteranus  miles?  on  this  account  I  had  begotten  him , 
idcirco  eum  genueram.  The  particle  igitur  lakes  the 
third  place,  in  such  cases  as  are  mentioned  above,  §  470, 
where  eni/n  and  autem  are  spoken  of.  Hence,  Duplex  est 
i  gl  t  u  r  ratio  veri  reperiendi.  Singularis  est  igitur  quae¬ 
dam  natura.  Quid  est  igitur,  quod  requiras?  Qualis 
est  igitur  haec  conspiratio  virtutum.  Adhibita  est  igf- 
tur  ars  quaedam.  But  in  the  short  question,  Why  is  it 
therefore,  to  which  nothing  else  belongs,  the  Latins  say, 
Quid  igitur  est?  Quid  ergo  est? 

475.  (7)  The  particle  tamen,  yet,  nevertheless,  when  it 
lias  a  particular  emphasis,  and  indeed  generally  in  the  con¬ 
clusion  of  a  conditional  or  concessive  sentence,  or  in  a  ques¬ 
tion,  takes  the  first  place  ;  yet  it  often  also  stands  immediately 
after  that  word  in  a  sentence,  which  is  to  be  made  emphatic  ; 
e.  g.  Although  glory  has  nothing  in  itself  worthy  of  a  wish, 
yet  it  follows  virtue  as  a  shadow,  tamen  virtutem  sequi¬ 
tur  ;  although  this  may  be  said,  yet  it  is  not  said  unadvisedly , 
non  inscite  tamen  dicitur;  yet  they  so  dispute  this,  haec 
tamen  ita  disputant;  yet,  before  Pericles,  there,  was  no 
writing,  to  which  the  embellishment  of  style  had  been  given, 
tame  n  ante  Periclem,  littera  nulla  est.  What  !  if  I  pro¬ 
duce  the  testimony  of  the  most  virtuous  men  to  Ids  innocence, 
yet  shall  the  unanimity  of  the  Gauls  have  more  weight  ?  t  a- 
m  en  lie  plus  valebit  ?  he  is  exempted  from  the  punishment  of 
death,  but  yet  is  fined,  multatur  tamen  pecunia. 

476.  (8)  The  particle  non  always  stands  before  the  word 
to  which  it  belongs. 

When  there  is  only  one  verb  in  the  sentence  to  which  it 


396  POSITION  OF  WORDS.  [§  476. 

belongs,  it  stands  before  this  ;  e.  g.  I  doubt  not ,  non  dubito ; 
me  non  delectat;  non  dissolvit. 

When  there  are  two  verbs,  whether  the  verb  esse  with  a 
participle,  or  an  auxiliary  verb  and  an  infinitive  connected 
with  it,  and  when  neither  the  participle  nor  infinitive  is  anti¬ 
thetic  to  another  participle  or  infinitive,  non  is  placed  before 
the  auxiliary  verb;  e.  g.  These  things  were  not  overlooked , 
praetermissa  non  sunt.  I  have  not  been  banished  from,  the 
city ,  pulsus  ego  civitate  non  sum.  This  art  is  not  to  be 
censured ,  non  est  reprehendenda.  There  must  be  no  delay , 
non  est  cunctandum.  I  dare  not  say  this,  non  audeo 
haec  dicere.  The  matter  could  not  longer  be  concealed,  diu¬ 
tius  tegi  non  potuit.  The  accuser  did  not  cease  to  recite 
these,  recitare  non  desivit.  Exceptions  to  this  are  rare. 

A  change  in  the  position  of  the  negative  with  respect  to  the 
governing  verb,  may  sometimes  entirely  alter  the  sense  ;  e.  g. 
I  am  not  able  to  read,  n  o  n  possum  legere,  but  I  am  able 
not  to  read,  i.  e.  1  can  leave  off  reading,  possum  non  le¬ 
gere.  So,  Fompey  had  not  determined  to  fight ,  dimicare 
non  constituerat,  but  had  determined  not  to  fight,  non  di¬ 
micare  constituerat.  For  non  nemo,  nemo  non,  and  the  like, 
see  §  (541.  c.). 

When  non  is  used  to  negative  an  adjective  or  adverb,  it  is 
usually  placed  before  such  a  word  ;  e.  g.  It  is  not  easy  to  find 
friends,  non  facile  est.  It  is  not  probable,  non  veri¬ 
simile  est.  I  do  not  take  this  ill,  non  moleste  fero. 
It  is  not  necessary,  non  necesse  est,  non  opus  est. 

Yet  where  adjectives  occur  with  the  verb  esse,  non  can  al¬ 
so  be  placed  before  the  verb,  when  the  adjectives  are  not  an¬ 
tithetic;  e.  g.  N  o  n  est  verisimile,  non  e  s  t  necesse,  n  o  n 
est  notum.  Liberi  mei  orbi  n  o  n  erunt.  Hoc  mihi  no¬ 
tum  non  era  t. 

But  when  non  is  not  designed  to  negative  the  adjective  or 
adverb,  then  it  does  not  stand  before  it;  e.  g.  You  cannot 
live  pleasantly  there,  ibi  jucunde  vivere  non  potes, — not 


§  477.] 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


397 


non  jucunde.  I  cannot  longer  remain  in  this  life ,  diu¬ 
tius  esse  non  possum, — not  non  diutius.  What  is 
by  chance ,  cannot  be  certain ,  non  possunt  esse  certa, — 
not  non  certa.  In  a  few  examples  it  is  otherwise  ;  e.  g„ 
Quod  in  Matii  familiaritatem  venisti,  non  dici  potest, 
quam  valde  gaudeam,  for  dici  non  potest.  (Cic.  Fam.. 
VII,  15). 

When  non  or  a  word  containing  non ,  e.  g.  nemo ,  nullus,  ni¬ 
hil,  is  connected  with  one  of  the  pronouns  or  adverbs  used  in 
negative  sentences,  as  quisquam ,  ullus ,  usquam ,  unquam t 
(see  §  527),  it  always  stands  first;  e.  g.  Non  memini  me 
unquam  te  vidisse.  Nihil  unquam  mihi  negavit. 

When  two  substantives,  adjectives,  participles  and  the 
like,  are  contrasted  with  each  other,  and  before  one  of  them 
the  word  not  is  used,  while  before  the  other  the  word  but  is 
either  used  or  implied,  then  non  is  placed  before  the  former 
word ;  e.  g.  In  these  words  regard  was  had,  not  to  brevity, 
but  rather  to  beauty ,  non  brevitati  servitum  est,  sed 
magis  venustati.  It  is  not  pleasure  that  is  the  opposite  of 
pain,  but  it  is  the  absence  of  pain,  non  voluptas  con¬ 
traria  est,  sed  doloris  privatio.  He  was  not  led  from 
the  court,  but  dragged,  non  ductus,  sed  raptus  est.  This 
ship  was  not  taken  by  our  feet,  but  teas  found  at  Megaris , 
non  capta  est,  sed  inventa.  We  preserved  him  for  prison, 
not  for  the  city,  carceri,  non  urbi.  The  image  was 
not  made  by  the  hand  of  mail,  but  it  fell  from  heaven ,  noil 
humana  manu  facta,  sed — . 

477.  The  words  not  so  —  as  are  always  translated,  noli 
tarn  —  quam  ;  not  more  —  than  non  plus,  quam  ;  e.  g. 
Non  tarn  facile  est. 

Further,  when  not  so  stands  before  an  adjective  or  adverb, 
it  is  always  expressed  by  non  ita  ;  e.  g.  Not  so  old ,  n  o  n  it  a 
antiquus.  In  this  one  point  you  do  not  so  much  praise 
Pompey ,  non  ita  valde  probas. 

In  negative  asseverations,  where  we  use  double  negatives, 

34 


398 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  477 


first  no,  then  not,  the  Latins  use  non  but  once,  and  place  it 
first ;  e.  g.  No  truly ,  I  have  not  suspected  this,  n  on,  meher- 
cule,  suspicatus  sum.  No!  that  is  not  the  man,  non  is  vir 
est. 

In  conclusions,  non  usually  comes  before  the  words  igitur 
and  ergo;  e.  g.  Therefore  friendship  does  not  look  at  utility , 
non  igitur  utilitatem  amicitia  sequitur.  Therefore  those 
men  are  not  to  be  heard,  non  ergo  illi  sunt  audiendi.  But 
yet  igitur  and  ergo  very  frequently  stand  in  the  third  place: 
e.  g.  Therefore  trouble  does  not  befall  a  wise  man,  n  o  n  cadit 
ergo  (igitur)  in  sapientem  aegritudo. 

The  words  nonnisi,  in  the  sense  of  only,  are  always  se¬ 
parated  by  the  classical  writers,  so  that  non  always  stands  be¬ 
fore  the  verb,  but  nisi  before  the  word  to  which  only  belongs  ; 
e.  g.  This  can  happen  only  to  a  brave  man,  id  accidere,  nisi 
forti  viro,  non  potest.  He  was  wont  to  do  this  before,  only 
on  feast  days,  hoc  facere,  nisi  festis  diebus,  antea  n  on  sole¬ 
bat. 

When  a  negative  principal  sentence  is  connected  with  a 
sentence  with  if,  if  not,  unless  (nisi),  non  usually  stands  first 
in  its  own  sentence  ;  e.  g.  If  this  were  not  to  be  found  in  old 
men,  our  ancestors  would  not  have  called  the  highest  council, 
a  Senate,  n  o  n  sum  mum  concilium — appellassent  Senatum. 
If  it  stands  before  the  conditional  sentence  with  if,  etc.  it  gains 
a  special  emphasis;  e.  g.  non,  si  tibi  ea  res  grata  fuisset, 
esset  etiam  probata.  But  this  position  is  less  frequent. 

As  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  closely  connected 
with  the  governing  verb,  where  such  accusative  with  the 
infinitive  is  negative,  non  almost  always  stands  before  the 
governing  verb ;  e.  g.  / think  this  is  not  possible,  non  ar¬ 
bitror  hoc  fieri  posse.  He  thinks  that  this  direction  does 
not  relate  io  him,  die  non  putat  ad  se  praeceptum  pertinere. 
Hence  also,  negare,  to  say,  that  not.  Comp.  §  529. 

Finally,  in  phrases,  as,  Who  is  there  (there  is  no  one),  to 
whom  this  is  not  clear,  non  is  placed  almost  at  will,  but  gene- 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


399 


$§  478,  479.] 

rally  after  the  relative;  e.  g.  Quis  est  (nemo  est),  cui  non 
perspicua  sint  ilia.  What  state  is  so  strong ,  that  it  cannot 
be  shaken  by  discord  ?  quae  non  —  everti  possit  ?  There 
is  nothing  which  length  of  time  cannot  attain ,  quod  non 
— assequi  possit.  Whom  has  Pom  pry  not.  preserved  ?  q  u  e  in 
n  o  n  Pompeius  servavit  ?  I  am  not  so  unfeeling  as  not  to  be 
moved  by  the  grief  of  my  brother ,  qui  fratris  maerore  non 
movear.  There  is  no  one  to  whom  my  safety  was  not  dear , 
cui  mea  salus  non  cara  fuerit.  Such  questions  contain 
affirmations,  and  therefore  the  verbs  do  not  require  the  nega¬ 
tive. 

478.  (9)  Tn  many  connections,  the  particles  ita  and  sic 
have  generally  a  uniform  position  ;  e.  g.  No,  it  is  not  so, 
non  est  i  t  a,- — more  seldom  non  ita  est,  but  never  est 
non  ita  or  i  t  a  non  est.  I  think  so  precisely ,  i  t  a  pror¬ 
sus  sentio  (censeo,  existimo,  etc.),  seldom  prorsus  ita 
sentio.  I  under  st  arid  it  perfectly,  i  t  a  prorsus  intelligo.  But, 
Yes,  it  is  so  precisely ,  is  written,  prorsus  ita  est  or  i  t  a  pror¬ 
sus  est,  not  prorsus  est  ita.  Further;  when  in  the  phrase, 
The  thing  is  so,  the  word  so  refers  to  what  precedes,  then 
sic  (ita)  usually  stands  first ;  S  i  c  se  res  habet,  more  seldom 
res  se  s  i  c  habet ;  but  when,  moreover,  that  (ut)  follows, 
and  so  refers  principally  to  what  follows,  it  is  written  some¬ 
times  res  sic  se  habet,  ut — ,  sometimes  s  i  c  se  res  habet,  ut 
— ,  sometimes  s  i  c  (  ita)  resjse  habet,  ut — ,  and,  when  it  relates 
to  what  follows  without  ut,  sic  usually  stands  at  the  end  ;  e.  g. 
The  thing  was  so  done,  acta  res  est  s  i  c  or  res  acta  s  i  c  est. 

479.  (10)  The  pronoun  ille  (that),  when  it  does  not  refer 
to  a  person  or  thing  previously  mentioned  in  the  discourse, 
but  only  to  the  celebrity  of  a  person  or  thing,  stands  in  the 
sentence,  for  the  most  part,  after  its  substantive,  or  after  an 
adjective  belonging  to  the  substantive  ;  e.  g.  Dux  ille  Grae¬ 
ciae;  triginta  illi  viri;  vetus  i  1 1  u  d  probatumque  prover¬ 
bium;  dominans  i  1 1  e  in  nobis  Deus;  imitor  Archytam  il¬ 
lum  Tarentinum;  Cyrus  ille  Perses;  crudelissimus  i  e 


400 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§§  480,  481. 


Phalaris ;  Nonae  illae  Decembres ;  crebro  mihi  vafer  ille 
Siculus  insusurrat  cantilenam  illam  suam  ;  ut  ait  poeta  ille 
noster;  L.  Bruto  illi,  nobilitatis  vestrae  principi. 

So  hic,  iste ,  ipse,  if  the  substantive  is  antithetic,  or,  from 
its  importance  to  the  whole  thought  of  the  sentence,  is  to  be 
made  emphatic,  stand  after  it ;  otherwise  they,  as  well  as 
ille,  commonly  stand  before  the  substantive,  or  between  an  ad¬ 
jective  and  substantive;  e.  g.  Disputationem  hanc 
de  oratore,  etc.  malim  tibi  et  Bruto  placere,  eloquentiam 
autem  meam  populo  probari.  Neque  Aristotelem  is 

tum  desidero.  Caedem  hanc  ipsam  contra  remp. 
decrevit. 

480.  (11)  The  pronoun  quisque  (each,  every  one),  in  all 
its  cases  and  numbers,  is  placed  after  the  word  to  which  it 
belongs,  in  three  circumstances;  viz. 

(a)  After  the  reflexive  pronouns  sui ,  sibi,  se  and  suus  ; 
e.  g.  S  i  b  i  quisque  carus  est ;  ipse  se  q  u  i  s  q  u  e  diligit ; 
de  se  quisque  bene  sentit.  Each  one  is  chiefly  influenced 
by  his  own  desire,  suo  quisque  studio.  All  advice  must 
have  reference  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  each  one ,  ad  suara 
cujusque  naturam.  The  Stoics  call  everything  by  its  own 
name ,  suo  quamque  rem  nomine  appellant.  Every  one 
ought  to  defend  his  friends,  suos  quisque  debet  tueri. 

The  best  L.atin  writers  put  the  reflexive  pronouns  after  quisque, 
only  when  quisque  is  placed  in  a  subordinate  sentence  standing  first, 
but  yet  belongs  to  the  principal  sentence,  as  its  subject,  or  when  the 
reflexive  pronoun  must,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  stand  last  in  the 
sentence  ;  e.  g.  Whul  every  one  knows  to  be  his  own,  let  him  take  (let 
every  one  take  what  he  knows  to  be  his  own),  quod  quisque  suum 
agnoverit,  toliat.  As  much  as  every  one  esteems  himself,  so  much 
will  he  be  esteemed  by  his  friends,  quanti  quisque  se  ipse  facit,  tan¬ 
ti  fiat  ab  amicis.  That  suits  each  one  best,  which  is  peculiar  to  each,  id 
maxime  quemque  decet,  quod  est  cujusque  maxime  suum.  Comp. 
§  506. 

481.  (b)  Quisque  is  placed  after  superlatives,  when  it  be¬ 
longs  to  these,  and  stands  instead  of  omnes ;  e.  g.  Every  truly 
good  man  shows  this  by  the  very  act,  optimus  quisque. 
This  is  most  pleasant  in  every  intimate  friend,  in  amicis¬ 
simo  quoque.  Among  all  the  most  noble,  there  is  a  strife 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


401 


§§  432 — 484.] 

for  honor,  in  optimis  quibusque.  On  the  contrary, 
in  the  phrase,  ut  quisque  (comp.  §95)  with  the  superlative, 
it  stands  before  the  superlative. 

482.  (c)  Quisque  is  placed  after  the  ordinal  numbers ,  in 
the  sense  of  every ;  ever  if  fifth  year  (every  five  years)  Sicily 
is  taxed,  quinto  quoque  anno.  Every  tenth ,  decimus 
q  u  i  s  q  u  e. 

483.  (12)  When  for  the  purpose  of  inspiring  confidence 
in  one’s  self,  the  English  phrase  believe  me  is  used,  mild  gen¬ 
erally  stands  before  crede  and  credite ,  in  Cicero  ;  e.  g.  Believe 
me,  whatever  you  have  heard  is  false,  m  i  h  i  crede.  Cice¬ 
ro  has  placed  it  after  the  verb  only  occasionally  ;  others  do  it 
oftener. 

484.  (L3)  Substantive  pronouns  are  most  commonly  in¬ 
serted  between  two  closely  connected  words,  and  especially 
between  an  adjective  pronoun  and  its  substantive ;  e.  g.  Res 
tuae  quotidie  faciliores  m  i  h  i  et  meliores  videntur.  Officiis 
diligenter  a  me  sancteque  servatis.  Hic  me  dolor  angit, 
haec  m  e  cura  sollicitat.  Hac  ego  religione  non  repulsus. 
Quod  i  1 1  e  periculum  vitavit.  Ut  in  illa  quisque  aetate 
esse  poterat.  Quo  quidquid  animo  fiat.  Quo  quisque 
loco  cecidit. 

Two  pronouns  in  a  sentence,  referring  to  each  other,  are 
usually  placed  near  one  another ;  e.  g.  You  icish  him  to  send 
something  to  me,  tu  eu  m  vis  aliquid  ad  me  mittere.  I  have 
all  these  common  with  you,  haec  omnia  m  i  h  i  tecum  sunt 
communia.  I  wish  to  be  praised  by  you,  me  abs  te  cupio 
laudari.  So  also  pronouns  of  the  same  person  are  very  fre¬ 
quently  placed  next  to  one  another,  e.  g.  Tuae  tibi  oc¬ 
currunt  injuriae.  Hunc  tu  tua  voluntate  remove  metum* 
Sua  ipsi  frumenta  corrumpunt.  Suis  s  e  laudibus  con¬ 
solari. 

The  pronoun  ipse,  when  it  is  in  the  same  case  with  another 
pronoun,  e.  g.  me,  mild,  and  has  no  special  emphasis,  follows 
that  pronoun,  therefore  me  ipsum,  mihi  ipsi  and  the  like;  yet 

34* 


402 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§§  485—487. 


when  it  is  emphatic  and  has  the  sense  of  even ,  it  stands  be¬ 
fore  ;  e.  g.  of  me  myself  ',  even  of  me ,  de  i  p  s  o  me ;  even  to  me, 
ad  ipsum  me  ;  as  much  as  I  myself  (even),  quantum  ipse 
ego.  But  when  it  stands  in  the  nominative,  since  it  refers 
to  the  subject  of  the  verb,  it  can  stand  before  or  after  the 
other  pronoun;  e.  g.  qui  ipse  sibi  assentatur,  et  se  max¬ 
ime  ipse  delectat.  In  the  sense  of  very,  just,  it  is  always 
placed  after  the  other  pronoun  to  which  it  refers  ;  e.  g.  ille 
ipse,  hie  ipse.  Comp.  §  126. 

485.  ( 14)  When  phrases,  e.  g.  as  I  believe,  think  —  u  t  cre¬ 
do,  arbitror,  opinor,  etc.,  also  similar  ones  without  u  t : 
credo,  censeo,  opinor,  stand  by  themselves,  without 
another  sentence  being  dependent  on  them,  then  those  words 
are  usually  placed  not  before  or  after,  but  within  the  other 
sentence,  and  generally  after  the  most  important  word ;  e.  g. 
I  believe  Endymion  is  not  yet  awake ,  Endymion  nondum, 
opinor,  est  experrectus.  My  feelings  towards  you  were 
not  changeable ,  as  you  write ,  in  te  non  fui,  u  t  scribis,  an¬ 
imo  mobili.  I  believe ,  Verres  designedly  left  this  word  out 
of  his  testimony,  Verres  hoc  verbum  consulto,  arbitror, 
ex  testimonio  suo  omisit. 

486.  (15)  The  adjective  omnis,  for  the  most  part,  stands 
after  pronouns;  e.  g.  all  these,  all  those ,  hi  omnes,  illi 
omne  s,  not  omnes  hi,  omnes  illi.  So  also  in  Greek  : 
ovzoi  ndvzeg,  zavza  7Tavzu.  Hence,  e.  g.  The  Stoics  define 
all  these,  haec  omnia  definiunt  Stoici.  I  am  moved  by 
the  tears  of  all  these ,  horum  omniu  m.  But  a  few  pos¬ 
sessed  the  places  of  honor,  the  provinces  and,  all  other  tilings 
et  a  1  i  a  o  m  n  i  a.  So  also,  omitto  et  haec  et  alia  permulta. 

487.  (16)  The  position  of  inquam  is  to  be  noticed  in  two 
respects : 

(a)  It  is  never  placed  before  the  words  of  the  speaker,  but 
is  inserted  among  them ;  e.  g.  Plato  says  justly :  No  wise 
man  punishes,  because  a  fault  has  been  committed,  recte  Plato  : 
Nemo  prudens,  inquit,  punit. — Tum  ille:  nempe 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


403 


§§  488,  489.] 

eum  dicis,  inquit,  quo  — .  Istum  ipsum,  inquam,  d  i- 
c  o  librum. 

(b)  When  inquam  has  its  subject  joined  with  it  in  the  dis¬ 
course,  the  subject  usually  stands  after  the  verb,  as  some¬ 
times  in  English,  said  I,  said  Plato;  e.  g.  Said  Cotta ,  it 
seems  to  me  so  truly ,  mihi  vere,  inquit  Cotta,  videtur. 
Julius  said,  What  if  I  assent  to  Antony  ?  quid  si,  i  n  qu  i  t 
Julius,  assentior  Antonio  ?  So  in  all  similar  intermediate 
phrases,  the  subject  is  mostly  placed  after  the  verb ;  e.  g. 
Scribit  Cicero,  putat  Plato,  censuit  Caesar. 

The  subject  of  the  formula,  ut  ait,  has  also  the  same  posi¬ 
tion  ;  e.  g.  A  diseased  mind,  as  Ennius  says,  always  errs,  ut 
ait  Ennius.  Ut  ait  idem  Terentius.  As  Socrates 
says  in  Xenophon,  ut  ait  apudX.  Socrates.  The  sub¬ 
ject  stands  before  the  verb,  only  when  two  subjects  are  con¬ 
trasted  with  each  other,  or  when  is  followed  by  qui,  is  the 
subject;  e.  g.  As  he  says,  whom  we  follow,  ut  is  ait  quern 
sequimur.  So  also  with  other  similar  verbs,  ut  scribit  Ci¬ 
cer  o,  ut  refert  Livius,  ut  censet  Zeno,  etc. 

488.  (17)  The  explanations  of  a  proper  name  usually 
stand  after  it,  because  they  contain  nothing  which  has  any 
effect  on  the  sentence.  Hence,  Cicero  con  s  u  1 ;  Tib. Grac¬ 
chus  tribunus  plebis;  Laevinus  Praetor;  Thales 
Milesius;  Dionysius  tyrannus;  Sardanapalus  opul¬ 
entissimus  Syriae  rex. 

The  explanatory  word  stands  before  the  name  of  a  person,  only 
when  it  is  to  distinguish  one  person  from  another  ;  e.  g.  When  Mucius 
the  augur  leas  dead,  I  went  to  Pontifex  Mucius,  Mucio  augure  mortuo, 
mead  p  o  n  t  i  fi  c  e  m  Mucium  contuli.  Or  when  something  emphatic 
is  contained  in  it,  as  when  Cicero  says :  Scythes  Anacharsis  hoc 
potuit,  nostrates  philosophi  facere  non  possunt?  or  when  he  relates 
that,  Cinna  commanded  the  head  of  his  colleague,  the  consul  Octavius , 
to  he  cut  off,  Cinna,  collegae  sui,  consulis  Cn.  Octavii  prae¬ 
cidi  caput  jussit ;  or  when  the  name  itself  stands  emphatically  at  the 
end  of  a  sentence  ;  e.  g.  The  senate  decreed  an  inquiry  against  the  con¬ 
sul,  viz.  Caepio,  decreta  a  senatu  consuli  quaestio  Caepioni. 

Yet  many  predicates  stand  first ;  e.  g.  rex,  urhs, oppidum,  Athenien¬ 
sis,  and  the  like,  as  it  seems,  without  any  special  reason. 

489.  (18)  The  phrase  ut  ita  di  cam,  so  to  speak,  stands 


404 


POSITION  OP  WORDS. 


[§$  490, 491. 

either  directly  before  or  after  the  word,  for  the  use  of  which 
an  apology  is  to  be  made ;  e.  g.  In  our  herd ,  so  to  speak ,  in 
nostro,  ut  ita  dicam,  grege.  The  best  and  most  beau¬ 
tiful  furniture  of  life ,  so  to  speak ,  optima  et  pulcherrima 
vitae,  ut  ita  dicam,  supellex.  This  is  a  low  and  by 
no  means ,  so  to  speak ,  noble  origin  of  friendship ,  et  minime 
generosus,  ut  ita  dicam,  ortus. 

490.  (19)  Certain  phrases ,  proverbs  and  titles  have  the 
position  of  the  words  of  which  they  are  composed,  almost  al¬ 
ways  fixed.  These  often  stand  differently  in  English  ;  e.  g. 
By  sea  and  land,  t  e  r  r  a  marique,  seldom  et  terra  et 
mari,  et  mari  et  terra,  mari  terraque.  With  fire 
and  sword,  ferro  ignique,  ferro  atque  igni,  fer¬ 
ro  flammaque;  but  flamma  et  ferro.  With  might 
and  main,  with  all  speed,  manibus  pedibusque,  velis 
remisque  or  ventis  rerais,  equis  viris  or  equis 
v  i  r  i  s  q  u  e.  To  forbid  one  the  use  of  fire  and  water ,  alicui 
interdicere  aqua  e  t  i  g  n  i.  In  peace  and  in  war,  domi 
militiaeque,  domi  bellique.  Neither  in  peace  nor 
in  war,  nec  domi  nec  militiae.  Neither  peace  nor  war, 
neque  pax,  neque  bellum.  Between  hope  and  fear,  inter 
spem  metumq  ue.  Human  and  divine  right,  jus  f  a  s- 
que.  Further:  JBdilis  curulis ;  Tribunus  plebis,  Tribunus 
militum  or  militaris  ;  Patres  conscripti ;  campus  Martius; 
populus  Romanus  ;  dii  immortales  ;  jus  civile  ;  res  militaris ; 
via  Appia,  and  so  similar  forms.  Further  ;  it  is  always  said 
sursum  deorsum ;  huc,  illuc  ;  hic,  ubi ;  ultro  citroque,  ultro 
et  citro,  ortus  et  occasus,  diem  noctemque,  dies  noctesque  or 
noctes  et  dies  ;  aequi  et  boni  or  aequi  boni ;  Deus  optimus 
maximus ;  aequius  melius  seldom  melius  aequius. 

491.  (20)  When  a  substantive  belongs  to  two  or  more 
prepositions,  which  govern  different  cases,  it  does  not  stand 
after  the  last,  but  either  after  the  first,  or  is  repeated  with 
each  preposition,  or  instead  of  the  substantive,  a  pronoun 
referring  to  it,  is  used  with  the  second;  e.  g.  Both  in  and  out 


§  492.] 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


495 


of  the  body,  o  tin  corpore  et  extra,  not  et  in  et  extra 
corpus.  Inquire  what  happened  before,  what  with,  what 
after  the  event,  quid  ante  rem,  quid  cum  re,  quid  post 
re  in  evenerit.  Much  had,  been  said  for  and  against  the  Li¬ 
ciniem  law,1  pro  lege  Licinio  contraque  earn  inulta  dicta 
erant.  So,  et  in  consulatu  tuo  et  post  consula¬ 
tum;  contra  legem  p  r  o  q  u  e  lege;  pro  tabulis 
et  contra  tabulas;  pro  testibus  et  contra  tes¬ 
tes,  etc.  Yet  ante  can  be  connected  with  post  by  et,  be¬ 
cause  both  are  also  adverbs  for  antea,  postea.  Hence,  ad 
Herenn.  IV.  55,  quae  ante  et  post  et  in  ipsa  re  facta 
erunt,  is  rierht. 

On  the  contrary,  when  both  prepositions  govern  the  same 
case,  they  can  be  connected  either  by  et  or  que,  and  their 
substantive  be  placed  after  the  second  preposition  or  as  be¬ 
fore  ;  e.  g.  The  Gauls  dwelt  on  the  hither  and  farther  sides 
of  the  Po,  citra  et  ultra  Padum  or  citra  Padum  ul- 
traque.  So,  intra  extraque  munitiones;  ante 
signa  circaque. 

But  two  prepositions  without  a  substantive  are  never  con¬ 
nected  with  each  other  by  et.  Therefore,  pro  et  contra  (for 
and  against)  instead  of  in  vtramque  partem,  in  contrarias 
partes,  does  not  accord  with  Latin  usage.  Two  prepositions 
also,  which  belong  to  different  substantives,  cannot  be  placed 
after  each  other ;  e.  g.  ad  inter  pugnam  eum  adjuvandum 
for  ad  e  u  m  inter  p.  a  d  j  u  v.  Ante  diem  in  the  calendar 
forms  an  exception  to  this,  where  in  and  ex  can  stand  before 
ante. 

492.  (21)  The  prepositions  versus  and  tenus  never  stand 
before  their  cases,  but  always  after  them  ;  e.  g.  Curio  trav¬ 
elled  from  Asia  towards  Rome,  Romam  versus.  Spain  as 
far  as  the  ocean  is  a  witness,  oceano  tenus. 

The  preposition  cum  is  always  placed  after  the  ablatives, 
me,  tc ,  se,  nobis,  vobis — ,can  stand  before  and  after  quo,  qua, 
quibus,  but  always  stands  before  other  pronouns  and  sub 


406  POSITION  OF  WORDS.  [§  492. 

stantives.  Hence  mecum ,  tecum ,  vobiscum ,  quocum,  cum  quo, 
cum  ilia,  cum  Deo. 

When  an  adjective  or  pronoun  with  a  substantive  belongs 
to  one  preposition,  the  Latins  very  often  put  the  preposition 
between  them;  e.  g.  hanc  ob  rem,  hanc  ob  causam,  alia 
in  causa,  multis  in  rebus,  quo  de  genere  mortis,  quod 
propter  studium,  etc.  Yet  is  generally  follows  the  prepo¬ 
sition  ;  e.  g.  ob  eam  rem,  d  e  ea  re.  But  a  preposition 
cannot  stand  between  a  substantive  and  an  adjective  following 
it;  e.  g.  causis  de  multis,  for  multis  de  causis;  res  ad 
rusticas,  for  ad  res  rusticas ;  castra  in  minora  venit,  for 
minora  i  n  castra. 

Cicero,  especially  in  legal  phrases,  has  frequently  placed  the  prepo¬ 
sition  after  the  single  qui ,  without  a  substantive  :  e.  g.  qua  d  e  agi¬ 
tur,  qua  de  judicatum  est,  quo  de  quaestio  est,  quos  ad,  quos 
propter,  quem  contra,  quem  penes,  etc.  The  poets  and  later 
writers  put  prepositions,  especially  those  of  two  syllables,  after  sub¬ 
stantives.  This  Cicero  never  does,  and  it  is  not  to  be  imitated.  We 
do  not  therefore  say  spem  praeter ,  but  praeter  spem.  It  is  also  to  be 
noticed,  that  Cicero  never  puts  the  preposition  between  the  adjective 
medius  and  its  noun,  but  before  the  adjective  ;  e.  g.  in  medios  hostes , 
not  medios  in  hostes  ;  and  in  like  manner  with  is,  ea,  id, — earn  ob  rem, 
ea  de  re,  eam  ob  causam,  ea  de  causa  are  as  little  used  for  ob  earn  rem, 
ob  eam  causam ,  except  when  by  is,  ea,  id,  the  object  is  to  be  made  em¬ 
phatic,  and  the  pronoun  signifies  such  a. 

A  preposition  may  also  be  separated  from  its  case.  This  is  most 
frequently  done  by  a  genitive  of  attribute,  or  an  adverb,  which,  with 
the  word  they  limit  or  qualify,  like  adjectives,  form  as  it  were  but  a 
single  idea.  E.  g.  /  cannot  think  virtue  sufficient  for  a  happy  life ,  ad  b  e- 
a  t  e  vivendum  ;  not  for  a  contest  of  opinions,  but  —  ,  non  ad  j  u  d  i  c  i  o- 
rum  certamen.  Even  an  explanatory  clause  may  be  added  to  this 
g'nit  ye,  end  thus  the  p  eposition  be  removed  still  farther  from  its  case; 
e.  g.  officia  pertinent  ad  earum  r  e  r  u  m,  quibus  utunturhom- 
ines,  facultatem.  More  rarely  by  other  limiting  words,  and 
here,  too,  only  by  such  as  form  with  the  word  which  they  limit, as  it 
were  but  one  idea.  E.  g.  In  bella  gerentibus.  Cum  i  g  n  oin  i  n  i  a 
dignis.  Ad  beneficiis  obstringendos  homines.  In  suum 
cuique  tribuendo  A  nescio  qua  dignitate.  So,  too,  a  con¬ 
junction,  like  the  enclitics  que,  ve ,  also  autem ,  vero,  tamen,  quidem, 
enim  and  other  particle's,  is  often  inserted  between  the  preposition  and 
its  case,  yet  Ihese  conjunctions  often  stand  after  the  case  governed  by 
the  preposition.  E.  g  Exque  his.  Deve  dictatura,  d  e  v  e  coloni¬ 
is.  Post  v  e  r  o  Sullae  victoriam.  Post  e  n  i  m  Chrysippum.  Prop¬ 
ter  vel  gratiam  vel  dignitatem.  But  in  is  not  commonly  thus 
separated  from  its  case ;  thus,  in  il]o  autern,  etc.,  not  in  autem  illo. 


§§  493,  494.] 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


407 


493.  (22)  When  sentences  with  et —  et ;  vel — vel;  aut 
—  aut;  cum — cum;  turn  —  turn;  non  modo  —  sed  (ve¬ 
rum)  etiam  —  etc.,  have  some  common  substantive,  pronoun 
or  adjective,  then  this  is  either  placed  before  the  first  particle, 
or  in  some  proper  place  in  the  second  sentence;  e.  g.  Who 
is  governed  not  only  by  the  mind  and  will  of  the  other ,  but 
also  by  his  look  and  nod,  qui  ad  alterius  non  modo  sen- 
sum  ac  voluntatem.  Both  by  better  regulations  and  laws , 
melioribus  et  institutis  et  legibus.  How  great  was  either 
the  admiration  or  complaint  of  the  men  !  quanto  hominu  m 
erat  vel  admiratio  vel  querela  !  He  did  not  expose  himself  to 
the  danger  either  of  death  or  of  slavery,  non  se  aut  mortis  aut 
servitutis  periculo  commisit.  So  also,  ab  onini  non 
modo  fortuna,  verum  etiam  spe  ;  tali  vel  scientia  vel  natura ; 
summam  ingenii  non  laudem  modo,  sed  etiam  admira¬ 
tionem  ;  sine  ulla  non  modo  religione,  sed  etiam  dissimu¬ 
latione. 

494.  (23)  In  such  phrases  as,  I  think  that  this  must  be 
done,  the  pronoun  when  emphatic  is  placed  first,  therefore 
hoc  or  id  censeo  esse  faciendum,  not  censeo  esse  hoc  fac. 
I  took  it  very  ill  that  I  saw,  —  illud  plane  moleste  tuli, 
quod.  Yet  I  wish  you  to  know  this,  —  hoc  tamen  te  scire 
volo. 

Examples  for  practice  on  §§  468 — 494. 

(1)  To  despise1  riches  is  a  mark9  of  a  great  mind,  but3  to 
deprive4  another  of  something  for  his  advantage,  is  contrary 
to  nature.  I  do  not  believe  this  at  least5.  This  also6  does 
not  seem  to  me  probable.  Pythagoras  did  not  wish  to  offer 
a  victim7  even  to  the  Delian  Apollo.  Dionysius  said8  laugh¬ 
ing  :  See,  ye  friends,  how  much9  the  gods  favor10  us  !  Every 
one  offered  something  to  Socrates,  according  to11  his  ability12. 
Only  a  few  entreat13  the  all-powerful14  and  good15  God  to16 
make  them  just  and  wise.  Many  praise  that  which  is  not  to 
be  praised.  It  is  not  proper  to  follow17  virtue  for  the  sake  of 
praise;  but18,  when  praise  follows19  after,  then  the  desire  to 
strive20  for  it,  is  doubled.  The  Grecians  waged  many  wars 
with  the  Persians,  by  sea  and  by  land.  Xerxes  desolated 


408 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  494. 


Greece  with  fire  and  sword,  and  spared  not  even  the  temples 
of  the  gods.  Here  you  have  a  gift,  which,  at  least  in  my 
opinion,  is  great.  It  is  certain,  that  almost  every  one  cares 
more  for  himself  than  for  others.  Old  men  also6  still  hope  to 
live  long.  When  the  city  is  besieged,  every  one  must21  be 
concerned22  for  himself.  God  has  given  to  every  animal23 
its  own  peculiar  nature.  This  letter  was  not  sent24  the  day 
on  which  it  was  written.  Great25,  indeed,  is  the  genius  of  the 
boy,  but  yet  fickle26.  I  cannot  be  longer27  in  this  life.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  mention  all.  On  that  day,  great  slaughter 
was  caused28  on  this  side  and  on  that.  A  place  without  a 
haven  cannot  be  safe  for  ships.  The  orator  considers29  times 
and  persons ;  for  I  believe,  that  we  may*  not  always  speak 
either  with,  or  against,  or  for,  or  of  every  one,  in  the  same 
manner.  We  can  perhaps  render30  some31  assistance32  to  our 
friends,  each  according11  to  his  ability.  What  has  occurred 
to  my  mind33  for  and  against  this,  I  will  briefly  explain.  We 
are  not  accustomed  to  believe  a  liar34,  even  when35  he  speaks 
the  truth. 

1  contemnere.  2  (see  §  142.).  3autem.  4detrahere.  5quidem.  6quo- 
que.  7  hostia.  8  inquam.  9  quantopere.  10  favere.  11  pro.  12  facultates. 
13implorare.  14maximus.  15  optimus.  16  ut.  17  sequi.  18sed.  ^conse¬ 
qui.  20appetere.  21  oportere.  22  timere.  23animans.  2,dare.  25  (for  em¬ 
phasis,  ille  is  added  after  magnus ,  and  pueri  ingenium  is  put  at  the 
end).  28  multiplex.  27  diu.  28  inferre.  29  respicere.  *  licere.  30  ferre.  31  ali¬ 
quid.  32  ops.  33  mens.  34  mendax.  35  (participle). 

(2)  All1  the  truly2  wise  and  noble3  are  exposed  totheenvy 
of  wicked  men.  Every  one  hopes  the  best  for  himself.  Stil¬ 
po  was  asked,  whether  he  had  lost  anything.  He  said4:  no¬ 
thing;  for  l  carry5  everything  of  mine  with  me.  Many  do 
not  call  even  that  proper,  which  they  call  good.  We  consi¬ 
der  Europe  the  smallest  portion  of  the  earth,  but  yet  it  is  the 
most  cultivated6.  It  is  not  so,  as  most  have  hitherto7  believed 
and  every  one  has  hitherto  dreamed.  The  yEtoiians  besieged 
Chalcis  by  sea  and  land.  I  do  not  ask  you,  but  the  poet  him¬ 
self.  No  consular  man,  not  only  not8  by  his  voice,  but  not 
even  by  his  look,  gave  assent9  to  Piso.  Nature  has  desired 
that  everything  should  be  perfect  in  its  kind10.  Everything 
which  he  has  related,  has  not  happened.  When  a  great  quan¬ 
tity  of  gold  and  silver  was  carried  in  a  procession11,  Socrates 
said  :  How  many  things  I  do  not  desire12.  Believe  me,  that 
I  am  nowhere  more  pleased13,  than  with  you.  You  refer14 
me  to  the  philosophers,  who  do  not  often  go15  to  battle.  Epi- 


§  494.] 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


409 


curus  does  not  know  what  pleasure  is,  therefore16,  let  us  pass 
him  by17.  He  refers  us  to  nature;  but18  she  not  only  permits 
this,  but19  even  demands20  it.  We  are  more  diffuse21,  than 
it  is  necessary  ;  for  who  is  there,  to  whom  all  this  is  not 
plain22?  Panaetius  used  unnecessary  evidence  in  a  case  not 
doubtful.  Distinguished23  men  are  animated24  by  wisdom 
and  virtue;  for*  in  these  is  the  highest  good.  A  field  can¬ 
not  be  fruitful25  without  cultivation26.  Nature  is  the  mother 
of  all  these  things.  Publius  Scipio  Nasica  was  also27  consi¬ 
dered  an  eloquent  man.  So  shameful28  an  act29  cannot 
be  believed;  for30  great  is  the  influence  of  humanity.  There 
were  no  examinations31  respecting  these  things32  before; 
for  Lucius  Piso  first  made  a  law  respecting  extortion33. 
With  what  despatch  this  has  been  done34,  is  not  to  be  pass¬ 
ed  over35  by  me.  Fire  and  water  were  forbidden36  Cicero. 
Who37,  therefore38,  does  not  admit,  that  this  is  true  ?  When39 

I  think40  of  your  travels,  many  things  occur  to  me  for  and 
against. 

’quisque.  2  sapientissimus  (truly  wise).  3  optimus.  4  inquam.  5  por¬ 
tare —  cum.  6  cultus.  7  adhuc.  8  non  modo  (not  only  not ;  the  verb 
must  stand  in  the  second  clause,  see  §  540).  9assentire.  10 genus. 

II  pompa.  12  desiderare.  13  libens.  14  revocare.  15  prodire.  16  igitur. 
17  omittere.  18  vero.  19  verum.  20  postulare.  21  longus.  22  perspicuus. 
23  praestans.  24  excitare.  *  etenim.  23  fructuosus.  26  cultura.  27  etiam 
(is  placed  in  the  sentence).  28  nefarius.  29  res.  30  enim.  31  quaestio. 
32  res.  33  res  repetundae.  34  gerere.  35  praeterire  (periph.  conjugation). 
36  interdicere.  37  quis  est,  qui.  38  igitur.  39  (participle).  40  cogitare. 

(3)  When  you  also1  think2  the  same,  I  will  continue  as  I 
have  begun3.  Antony  said4:  often  have  I  heard  this  at  least 
from5  Crassus.  P.  Mummius  at  least  can  testify  this  to  me. 
Innumerable  things  might  be  named,  but  it  is  not  necessary. 
Life  does  not  seem  to  have  been  taken  from  L.  Crassus,  but 
death  to  have  been  given.  It  is  deeply  impressed6  on  our 
minds7,  that  death  is  not  a  destruction,  but  a  kind  of  journey. 
I  do  not  speak*  of  a  certain  unusual8,  but  of  the  common9 
prudence.  Every  truly  wise  man  dies  most  calmly10.  Every 
thirty  days,  Antiochus  paid  thirty  talents  to  the  Roman  state. 
The  sense  of  sight,  as  Plato  says11,  is  the  most  acute  w'e  have. 
There  is  no  mortal  who  escapes  pain,  as  Hypsipyle  says  in 
Euripides.  When  that  Oilus12  in  Sophocles  had  heard  of 
the  death  of  his  son,  he  became  broken  hearted13.  At  every 
third  word,  he  called14  me  by  name.  No  one  of  all  those  is 
more  dear  to  me,  than  you.  All  perceive,  that  that  was  not 
praise15  but  insult16.  Many  do  all  this,  thinking17  that  it 

35 


410 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  495. 


must18  happen.  Ido  not  intend19  to  mention20  everything, 
which  is  wont  to  he  said  for  and  against  these  men.  1  do  not 
know,  whether21  bribery22  has  been  committed23  or  not.  The 
custom  of  the  Peripatetics  pleases  me,  viz.,  to  argue24  upon 
all  subjects  for  and  against. 

1  quoque.  2  existimare.  3  instituere.  4  inquam.  5  ex  c  haerere  (deep¬ 
ly  impressed).  7  mens.  *  disputare.  8  excellens.  9  vulgaris.  10  aequo 
animo.  11  aio.  12  (subject  stands  before  the  conjunction).  13  frangere. 
14  appellare  (to  call  by  name).  15  laudatio.  16  irriso.  17  opinari.  18  opor¬ 
tere.  ,9esse  in  animo  (to  intend).  20  relerre.  21  ne.  22  largitio.  23  lier*. 
84  disserere. 

Continuation  of  the  preceding  subject. 

495.  (1)  The  pronoun  qui,  quae,  quod,  when  it  refers  to 
something  preceding,  or  has  attracted  the  substantive  belong¬ 
ing  to  it  into  its  own  sentence,  always  stands  first  in  the  sen¬ 
tence.  The  Latins  use  this  pronoun  oftener  than  we  do  our 
relative ;  for  they  very  frequently  employ  it  for  the  demon¬ 
strative  pronouns  hic,  haec,  hoc.  In  a  sentence  with  the  con¬ 
junction  that,  where  qui,  quae,  quod  is  used  for  hir,  liaec,  hoc, 
the  principal  sentence  must  be  inserted  in  the  other.  So,  ex 
quo  is  used  for  ex  eo ,from  this  ;  therefore  is  expressed  by  qua 
(de)  re,quam  ob  causam  (rem),  quapropter,  quocirca,  qua  de 
causa;  there,  by  ubi  for  ibi;  thither,  by  quo  for  eo ;  from 
thence,  by  unde  for  inde.  All  of  these  must  begin  the  sen¬ 
tence.  There  is  need  of  care  in  changing  and  placing  these 
relative  words. 

Examples. 

When  I  had  said  (his,  quae  (quod)  quum  dixissem.  If  this  is  so, 
quod  si  ita  est.  Since  this  is  so,  quae  quum  ita  sint.  Although 
this  excites  no  doubt,  quod  quamquam  dubitationem  non  habet.  One 
saying  of  Epicurus  among  these ,  I  thought  I  understood ,  e  quibus 
unum  Epicuri  dictum  mihi  videbar  cognoscere.  Since  the  violence  of 
this  contention  is  so  great,  cujus  contentionis  quum  tanta  vis  sit. 
When  Kama  had  sat  down  there,  u  b  i  quum  N.  considisset.  When  I 
was  going  thither,  quo  quum  me  conferrem.  Because  now  it  had 
been  inscribed  upon  these,  in  quibus  quod  inscriptum  erat.  When 
the  ensign  could  not  at  that  lime  — ,  quo  tempore  quum  signifer  non 
posset  — .  Because  Castor  and,  Pollux  in  this  buttle  — ,  qua  in  pmjna 
quia  Castor  et  Pollux  — .  When  this  had  happened — ,  quod  quum 
factum  esset,  or  briefly,  quo  facto.  Herodotus  writes,  that  this  hud 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


411 


§  496.] 

been  advised  to  Croesus,  quod  Croeso  scribit  Herodotus  esse  prae¬ 
ceptum.  The  event  has  shown,  that  this  was  true,  q  u  a  in  r  e  m  veram 
fuisse  eventus  declaravit.  So  in  such  sentences  as,  When  you  had 
come  thither.  When  I  could,  obtain  this  by  a  icord.  When  l  had  read 
the  life  of  this  king. 

Examples  for  practice. 

Many  of  our  institutions1  are  derived2  from  the  Greeks ; 
I  omit  these3,  that  we  may  not  seem  to  have  learned  else¬ 
where4.  Two  passions  remain5;  if  these3  shall  not  trouble6 
the  wise  man,  his  mind  will  always  be  tranquil.  There  are 
many  infirmities7  of  the  mind;  all  these3  arise  from  a  certain 
fear  of  those  things  which  we  avoid  and  hate.  Distempers8 
of  the  body  can  exist9  without  guilt,  not  so10  those  of  the 
mind  ;  for11  ail  the  diseases  of  this3  arise  from  the  neglect12 
of  reason.  Great  is  the  number  of  brave  Romans;  the 
Greeks  do  not  know13  all  these3.  It  is  very  pleasing  to  me 
that  these  men  have  wished,  that  I  should  be  in  health14. 
When  these3  men  made  known15  to  me  the  unjust  remarks16, 
I  was  very  much  grieved.  Therefore17,  I  defended  the  cause 
of  Crassus  in  the  Senate,  and18  you  write,  that  you  heard  it. 
I  wonder,  that  this3  topic19  has  not  been  touched20  by  Posido¬ 
nius.  Do  we  not  see  the  mode  of  life21  of  the  Lacedemoni¬ 
ans22,  in  their  Philitia  7  When  Dionysius  had  supped23  there 
he  said24,  that  he  did  not  like25  that  black  broth.  When  there 
had  been  great  assemblies26  in  these  cities,  I  determined  to 
travel  to  Cilicia. 

‘institutum  (comp.  §  J45.  6).  2  ducere.  3  qui.  4  aliunde.  5  restare. 
6  cadere  in  aliquem.  7  aegrotatio.  8  offensio  9  accidere.  10  non  item 
(after  the  genitive).  11  (omitted).  12  aspernatio.  13  noscere.  14  salvus. 
15  perferre.  16  sermo.  17  quam  ob  rem.  18  (omitted).  19  locus,  ^tangere. 
21  victus  (mode  of  living).  22  (genitive).  23  cenare.  24  negare  (which 
contains  the  following  not).  25  delectari.  26 conventus. 

496.  (2)  But  when  qui,  quae ,  quod  refers  to  something 
following,  especially  to  is,  ca,  id,  in  the  following  clause, 
then  other  words  which  seem  to  be  more  important  in  the 
sentence,  can  stand  first.  The  conjunctions  mentioned  above 
(§  469),  which  do  not  refer  to  this  relative  introductory  sen¬ 
tence,  but  to  the  principal  sentence  following,  are  here  placed 
before  the  relative;  e.  g.  But  what  is  plain,  ought  not  to  he 
long,  sed  quae  perspicua  sunt,  longa  esse  non  debent. 
What  has  been  brought  to  Rome,  may  be  seen  near  the  temple 


412 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§497. 


» 


of  honor,  Romam  quae  asportata  sunt.  Let  him  who  de¬ 
votes  himself  to  the  government  of  the  state,  btivare,  a  d  r  e  m 
gerendam  qui  accedit.  Those,  who  have  these  vir¬ 
tues,  are  called  talented,  eas  virtutes  qu  i  habent.  Instead  of 
e  a  s  virtutes,  quas  virtutes  could  have  been  used.  There¬ 
fore,  before  such  a  qui,  still  another  qid,  used  for  hic,  haec, 
hoc,  can  stand,  because  it  refers  to  something  preceding; 
e.  g.  Nothing  is  more  worthy  of  praise  than  virtue ;  whoever 
shall  have  obtained  this,  will  be  esteemed  by  all,  quam  qui 
adeptus  erit,  ab  omnibus  diligetur. 

497.  (3)  When  an  introductory  and  a  concluding  sentence 
have  a  common  subject,  this  subject  almost  always  stands  be¬ 
fore  the  conjunction  of  the  introductory  sentence,  because, 
as  subject  of  the  leading  sentence,  it  is  the  principal  word. 
Also  all  words  which  belong  to  the  subject,  must  stand  in  the 
first  part  of  the  sentence.  An  exception  occurs,  when  some¬ 
thing  else  stands  in  the  sentence,  which  refers  to  what  pre¬ 
cedes,  and  hence  requires  to  be  placed  first;  so  also,  when 
the  subjects  I,  thou,  we,  ye,  are  not  sufficiently  emphatic  to 
be  placed  first,  as  single  words.  But  when  the  subject  of  the 
two  sentences  is  not  common,  but  yet  designates  the  princi¬ 
pal  person  spoken  of,  then  also  it  is  placed  first.  There  is 
seldom  an  exception. 


Some  Examples . 

When  Darius,  in  his  flight  had  drunk  muddy  water,  he 
said  — ,  Darius,  quum  —  bibisset,  dixit.  After  Dionysius 
the  elder,  had  plundered  the  temple  of  Proserpine,  he  set  sail 
for  Syracuse ;  and  when  he  was  sailing  with  a  favorable 
wind,  he  said,  Dionysius  major,  quum  —  expilasset, 
Syracusas  navigabat  ;  i  s  q  u  e,  quum  —  navigaret,  dixit.  If 
commerce  is  small,  it  is  unworthy  of  attention,  mercatura 
si  tenuis  est,  sordida  — .  If  that  elevation  of  mind,  which  is 
manifested  in  dangers,  is  without  justice,  it  is  faulty ,  ea  an¬ 
imi  elatio,  quae  cernitur  in  periculis,  si  justitia  vacat, 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


413 


§§  498,  499.] 

in  vitio  est.  But  because  I  am  now  compelled  to  speak,  map 
my  voice  be  of  service  to  them,  ego  qutem  quia  nunc  loqui 
cogor,  vox  rnea  iis  serviat.  As  soon  as  Crassus  heard  this , 
being  moved  thereby ,  he  arose ,  quod  ubi  audivit,  commotus 
Crassus  surrexit,  or  q  u  o  d  Crassus  ubi  audiv.  When 
Aristides  had  heard  this ,  he  came  to  the  assembly ,  quod 
Aristides  quum  audivisset. 

498.  (4)  In  like  manner,  the  Latins  usually  place  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  a  principal  sentence  before  the  introductory  sentence, 
even  when  this  subject,  in  English,  is  in  the  introductory  sen¬ 
tence,  and  they  supply,  in  the  latter,  the  place  of  this  subject, 
by  a  demonstrative  pronoun  in  an  oblique  case  ;  e.  g.  When 
it  had  been  announced  to  Anaxagoras,  he  said — ,  i.  e.  Anax¬ 
agoras,  when  it  had  been  ann.  to  him  — ,  Anaxagoras, 
quum  e  i  nuntiatum  esset  —  dixit.  When  it  had  happened 
to  the  consul  L.  Paulas,  he  perceived ,  L.  P  a  u  1  u  s  consul, 
quum  ei  contigisset  —  animadvertit.  When  a  certain  one 
asked  Sophocles,  he  aptly  replied,  bene  Sophocles,  quum 
ex  eo  quidam  quaereret,  respondit. 

This  construction  occurs  particularly  with  participles,  when  the 
subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  mentioned  and  must  be  sought  in  the 
participial  sentence  ;  e.  g.  When  Xenophon  consulted  Socrates,  he  said 
to  him ,  Socrates  Xenophonti  consulenti  dixit.  After  the  enemy  had 
learned  this  circumstance ,  they  command  Lutetia,  to  be  set  on  fire,  h  o  s- 
te  s,  hac  re  cognita,  Lutetiam  incendi  jubent. 

Yet  when  qui.  is  used,  it  is  put  in  the  case  required  by  the  sentence 
which  stands  first,  beginning  with  a  conjunction  ;  e.  g.  IVhcn  it  had 
been  announced  to  him ,  he  arose,  c  u  i  quum  nuntiatum  esset,  surrexit, 
not  qui,  quum  ei  nunt.  Comp.  §  521. 

499.  (5)  In  like  manner,  the  Latins  usually  place  the  com¬ 
mon  object  of  two  sentences,  the  one  an  introductory,  the 
other  a  concluding  sentence,  before  the  conjunction  of  the 
introductory  sentence.  This  is  especially  the  case,  when  the 
object  is  emphatic ;  e.  g.  If  circumstances  will  favor  this 
change,  we  will  make  it  the  more  easily ,  eam  mutationem, 
si  tempora  juvabunt,  facilius — faciemus. 

This  rule  is  observed  also,  when  the  object  belonging  to  the 
subordinate  clause,  is  the  most  important  in  the  discourse  ; 

35* 


» 


414 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§§  500, 501. 

e.  g.  But  you  wish  to  knoiv,  wherefore  I  have  defended  and 
praised  Vatinius ,  Vatinium  autem  scire  te  velle  ostendis, 
quibus  rebus  adductus  defenderim  et  laudarim ;  Vatinius  is 
here  the  principal  person  of  the  subsequent  discourse. 

500.  (6)  Those  words,  which  refer  to  what  precedes,  gene¬ 
rally  stand  first  in  the  sentence.  It  is  for  this  reason,  that  de¬ 
monstrative  pronouns  and  the  relative,  when  they  relate  to  a 
preceding  substantive,  are  always  placed  first.  So  also  sub¬ 
stantives,  which  refer  to  something  before  said,  usually  take 
the  first  place  in  the  sentence,  in  preference  to  all  others,  even 
conjunctions  and  relatives  ;  e.  g.  But  when  we  say ,  that  folly 
and  injustice  must  be  avoided,  stultitiam  autem  et  i  n- 
justitiam  quum  dicimus  esse  fugiendam.  Since  I  embrace 
this  opinion,  hanc  ego  quum  teneam  sententiam.  When  it 
comes  to  this,  ad  ea  quum  accedit.  Those  who  place  this  in 
virtue  alone,  id  qui  in  una  virtute  ponunt.  But  as  for  what 
you  say,  that  there  is  leisure,  to  this  I  assent,  otium  au¬ 
tem  quod  dicis  esse,  assentior.  Since  the  violence  of  this  con¬ 
test  is  so  great,  we  will  use  it,  hujus  (cujus)  conten¬ 
tionis  quum  tanta  vis  sit,  utemur.  If  this  sighing  brought 
any  relief — ,  qui  gemitus  si  levationis  aliquid  afferret — . 

501.  (7)  Interrogative  words  are  often  placed  after  the 
subjects  and  other  words  of  the  principal  sentence,  which, 
in  respect,  to  the  idea,  and  the  connection  with  what  precedes, 
are  more  important.  Even  in  indirect  questions,  the  direct 
governing  questions  are  placed  after  the  indirect ;  e.  g.  But 
what  shall  I  expect  from  the  tribuneship  of  C.  Gracchus  ?  de 
C.  Gracchi  autem  tribunatu  quid  expectem  1  They  know 
not  of  what  nature  and  hoiv  great  is  this  strength  of  friend¬ 
ship,  nesciunt,  haec  vis  amicitiae  qualis  et  quanta  sit. 
What  diseases,  I  ask,  can  be  more  afflictive  in  the  body  than 
these  two,  sorrow  and  desire  ?  quibus  duobus  morbis,  aegri¬ 
tudine  et  cupiditate,  q  u  i  tandem  possunt  in  corpore  esse 
graviores  ?  But  who  knoios  what  will  be  the  state  of  the  re¬ 
public?  tempora  autem  reipublicae  qualia  futura  sint, 


§  502.] 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


415 


q  u  i  s  s  c  i  t  ?  This  is  the  question ,  whether  it  is  more  proba¬ 
ble, ,  that  he  icho  was  slain  at  Rome,  toas  slain  by  him  who  — , 
hoc  quaeritur,  eum  qui  Romae  sit  occisus,  utrum  verisi¬ 
milius  sit  ab  eo  esse  occisum,  qui  — .  The  position  of  the 
words  here  is  particularly  worthy  of  notice. 

502.  (8)  All  conjunctions,  which  form  introductory  sen¬ 
tences,  e.  g.  quum ,  si,  quia ,  nisi ,  etc.,  can,  as  many  of  the 
preceding  examples  have  shown,  stand  after  other  words  of 
the  sentence.  Therefore,  they  sometimes  begin  the  sentence, 
and  sometimes  an  emphatic  word  is  placed  before  them  ;  e.  g. 
.Si  indigetis  pecuniae,  pecuniam  non  habetis.  Mors  si 
e  s  t  misera,  miseriae  finis  esse  nullus  potest. 

But  they  must  always  stand  after  other  words,  when  one 
of  the  conjunctions,  which  are  uniformly  placed  first,  e.  g. 
et ,  narn ,  ctenim ,  sed,  verum,  at,  itaque ,  stands  with  them. 
Hence,  so  often,  nam  quum,  sed  quoniam ,  etenim  si,  sed  quia, 
itaque  quum,  etc. 

Examples  for  practice  on  §§  496 — 502. 

Whoever1  censures  the  study  of  wisdom,  considers2  nothing 
worthy  of  praise3.  If  the  wise  man  compares  the  life  of  the 
fool  with  his,  he  enjoys4  greater  pleasure5.  When  cranes  go6 
to  warmer  regions7  and  fly8  over  the  sea,  they  form9  the  figure 
of  a  triangle.  Whoever  admires  this,  may  confess,  that  he 
does  not  know  what  a  good  man  is.  When  ambassadors  had 
brought10  fifty  talents  to  Xenocrates  from  Alexander,  he  re¬ 
fused11  them.  When  Timotheus,  that  illustrious  man  of 
Athens  and  the  first  of  the  state,  had  supped12  with  Plato,  he 
said  :  Your  supper13  is  pleasant,  not  only  the  present,  but  also 
the  following  day.  If  Sophocles  had  said  this14  same,  in  a 
review15  of  the  combatants10,  he  would  not17  have  been  blamed. 
If  these  philosophers  wish  to  be  consistent18,  they  cannot  speak 
of  duty.  Do  we  not19  see  the  frugal  mode  of  living20  among 
the  Lacedemonians21,  in  their  Philitia?  When  a  man22  of 
low  origin  said  to  C.  Laelius,  that  he  was  unworthy  of  his 
ancestors,  he  replied23  :  But24  truly,  you  are  worthy  of  yours. 
When  Mettus  asked25  Tullus  Hostilius,  whether  this  propo¬ 
sal26  pleased  him,  he  answered  :  Yes.  When  Alexander  had 
conquered27  Darius,  at  Issus,  he  marched28  to  Phoenicia. 


416 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§§  503,  504. 

When  two  young  men,  who  were  sitting  on  white  horses,  told 
Vatienus  on  his  journey*  to  Rome,  that  Perseus  was  con¬ 
quered,  he  announced  it  to  the  senate.  When  I  had  made 
known29  to  the  augur,  Spurinna,  your  former30  mode31  of  life, 
he  announced32  great  danger  to  the  state,  unless33  you  re¬ 
turned34  to  your  former  habits35.  I  wait  to  see  what  this 
course  of  Caesar  through  Apulia  to  Brundusium,  effects36. 

1  (§  500).  2putare.  3laudandus.  4  afficere.  5  voluptas.  6  petere  (par¬ 
ticiple,  but  not  in  the  second  subordinate  clause).  7loca.  *  transmit¬ 
tere.  9  facere.  10  afferre.  11  aspernari.  12  cenare.  13  cena.  14  hic  idem. 
15  probatio.  16  athleta.  17  reprehensione  carere.  1S  consentaneum  esse. 
19  ( §  501).  20  victus  (mode  of  living).  21  (genitive).  22  quidam  malo  ge- 
nerenatus.  23inquam.  24  at  hercule.  25 interrogare  (participle).  26 con¬ 
silium.  27  fundere  (participle).  2S  proficisci.  *  (participle).  29exponere. 
30superior.  31  vita.  32  nuntiare.  33  nisi.  34  reverti.  35 consuetudo.  36 ef¬ 
ficere. 

End  of  the  preceding  subject. 

503.  The  preceding  paragraphs  have  shown,  both  what 
words  have  a  definite ,  unalterable  place  in  the  sentence,  and 
also,  that  many,  from  their  reference  to  a  preceding  or  follow 
ing  sentence,  obtain  a  more  prominent  position.  But  the  po¬ 
sition  of  all  words  in  a  single  or  compound  sentence,  gene¬ 
rally  depends  as  little  upon  the  option  of  the  writer,  as  the  po¬ 
sition  of  those  which  have  been  mentioned. 

504.  The  best  Latin  writers  regarded  three  things  in  the 
position  of  their  words,  viz  .perspicuity ,  emphasis  and  euphony. 
These  fix  the  position,  sometimes  before ,  sometimes  in  the  mid¬ 
dle, ,  sometimes  at  the  end. 

Perspicuity  was  the  first  law  according  to  which  words 
were  placed,  even  when  they  were  removed  out  of  their  natu¬ 
ral  logical  connection.  The  emphasis ,  tone  or  force,  by  which 
many  words  were  made  prominent  for  the  sake  of  contrast, 
must  have  given  to  them  a  more  conspicuous  place,  than  they 
had  according  to  their  common  and  natural  position.  But 
finally,  euphony  also  had  much  influence  in  giving  to  words  a 
position  different  from  the  common  one.  Even  for  the  un¬ 
derstanding  itself,  as  well  as  for  the  ear,  there  is  need,  in  a 
complete  sentence,  of  a  gradual  rising  and  a  corresponding 
falling  of  the  words,  so  that  the  important  words  serve,  some- 


§  505.] 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


417 


times  for  the  rising,  sometimes  for  the  falling,  and  the  oth¬ 
ers  belonging  to  the  sentence  are  placed  in  order,  in  the  mid¬ 
dle  ;  for  the  most  emphatic  words  never  stand  in  the  middle. 
Thus  the  euphonic  construction  often  contributes  to  the  em¬ 
phasis,  and  yet  both  must  be  so  arranged  as  not  to  injure  the 
perspicuity  of  the  sentence. 

Hence,  it  is  an  almost  uniform  law,  that  words  which  are 
to  be  made  prominent  in  a  sentence,  are  either  placed  frst 
or  last,  or,  at  least,  do  not  retain  their  common  position. 

On  this  subject  the  following  particulars  are  to  be  noticed. 

505.  (1)  When  a  sentence  contains  nothing  more  than  a 
subject  and  predicate,  and  neither  is  to  be  made  emphatic, 
they  retain  their  natural  or  logical  position  ;  e.  g.  homines 
sunt  mortales.  JPater  meus  mortuus  est.  A  change  would 
give  a  special  emphasis  to  mortales  or  mortuus  est. 

An  adjective  stands,  in  its  common  position,  after  the  sub¬ 
stantive,  when  it  is  not  emphatic ;  when  it  is  emphatic,  be¬ 
fore;  e.  g.  Vita  h  u  m  a  n  a  est  fragilis.  Liber  tuus  mihi 
placet.  In  some  connections,  this  is  almost  always  the 
case;  e.  g.  Pontifex  maximus,  Tribunus  militaris, 
campus  Martius,  populus  Romanus,  via  Appia, 
mola  salsa,  Dii  immortales,  jus  civile,  res  mili¬ 
taris,  res  familiaris,  homines  nobiles,  patres  con¬ 
scripti,  frater  germanus,  fratres  gemini  and  many 
others.  Compare  above  §  490.  In  many  cases,  a  particular 
meaning  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  adjective ;  e.  g. 
bona  dicta,  witticisms;  mala  res  (in  the  phrase,  abi 
in  malem  rem),  ill  luck.  Res  with  an  adjective  always  re¬ 
tains  the  first  place,  when,  for  want  of  a  simple  substantive, 
an  abstract  idea  is  to  be  denoted  thereby ;  e.  g.  res  publica , 
res  familiaris,  res  domestica,  res  navalis,  res  gesta.  Only  for 
the  sake  of  contrast  is  this  position  changed. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  such  as  quidam,  aliquis,  quispiam , 
ullus ,  etc.  are  either  placed,  like  adjectives  after  substan¬ 
tives,  or  inserted  between  the  adjective  and  substantive ; 


418 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  50(3. 


but  if  the  pronoun  be  emphatic,  then,  like  the  adjective, 
it  stands  before  the  substantive ;  e.  g.  Membra  quaedam 
amputantur.  Est  gloria  solida  quaedam  res.  Quae¬ 
dam  Socratica  medicina. 

Every  case  depending  on  a  verb,  when  it  contains  nothing 
emphatic,  stands  before  its  verb ;  e.  g.  Litteras  tuas  ex¬ 
specto,  t  i  b  i  liberos  meos  commendo.  Memoriam 
tuam  admiror.  Mortem  malum  judico. 

An  adverb,  which  more  nearly  defines  an  adjective,  verb 
or  adverb,  also  stands  before  its  word,  unless  it  is  to  be  made 
emphatic ;  e.  g.  Ego  te  valde  rogo.  Is  p  1  a  n  e  perspicit* 
Mors  quotidie  imminet. 

As  to  the  arrangement  of  the  limiting  adjuncts  of  the  verb,  where 
there  are  several,  of  them,  no  general  rule  can  be  laid  down.  It  may 
be  observed,  however,  that  those  limitations,  which  modify  the  idea 
of  the  verb  itself,  commonly  stand  next  to  it,  the  verb  as  it  were 
blending  with  them  into  one  idea.  Here  belong  (1)  accusatives,  in 
constructions  such  as  facere  fortem ,  dare  assessorem  (as  an  advi¬ 
ser),  which,  as  attributes  of  the  object  of  the  verb,  follow  this  ob¬ 
ject,  and  thus  stand  in  immediate  connection  with  the  verb;  e.  g. 
Lacedaemonii  regibus  suis  augurem  assessorem  dederunt. 
Necessitudo  etiam  timidos  fortes  facit.  ( 2 )  The  genitive  or 
any  other  case,  that  supplies  the  place  of  such  an  attribute;  e.  g. 
Caesar  omnes  honores  sui  beneficii  fecit.  Caesar  Galliam 
omnem  in  obsequio  habuit.  (3)  The  dative  with  esse  and  other 
verbs,  in  answer  to  the  question  for  what;  e.  g.  Caesar  T.  Sextium  lega¬ 
tum  castris  p  r  a  e  s  i  d  io  reliquerat.  Tibi  sanguis  non  modo  volup¬ 
tati,  sed  etiam  quaestui  fuit.  (4)  The  genitive  or  ablative ,  with 
such  verbs  as  without  these  cases  would  express  only  an  incomplete 
or  indefinite  idea;  e.  g.  Afficere  (poena,  beneficio,  morbo),  damnare 
(capitis,  capite),  absolvere,  liberare  and  the  like.  Me  ipsum  ex  tua 
erga  Lucceium  benignitate  maxima  voluptate  affici.  (5) 
Designations  of  place  in  answer  to  the  question  whither?  or  supines 
with  verbs  of  motion  ;  e.  g.  Ex  epulis  in  cubiculum  venit.  Anci 
liberi  Suessam  Pometiam  exsulatum  ierant,  (b’)  For  the  rest, 
the  broader  limitation  usually  precedes  the  narrower ,  the  less  neces¬ 
sary,  that  which  is  more  necessary,  the  personal  object,  that  of  the 
thing;  e.  g.  Valerius  in  templum  ad  tribunos  venit.  Brutus 
Ardeam  in  castra  est  profectus.  Caesar  in  Galliam  ad  conven¬ 
tus  agendos  profectus  est.  Fulci  ni  us  uxori  grande  pondus 
argenti  in  atr  i  q  ue  partem  bonorum  majorem  legavit. 

51)6.  (2)  When,  on  the  contrary,  a  word  is  emphatic  in  a 
sentence,  especially  by  a  contrast  which  is  either  contained  in 
what  precedes,  or  is  expressed  in  the  sentence  itself,  then 


§  506.] 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


419 


such  a  word  always  has  a  prominent  place,  either  first  in  the 
sentence  or  at  the  end.  So  also,  when  a  word  is  emphatic  by 
some  other  special  distinction,  since  then  adjectives  stand  be¬ 
fore  the  substantives ;  e.  g.  Est  (there  is  really)  magna  spes. 
Ars  est  enim  philosophia  vitae.  Mathematicorum 
iste  mos  est,  non  est  philosophorum.  Stoicorum 
autem  ignoras  quam  sit  subtile  disserendi  genus.  Quis  li¬ 
benter  exercitationem  ullam  corporis  suscipit  laborio¬ 
sam?  Graeco  verbo  utamur,  si  quando  minus  occur¬ 
rat  Latinum.  N  e  c  e  s  s  i  t  a  t  i  s  inventa  antiquiora  sunt, 
quam  v  o  1  u  p  t  a  t  i  s.  Romae  regnatum  est  ab  condita 
urbe  ad  liberatam  ducentos  quadraginta  quatuor  annos. 
Hoc  tibi  non  sine  magna  mercede  continget.  Eum  genui 
mortalem.  Rem  opinor  spectari  oportere,  non  verba. 
Praeclara  vero  auspicia,  si  esurientibus  pullis  res  geri 
poterit,  s  a  t  u4  i  s  non  geretur.  Therefore,  without  emphasis 
it  is  said  ;  e.  g.  bellum  Punicum  p  r  i  m  u  m  (secundum, 
tertium);  but  the  second  Punic  war  was  the  most  bloody ,  is 
expressed  by,  Secundum  bellum  Punicum.  So  also, 
always  b  o  n  o,  la  e  to,  hilari  animo  esse. 

Therefore,  the  possessive  pronouns  meus,  tuus,  suus,  noster , 
vester ,  stand  before  their  substantives,  when  they  signify  my 
own ,  etc.,  and  generally,  when  they  have  emphasis ;  but  when 
they  stand  after  their  substantives,  they  only  point  out  more 
definitely  the  person  to  whom  the  substantive  belongs;  in¬ 
deed,  they  are  for  the  most  part  wholly  omitted,  when  the  con¬ 
nection  determines  the  person;  e.  g.  Neque  praetores  suis 
opibus,  neque  nos  nostro  studio  quidquam  proficimus. 
N  ostra  haec  fuerunt  officia.  Flaminius  id  suo  more 
neglexit.  Hoc  praestantius  mihi  fuerit,  si  in  tua  scripta 
pervenero,  quam  si  in  c  e  t  e  r  o  r  u  m.  Hence  the  Latin  says 

only  mea,  tun - causa;  men ,  tua - sponte;  mea,  tun , 

sua - voluntate  {goodwill);  mco - nomine ,  meis  — 

verbis ,  in  my  name.  Seldom  otherwise.  It  is  only  when  a 
remark  is  placed  at  the  close  of  the  sentence,  that  they  stand 


420 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§§  507,  508. 


either  always  at  the  end,  or  are  separated  from  their  substan¬ 
tive  and  placed  first;  e.  g.  quas  (sententias)  exposui  arbitra¬ 
tu  meo.  T  u  o  id  quidem,  inquam,  arbitratu. 

Remarks. 

Hence,  the  emphasis  and  prominence  given  by  an  otherwise  unu¬ 
sual  position,  shows  that  Cicero  (ad  Q.  f'rat.  1,1,  38)  says,  Ajfyia  via 
for  the  usual  via  Appia ,  in  order  to  contrast  it  with  the  Asiatic  icuy ; 
that  (Lael.  16)  he  says,  quam  multa,  quae  nostra  (nostri)  causa  non 
facimus,  facimus  causa  amicorum,  not  amicorum  c  a  u  s  a,  as 
the  usual  rule  requires,  in  order  to  make,  by  the  last  place  in  the  sen¬ 
tence,  the  genitive  amicorum,  more  prominent,  as  being  contrast¬ 
ed  with  n  o  s  t  r  a  (n  o  s  t  r  i) ;  and  that  (Off.  1.  31.  113)  he  says,  Id 
maxime  quemque  decet,  quod  est  cujusque  maxime  s  u  u  rn,  since, 
according  to  the  common  rule  (§  480),  it  must  have  been  written, 
quod  maxime  suum  cujusque  est.  But  by  this  position,  suum 
would  have  been  without  emphasis.  So  he  says  also  :  o  m  n  i  a,  judi¬ 
ces,  haec  amissa  sunt,  for  which  he  could  also  have  said  :  haec,  judi¬ 
ces,  amissa  sunt  omnia,  but  not  haec  omni  a,  jud.  amissa  sunt, 
with  the  same  sense.  Elsewhere  :  sed  plena  sunt  errorum  o  m  n  i  a. 

507.  (3)  When  an  adjective  belongs  to  two  or  more  sub¬ 
stantives,  if  it  is  emphatic,  it  is  placed  before,  or  after  the  first 
substantive  ;  if  it  is  not  emphatic,  after  the  last ;  but  it  never 
stands  before  the  second  ;  when  emphatic,  it  is  also  repeated 
with  each  substantive;  e.  g.  The  bulls  contended  with  the 
greatest  violence  and  ardor ,  summa  vi  impetuque.  This 
instruction  specifies  certain  principles  and  rules  of  speaking , 
rationes  certas  et  precepta  dicendi.  Volusenus  was  a  man 
of  great  sagacity  and  valor ,  et  consilii  magni  et  virtutis. 
Zc.no  ivas  an  inventor ,  not  so  much  of  new  things  as  of  new 
ivorcls,  Zeno  non  tam  rerum  inventor  fu it,  quam  verbo¬ 
rum  novorum.  I  have  devoted  all  my  exertions ,  labor , 
care  and  diligence  to  Mild’s  consulship,  ego  o  m  n  i  a  in  e  a 
studia,  omnem  operam,  curam,  industriam.  Trusting  to 
a  consciousness  of  my  duty  and  to  my  benevolence,  fretus  con¬ 
scientia  officii  mei  benevolentiaque.  So,  Utinam  tibi  ope¬ 
ram  meam  s  t  u  d  i  u  m  q  u  e  navare  potuissem. 

508.  (4)  A  genitive  depending  upon  a  substantive  or  an 
adjective,  in  its  natural  position,  stands  after  the  substantive. 
So  always,  Tribunus  plebis,  Tribunus  m  i  1  i  t  u  m,  ma- 


§  509.] 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


421 


gister  equitum,  praefectus  annonae,  urbis,  prae¬ 
torio  — ,  and  all  other  offices.  But  when  this  genitive  is  more 
important,  and  the  mind  thinks  first  of  the  idea  contained  in 
it,  the  Latins  generally  place  the  genitive  before  the  substan¬ 
tive  ;  e.  g.  Care  of  health,  valetudinis  curatio.  With¬ 
out  fear  of  pain,  sine  doloris  metu.  The  life  of  glut¬ 
tons  is  to  he  censured,  luxuriosorum  vita  est  reprehen¬ 
denda.  The  laws  prefer  the  good  of  all  to  the  good  of  in¬ 
dividuals,  leges  omnium  salutem  singulorum  saluti 
anteponunt.  Hence  so  often,  Animi  magnitudo,  terrae 
motus,  juris  scientia,  juris  consultus,  juris  peritus,, 
pugnandi  avidus,  etc.  When  two  genitives  depend  upon  a 
noun,  one  of  the  subject,  the  other  of  the  object,  the  genitive  of 
the  subject  (subjective)  generally  stands  first ;  e.  g.  Cognoscit 
hominis  principium  magistratuum  gerendorum. 

When  a  genitive  contains  something  emphatic,  it  is  often 
separated  from  the  word  which  governs  it,  and  is  placed 
either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the  clause;  e.  g.  I 
dare  not  impose  on  you  any  burden,  oneris  tibi  imponere 
non  audeo  qu  idqu  am.  I  see  that  you  have  had  sufficient 
time  to  investigate  these  things,  satis  video  tibi  —  ad  ea  cog¬ 
noscenda  —  fuisse  temporis.  So,  Ut  hoc  saltern  in 
maximis  malis  boni  consequamur,  where  boni  stands  near 
malis,  because  it  is  contrasted  with  it,  (see  §513).  Ini¬ 
tium  quod  huic  cum  matre  fuerit  simultatis,  audistis. 

509.  The  Latins  very  frequently  place  such  a  genitive 
before  the  substantive,  when  this  latter  has  an  adjective 
agreeing  with  it,  so  that  generally  the  adjective  stands  first, 
then  the  genitive,  and  the  substantive  last.  The  adjective  is 
seldom  last.  This  position  is  necessary,  in  most  instances, 
for  perspicuity  ;  e.  g.  The  highest  study  of  eloquence,  sum- 
mum  eloquentiae  studium.  Further:  Universa  A  g  ri¬ 
geri  tinorum  multitudo.  Omnes  vitae  casus.  In  sum¬ 
ma  bonorum  ac  fortium  civium  copia.  Haec  pe¬ 
cuniarum  effusio.  Propter  hoc  injuriae  genus.  Rec- 

36 


422 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§§510—512. 


tarn  vitae  sequuntur  viam.  Contemplare  nocturnam  coe¬ 
li  formam.  Considera  omnem  membrorum  et  totius 
corporis  figuram. 

510.  Hence,  between  the  adjective  and  substantive,  the 
Latins  often  place  words  depending  upon  the  substantive, 
or  sometimes,  conversely,  they  place  even  the  governing  sub¬ 
stantive  between  the  genitive  of  a  substantive  and  adjective ; 
e.  g.  Mea  in  te  pietas.  Merita  erga  me  tua.  Aliquod 
erga  me  singulare  beneficium.  Hoc  mutuae  inter 
nos  caritatis  pignus.  Propter  plurimos  in  omnibus 
fere  carminibus  locos.  Ex  illo  coelesti  Epicuri 
de  natura  volumine.  Nostra  in  amicos  benevolentia. 
Magnitudo  tuorum  erga  me  meritorum.  Tu  quoque  ean¬ 
dem  de  mea  voluntate  erga  te  spem  habes.  Saepe 
miror  nonnullorum  insolentiam  philosophorum. 

511.  (5)  The  ablative,  which  often  follows  a  comparative, 
and  which  is  used  for  quam  with  a  nominative  or  accusative, 
is  placed  before  the  comparative,  when  perspicuity  and  em¬ 
phasis  require  it ;  e.  g.  Ita  mundus  erit  homine  deterior. 
Nihil  est  in  historia  pura  et  illustri  brevitate  dul¬ 
cius.  Nihil  est  virtute  amabilius.  Negamus  quidquam 
hac  sententia  esse  absurdius.  Illo  homine  nemi¬ 
nem  unquam  vidi  deformiorem. 

512.  (6)  When  an  infinitive,  as  a  predicate,  stands  in  con¬ 
trast  with  a  negative  infinitive  following,  it  is  placed  first  in  the 
sentence;  e.  g.  Decipere  hoc  quidern  est,  non  judicare. 
Praecipitare  istuc  quidem  est,  non  descendere. 

But  when  the  negative  sentence  stands  first,  it  begins  with 
hoc,  and  the  infinitives  are  placed  nearer  together ;  e. g.  Hoc 
est  non  dividere,  sed  frangere.  Hoc  est  non  conside¬ 
rare,  sed — .  So  in  a  single  question,  with  a  negative  sense  ; 
e.  g.  Hoc  est  auxilium  plebi  ferre?  And  so,  finally,  when 
there  is  merely  an  affirmative  sentence  without  a  negative : 
Hoc  quidem  est  amicitiam  ad  calculos  revocare.  Vim 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


423 


§§513,  514.] 

hoc  quidem  est  afferre,  where  Cicero  has  only  placed  the 
most  forcible  word,  first. 

513.  (7)  Words  which  are  contrasted,  whether  they  have 
the  same  or  a  different  sense,  generally  stand  together,  in  or¬ 
der  to  heighten  the  emphasis  contained  in  them  ;  or,  when 
they  stand  in  two  sentences  following  each  other,  fehe  Latins 
bring  them  as  near  as  possible,  so  that  one  may  stand  at  the 
end  of  the  sentence,  the  other  at  the  beginning  of  the  next. 
In  this  way,  a  sameness  of  similar  sentences  is  avoided. 

Quaedam  falsa  veri  speciem  ferunt.  Rebus  injustis  justi 
maxime  dolent.  Imponenda  sunt  nova  novis  rebus  nomina. 
Multa  multis  de  jure  suo  cedit.  Quamobrem  voluptas  expe¬ 
tenda,  fugiendus  dolor  est.  Non  omnia  omnibus  cupienda 
sunt.  Concordia  maxima,  minima  avaritia  erat.  Philosophia 
medetur  animis,  inanes  sollicitudines  detrahi  t,  cupiditatibus 
liberat,  pellit  timores.  Urbem  incendiis,  caede  cives,  Ita¬ 
liam  bello  liberavi.  Quorum  altera  prosunt,  nocent  altera. 
Nobis  miserum,  invidiosum  vobis  est  desertam  rempublicam 
invadi.  Patent  hominum  illustrium  illustribus  hospitibus 
domus.  Artemisia  quamdiu  vixit,  vixit  in  luctu.  Ea  quum 
tempore  commutantur,  commutatur  officium.  Et  excessus 
e  vita,  et  in  vita  mansio.  Catilinae  erat  satis  loquentiae, 
sapientiae  parum.  Nemo  parum  diu  vixit,  qui  virtutis  perfec¬ 
tae  perfecto  functus  est  munere.  And  so  many  similar  expres¬ 
sions.  Finally, 

514.  (8)  The  Latins,  not  only  in  their  orations,  but  also  in 
their  letters,  and  universally,  wherever  beauty  and  force  of  ex¬ 
pression  were  aimed  at,  paid  very  great  regard  to  a  euphonic, 
energetic  rise  and  corresponding  fall  of  the  words,  and  ar¬ 
ranged  the  other  words  in  a  proper  and  harmonious  succes¬ 
sion,  at  the  same  time  avoiding  obscurity  and  indistinctness. 

Some  examples  :  Nunquam  praestantibus  in  republica  gu¬ 
bernanda  viris  laudata  est  in  una  sententia  perpetua  perman¬ 
sio.  Cic.  Fam.  I,  10.  Hoc  velim  tibi  persuadeas,  magnam  te 
ex  eo  et  perpetuam  voluptatem  esse  capturum.  Cic.  Fam.  III,  2. 
Quod  tu  si  tanti  facies,  quanti  ego  semper  judicavi  faciendum 
esse,  facies  sapienter,  et  ages  victor  ex  inimicorum  dolore  tri¬ 
umphum  justissimum.  Cic.  Fam.  III,  10.  Decimus  quidem 
Brutus,  summus  ille  vir  et  imperator,  Attii  carminibus  tem¬ 
plorum  ac  monumentorum  aditus  exornavit  suorum.  Cic. 


424 


POSITION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  514. 


Arch.  XI,  27.  Videmusne,  nullum  ab  iis,  qui  in  id  certamen 
descendant,  devitari  dolorem  ?  Cic.  Tuse.  II,  26.  Nulla  in 
judiciis  severitas,  nulla  religio,  nulla  denique  jam  existiman¬ 
tur  esse  judicia.  Cic.  Verr.  I,  15,  43. 

The  attentive  reader  will  frequently  meet  with  such  pas¬ 
sages  in  Cicero’s  writings,  snud  he  will  particularly  notice,  thtt 
Cicero  does  not  arbitrarily  separate  words  from  each  other. 

Examples  for  practice  on  §§  50o — 514. 

The  Roman  people,  at  a  certain  time,  surpassed  all  nations 
in  bravery.  I  beseech  the  immortal  gods,  that  no  misfortune 
may  prevent  you.  The  pure1  are  restrained'2  from  lewdness 
by  the  fear  of  disgrace3.  We  see  the  faults  of  others,  forget 
our  own.  Yes,  this  is  indeed  to  wish4,  not  to  teach.  This 
is  truly  not  to  covet5,  but  to  plunder.  We  ought  to  honor, 
protect  and  preserve6  the  common  union7  of8  the  whole  hu¬ 
man  race.  Take  care9  of  my  children,  as  thy  good  will  to¬ 
wards10  me  and  my  children  deserves.  Nothing  is  dearer  to 
man,  than  wisdom.  Of  these  ways,  one  is  longer,  the  other 
shorter.  If  there  are  no  gods,  what  in  the  nature  of  things11 
can  be  better  than  man  ?  I  am  the  more  indebted  to  you, 
the  more  noble12  your  generosity13  was  to14  me,  than  mine  to 
you.  The  dispute15  is  wholly*  respecting  the  dignity  of  vir¬ 
tue.  No  forgetfulness  will  efface  my  remembrance  of  your 
kindness  towards  me.  When16  this  is  established17  in  philoso¬ 
phy,  then  all  is  established.  We  agree18  in  respect  to  the 
thing  itself,  in  language  we  differ19.  Amongall  the  shameful 
crimes20  of  all,  I  have  not21  seen  nor21  heard  of  any  more 
shameful.  We  magnify22  the  future  by  fear,  the  present  by 
sorrow23.  I  indeed24  would  prefer  wisdom,  poor  in  words25, 
rather  than  babbling26  folly.  The  Greeks  have27  a  rich28  lan¬ 
guage,  the  Romans  a  poor29  one.  When  Zeno  had  found 
any  uncommon30  thing,  he  gave31  this  thing  also32  an  un¬ 
heard  of  name.  This  is  not  to  consider,  but,  as  it  were33,  to 
choose  by  lot34,  what  you  say.  I  believe,  that  we  should** 
have  regard35  to  things,  not  to  words.  One  of  the  enemy 
cried  out :  Romans,  that  is  to  boast36,  not  to  wage  war  !  No 
one  has  lived  too  short37  a  time,  who  has  performed38  the  per¬ 
fect  office39  of  perfect  virtue.  Excess40  disturbs41  the  whole42 
condition43  of  the  mind.  Wickedness  always  prefers44  the 
vil  to  the  good.  The  multitude45  of  things  begets46  a  multi- 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  SENTENCES. 


425 


§515.] 

tude  of  words.  You  have  considered  my  friend  as  your  friend. 
This  we  have  said  in  our  way47,  the  Epicureans  say  it  in  theirs. 
New  names  must  be  given48  to  new  things. 

’pudicus.  2arcere.  3  infamia  (comp. §508).  4optare.  6  concupiscere. 
®servare.  7 conciliatio.  8  (§508).  9tueri.  10(§510).  n(§508).  12celsus. 
13  humanitas.  14  (§510).  13  contentio.  *  omnis.  16  (participle).  17  con¬ 
stituere.  18  consentire.  19  pugnare.  20  flagitium  (shame,  crime).  21  nul¬ 
lus  (not  any).  22  augere.  23  maeror.  24  equidem.  25  indisertus.  26  loquax. 
87  uti.  28  copiosus.  29inops.  30  inusitatus.  31  imponere.  32quoque. 
33  quasi.  34  sortiri.  **  oportere.  35  spectare.  36  ostentare.  37  parum  diu. 
38  fungi.  39  munus.  40  intemperantia.  41  conturbare.  42  omnis.  43  status. 
44  anteponere.  45 copia.  46 gignere.  47  mos.  48 ponere. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  SENTENCES. 

515.  When  a  principal  thought  is  expanded  by  several  sub¬ 
ordinate  ones,  Cicero  and  the  other  classic  Latin  writers  usu¬ 
ally  arrange  these  different  sentences,  which  are  mutually  re¬ 
lated  to  each  other,  in  such  a  manner,  that  those,  whose  oc¬ 
currence  is  first  in  point  of  time,  or  is  conceived  to  be  first, 
are  placed  before  the  others. 

Therefore,  sentences  which  denote  a  cause,  occasion,  con¬ 
dition,  hindrance,  concession,  a  circumstance  which  makes 
something  necessary,  a  preceding  historical  event,  etc.,  are 
usually  placed  before  the  others,  or  are  inserted  within  them. 

Hence,  sentences  with  as  (ut,  quamquam),  which  contain 
a  comparison,  generally  stand  before  the  others.  Here  it  is 
to  be  noticed,  that  the  following  sentence  then  begins  with 
sic  or  ita,  but  these  words  are  not  added,  when  the  order  of 
the  sentences  is  inverted. 

Finally,  all  relative  sentences  with  qui,  quicunque,  quisquis, 
qualis,  quantus,  quot  and  the  like,  generally  stand  before  those 
with  which  they  are  connected,  consequently  before  their  de¬ 
monstrative  sentences;  or,  if  this  is  not  the  case,  they  are,  at 
least,  placed  as  near  these  as  possible;  e.  g.  Is  it  strange,  if 
the  human  mind  has  not  attained  that,  which  divine  power  can¬ 
not  attain?  n urn  hoc  mirum  est,  quod  vis  divina  assequi 
non  possit,  si  id  mens  humana  adepta  non  sit  1  If  I  reflect 
with  myself  on  those  calamities  with  which  fortune  has  sever  e- 

36* 


426 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  SENTENCES.  [§§  516,  517. 


ly  visited  me ,  si  e  os  casus,  in  quibus  me  fortuna  vehe¬ 
menter  exercuit,  mecum  ipse  considero.  Here,  also,  belong 
all  dependent  interrogative  sentences,  which  are  often  placed 
before  the  governing  sentence ;  e.  g.  Hut  who  knows  what  the 
condition  of  the  state  will  he?  tempora  autem  reipublicae  qualia 
futura  sint,  quis  scit?  You  ask,  against  whom  I  say  this , 
in  quern  hoc  dicam,  quaeris.  What  shall  I  say,  respect¬ 
ing  what  number  of  slaves  he  has  ?  familiam  quantam  habeat, 
<1  u  i  d  ego  dicam?  Comp.  §  501. 

516.  Where  this  transposition  of  sentences  takes  place,  it 
is  often  necessary  to  remove  some  substantive,  which  is  com¬ 
mon  to  two  sentences,  from  one  of  them,  and  insert  it  in  that 
whicli  is  placed  first,  that  this  may  not  be  ambiguous,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  put  in  its  place  a  demonstrative  pronoun. 
And  so  also  the  conjunctions  igitur,  autem,  etc.,  which  pro¬ 
perly  belong  to  the  principal  sentence,  are  placed  in  the  pre¬ 
ceding  relative  sentence  ;  e.  g.  I  regret  that  you  share  in  the 
expense,  which  must  he  borne,  illud  doleo,  quae  impensa 
facienda  est,  in  ejus  partem  te  venire,  instead  of  illud  doleo, 
te  in  partem  impensae  venire,  quae  facienda  est.  With¬ 
out  doubt,  those  desires  which  rove  too  far,  exceed  their  limit 
and  measure,  qui  appetitus  longius  evagantur,  i  i  sine  du¬ 
bio  finem  et  modum  transeunt,  for  ii  appetitus  finem  et 
m.  transeunt,  q  u  i  longius  evagantur.  Why,  therefore,  shall 
we  not  engage  in  those  studies,  which  have  no  connection  with  the 
business  of  the  state  ?  quae  igitur  studia  vacationem 
habent  publici  muneris,  i  i  s  cur  non  utamur  ?  The  following 
passage  is  worthy  of  notice  :  You  have  determined,  that  you 
must  acquire  those  qualifications ,  by  which  those  noble  deeds , 
the  glory  of  which  you  have  eagerly  desired,  are  accomplished ; 
thus  in  Cicero  (F  am.  II,  4) :  Tu  hoc  statuisti,  quarum  lau¬ 
dum  gloriam  adamaris,  q  u  i  b  u  s  a  r  t  i  b  u  s  eae  laudes  com¬ 
parantor,  in  i  i  s  esse  elaborandum. 

517.  In  those  sentences  which  contain  a  concession  and 
begin  with  although,  where  the  subordinate  sentence  lakes 
the  first  place,  the  principal  the  second,  the  word  tamen  isge- 


§518.] 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  SENTENCES. 


427 


nerally  inserted  at  or  near  the  beginning  of  the  principal  sen¬ 
tence  ;  e.  g.  The  name  of  this  business ,  we  achiowlege  is  new , 
although  toe  see  that  it  is  itself  very  olcl ,  q  u  a  m  r  e  m  anti¬ 
quissimam  quum  videamus,  nomen  tamen  confitemur 
esse  recens. 


Some  f  urther  examples  for  this  section. 

518.  The  science  of  living  is  derived  f  rom  law ,  since  this  ought  to 
correct  the  vices  and  commend  the  virtues,  Quoniam  vitiorum  emen¬ 
datricem  legem  esse  oportet,  commendatricemque  virtutum,  ab  ea 
vivendi  doctrina  ducitur.  As  we  ought  to  rise  that  language  in  ichich 
we  were  horn ,  so  we  should  show  no  disagreement  in  our  actions  and  in 
our  whole  life,  U  t  sermone  eo  debemus  uti,  qui  natus  est  nobis,  s  i  c 
in  actiones  omnemque  vitam  nullam  discrepantiam  conferre  debemus. 
They  ran  to  arms  with  a  loud  cry,  as  soon  as  these  things  had  been  re¬ 
hearsed,  Haec  q  u  u  m  recitata  essent,  cum  magno  clamore  ad  arma 
discursum  est.  Wherever  you  look,  your  evil  deeds ,  like  furies ,  meet 
your  eyes,  Quocumque  adspicis,  u  t  furiae,  s  i  c  tuae  tibi  occurrunt 
injuriae.  I  pass  over  what  I  had  foreseen  besides ,  Quae  praeterea 
providerim,  praetereo.  I  icish  to  learn,  how  you  do,  and  what  i staking 
place ,  Quid  agas,  q  u  i  d  q  u  e  agatur,  certior  fieri  volo.  If  any  one 
is  very  elevated  in  his  views,  he  conceals,  from  shame ,  his  desire  for 
pleasure ,  however  much  he  may  be  captivated  with  it,  si  quis  est  erecti¬ 
or,  quamvis  voluptate  capiatur,  occultat  et  dissimulat  appetitum 
voluptatis,  propter  verecundiam.  He  predicted  what  we  all  then  feared 
icould  happen,  ille  praedixit  ea,  quae  omnes  eo  tempore  ne  accide¬ 
rent,  timebamus.  And  now  I  have,  as  1  think,  satisfactorily  shown,  how 
morality ,  upon  ichich  duty  depends ,  is  derived  from  those  things  which 
rest  in  the  justice  of  human  society,  Atque  ab  i is  rebus,  quae  sunt  in 
jure  societatis  humanae,  quemadmodum  ducatur  honestum,  ex  quo 
aptum  est  otficium,  satis  fere  diximus. 

These  and  similar  passages  show,  with  how  much  art,  the  Latins 
often  arrange  their  sentences  and  interweave  them  with  each  other. 
But  they  do  not  always  do  this.  Very  often  their  sentences  stand 
just  as  the  English  is  usually  arranged. 

Examples  on  §§  515 — 517. 

We  must  contend  against  old  age,  as1  against  a  disease. 
We  serve2  him  especially3,  from  whom  we  hope  the  most,  al¬ 
though4  he5  needs  it  the  least.  All  pleasure  is  referred6  to 
the  mind,  although  it  is  judged  of  by  the  bodily7"1  sense.  We 
now  surrender  ourselves  to  you  heartily8  and  wholly,  as  before 
in  a  great  measure9.  He  can  in  no  way  live  with  a  tranquil10 
mind,  who  fears  what  cannot  be  avoided11  ;  but  he  obtains12  a 
great  security13  for  a  happy  life,  who  does  not  fear  death,  not 
only  because  we  must*'  die,  but  also  because  death  has  nothing 


428 


SENTENCES  CONNECTED  BY  Q  U  I.  [§§519,520. 


that  is  to  be  feared14.  What  pain  ought  not  willingly15  to  be  en¬ 
dured16,  in  order  to17  escape18  these  faults.  Verres  sought19 
everything  which  he  sought,  not  to17  preserve'20  it  but  to  carry21 
it  away.  That,  I  will  now22  pass  over,  because  it  will  seem 
unimportant23.  I  would  not  venture  to  speak  in  this  place, 
if  impudence  had  as  much  influence24  in  the  forum  and  the 
courts,  as25  boldness  has26  in  the  field27  and  in  retired  places. 
Most  urgently28  I  ask  you  to17  do  this  for  the  sake  of  my  honor. 
It  is  folly  not  to  be  willing  to  receive  gifts  from  those,  whom 
we  ask29  for  them,  when30  they  present31  and  give  them.  I 
have  read,  with  great  pleasure,  the  book  which  you  recently 
sent  to  me.  I  will  most  zealously32  continue33  the  defence  of 
thy  merits34,  which  I  undertook  in  thy  absence35. 

Hanquam.  2inservire.  3potissimum.  4etiamsi.  5  ille.  6referri.  7cor- 
pus.  8  penitus.  9  magna  ex  parte.  10  quietus.  11  vitare.  12  comparare. 
13  praesidium  *  necesse  esse.  14  horrendus.  15  ultro.  16subire.  17  ut  (in 
order  to)  18  effugere.  19  requirere.  20  servare.  21  asportare.  22  jam. 
23  levis.  24  valere  (to  have  —  influence).  25quantum  2e  posse.  27  age r. 
28 etiam  atque  etiam.  29  precari  ab  aliquo  aliquid.  30  (participle).  31  por¬ 
rigere.  32  studiose.  33  permanere  in  aliqua  re.  34  dignitas  (singular). 
35  absens. 

CONNECTION  OF  SENTENCES,  ESPECIALLY  BY  MEANS 
OF  THE  PRONOUN  QUI,  QUAE,  QUOD. 

519.  Cicero  but  seldom,  and  then  only  in  spirited  narra¬ 
tion,  uses  disconnected  sentences;  most  of  them  are  connect¬ 
ed  with  others.  Besides  the  frequent  use  of  nec  in  negative 
sentences,  (for  which  see  §  528),  he  employs  the  pronoun 
qui,  quae,  quod ,  referring  to  preceding  substantives,  to  con¬ 
nect  his  sentences.  But  since  we  use  the  pronoun  who,  which, 
only  in  explanatory  sentences  and  such  as  define  an  object 
more  exactly,  we  cannot  often,  in  our  language,  connect  sen¬ 
tences  by  who  and  which,  as  the  Latin  does  by  qui,  quae,  quod , 
but  we  must  be  satisfied  with  our  personal  and  demonstra¬ 
tive  pronouns.  The  following  particulars  are  to  be  noticed 
respecting  the  use  of  qui,  quae,  quod : 

520.  (1)  Qui ,  quae,  quod  often  supplies  the  place  of  our 
pronouns  this,  he,  I,  and  thou,  when  they  refer  to  persons  or 
things  before  mentioned.  Since  this  qui  continues  what  pre¬ 
cedes,  according  to  §  495,  it  must  stand^rstf  in  the  sentence ; 


§  520.] 


SENTENCES  CONNECTED  BY  QUI. 


429 


e.  g.  There  arc  very  many  disgraceful  acts  (turpitudines);  why 
they  do  not  belong  to  the  wise ,  it  is  very  easy  to  show,  quae  cur 
non  cadant  in  sapientem.  The  state  cannot  be  properly  man¬ 
aged  by  me.  In  how  great  danger  it  is,  I will  describe  as  brief¬ 
ly  as  possible,  Q,  u  a  e  quanto  sit  in  periculo.  Hence,  from 
this,  is  90  often  express«d  by  ex  quo;  thifher,  by  quo; 
wherefore,  by  q  u  a  in  o  b  rem,  qua  d  e  causa,  etc.  Com¬ 
pare  §  495. 

We  generally  connect  single  sentences  which  refer  to  each 
other,  by  the  conjunctions  and,  for,  but,  therefore,  hence  and 
the  like,  but  in  Latin,  where  the  pronoun  qui  is  used  instead 
of  hie,  is,  etc.,  these  conjunctions  must  be  omitted  ;  e.  g. 
Uniformity  in  one’s  lohole  life ,  is  most  honorable  ;  but  (and) 
you  cannot  preserve  this,  if — ,  q  u  a  m  conservare  non  possis, 
si  —  not  quamque  or  quam  autem.  And  so  always  in 
phrases,  as  :  And  this  is  the  source  of  many  evils,  q  u  i  fons 
est  multorum  malorum.  On  ihe  following  day,  and  that  was 
(or  which  was)  the  fifth  of  September,  he  came  to  me,  qui 
fuil  dies  Nonar.  Septembrium,  ad  me  venit,  for  which 
the  Latins  also  say,  i  d  est  (erat)  Nonis  Sept.,  or  is  dies 
erat —  ;  the  day  before  Easter,  and  that  is  to-day,  q  u  i  dies 
hodie  est.  Comp.  Cic.  Phil.  XIV,  5,  14.  Thai  the  conjunc¬ 
tions,  as  ut,  quum ,  quod,  are  contained  in  the  pronoun,  and 
that  the  verb  must  therefore  be  in  the  subjunctive,  has  been 
sufficiently  shown  above,  §§  308 — 314. 

Where  qui,  quae,  quod,  stands  in  a  sentence  introduced  by 
a  conjunction,  we  generally  use  a  demonstrative  or  personal 
pronoun  ;  e.  g.  He  ought  to  be  instructed  in  these  arts ;  for 
if  he  has  made  these  his  own  in  his  earlier  years,  he  will  be 
more  fit  for  something  greater ,  q  u  as  si,  durn  est  tener,  com¬ 
biberit.  £  have  done  everything  for  the  sale  of  my  fellow-cit¬ 
izens,  and  if  Pompcy  had  not  been  envious  of  me  — ,  c  u  i 
nisi  invidisset  Pompeius.  Compare  §  521. 

It  has  already  been  remarked,  that  with  such  a  qui,  which 
refers  to  a  preceding  substantive,  et  (que),  autem,  vero,  enim, 


430 


SENTENCES  CONNECTED  BY  QUI. 


[§  521. 


nam,  igitur,  are  not  joined,  since  they  are  contained  in  qui. 
On  the  contrary,  when  qui  refers  to  a  substantive  standing  in 
the  same  clause  with  itself,  or  to  a  demonstrative  is  placed  af¬ 
ter  it,  then  but,  for,  therefore,  are  expressed  in  Latin  by  the 
appropriate  words  ;  e.  g.  But  I  mil  specify  in  what  way  we 
can  obtain  this,  quibus  autem  rationibus  hoc  assequi  possi¬ 
mus,  dicemus.  But  he  who  wishes  to  obtain  true  glory ,  must 
be  kind,  qui  autem  adipisci  veram  gloriam  volet,  i  s.  On 
the  contrary,  tamen  (yet)  can  be  joined  with  qui ,  even  when 
qui  refers  to  a  preceding  substantive. 

In  order  to  make  the  use  of  this  pronoun  still  more  clear, 
some  additional  examples  will  be  added.  Examples  ;  Rulers 
must  take  care,  that  there  be  a  sufficient  supply  of  provisions. 
How  the  procuring  these  is  usually  effected,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  show,  duarum  qualis  comparatio  fieri  soleat,  non  est 
necesse  disputare.  Nothing  holds  a  state  more  firmly  together 
than  truth  and  confidence  (fides),  and  this  cannot  exist.,  if — , 
quae  esse  nulla  potest,  si  — .  These  things  were  attempted 
with  arms,  by  people  of  every  class,  but  I  withstood  them, 
q  u  i  b  u  s  ita  restiti.  Antipater  thinks  Paenatius  has  passed 
over  two  points.  But  I  think  that  these  two  points  were 
passed  over,  because — ,  quas  res  a  summo  philosopho 
praeteritas  arbitror,  quod  — .  To  this  kind  of  comparison 
belongs  that  of  Cato  the  elder.  When  he  teas  asked,  what  — , 
Ex  q  u  o  genere  comparationis  illud  est  Catonis  senis.  A 
quo  quum  quaereretur,  quid — .  We  cannot  forget  Epi¬ 
curus  ;  for  we  have  not  only  his  image  — ,  cujus  imaginem 
non  modo  habemus. 

521.  (2)  The  pronoun  qui  and  the  similar  qualis,  quantus, 
often  form  an  explanatory  sentence,  which  we  also  must  be¬ 
gin  with  ivho,  which,  how,  such ;  but  the  translation  is  diffi 
cult,  because  either  a  new  relative  word  or  a  conjunction  fol¬ 
lows  qui,  qualis,  etc.,  which,  in  English,  is  not  admissible. 
Hence,  where  these  words  occur  together,  some  change  must 
f  equently  be  made  in  translating  into  English;  e.  g.  Epicu- 


§  521.] 


SENTENCES  CONNECTED  BY  Q  U  I. 


431 


rus  non  satis  politas  erat  iis  artibus,  quas  qui  tenent, 
eruditi  appellantur,  the  possessors  of  which  arc  called  learned. 
Quam  te  decebat  h  i  s  verbis  uti,  quibus  si  philosophi  non 
uterentur,  philosophia  nunquam  ipsa  egeremus,  without  the 
use  of  which  as  employed  by  philosophers ,  we  never  — .  In 
these  two  sentences,  we  might  also  translate  the  relative  clause 
literally,  which  they  who  possess ,  which  if  philosophers  did  not 
use ,  but  in  the  first  not  with  equal  elegance.  Errare  malo 
cum  Platone,  quem  tu  quanti  facias,  scio,  whom  you ,  as 
I  know ,  esteem  very  highly ,  or,  respecting  whom  I  know,  how 
highly  you  esteem  him.  Q,uid  dico  te  a  Velia  amari  ?  quem 
quis  non  amat  1  whom  every  one  loves  (without  a  question). 
Tanturn  vales  apud  Dolabellam,  quantum  si  ego  apud 
sororis  filium  valerem,  jam  salvi  esse  possemus — where  we 
must  say,  so  that  if  I  had  as  much  influence,  we  now  could. 
Ille  tribunus  plebis  fuit  talis,  quales  si  omnes  semper  fuis¬ 
sent,  nunquam  seditiones  ortae  essent — ,  reas  of  such  a  char¬ 
acter,  that  if  all  had  always  been  such,  never — .  Hoccine 
regnum  appellabitur,  cujus  vicarius  qui  velit  esse,  invenire 
nemo  potest  ?  when  no  one  can  be  found,  ivho  is  willing  to  be 
its  representative  ? 

In  like  manner,  relative  words  are  merely  connected  in 
case  with  the  sentence  which  follows,  whether  it  be  introduc¬ 
ed  by  a  relative,  or  a  conjunction.  The  same  takes  place, 
when  the  relative  word  belongs  equally  to  the  following  sub¬ 
ordinate,  and  the  following  principal  sentence.  In  this  in¬ 
stance,  the  English  connects  the  relative  in  case  with  the 
principal  sentence.  Hence,  for  qui  (or  any  other  case)  quum 
ejus,  the  Latin  says,  cujus  quum;  for  qui,  quum  ci  —  eui 
cpium ;  for  qui,  quum  cum  —  quern  quum  ;  for  qui ,  quum  ah 
eo — a  quo  quum.  And  so  in  all  similar  cases.  Then,  in 
the  principal  sentence,  ille  or  is  referring  to  the  relative  word, 
often  follows  in  the  necessary  case. 

Examples  :  Cornelia  had  two  children ,  respecting  whom  she  rejoiced, 
when  she  saw  them  successful ,  liberos,  quos  quum  florentes  videbat, 
(iis)  laetabatur,  for  de  quibus,  quum  eos  fl.  vid.,  laetab.  You 


432 


SENTENCES  CONNECTED  BY  QUI. 


[§§  522, 523. 


mourn  for  his  death ,  who  must  at  least  have  died  in  a  few  years ,  if  he 
had,  not  died  now,  qu  i  si  hoc  tempore  non  diem  suum  obisset,  paucis 
post  annis  tamen  ei  moriendum  fuit,  for  cui,  si  i  s  —  obisset,  mori* 
endum  fuit.  That  Prometheus ,  icho ,  when  it  had  been  said  to  him ,  re¬ 
plied. ,  cu  i  quum  dictum  esset,  respondit.  On  account  of  the  expecta¬ 
tion  of  the  ambassadors,  from  whom  there  had  as  yet  been  no  news  of 
what  they  had  done,  qui  quid  egissent,  nihil  dum  nuntiatum  erat. 
And  so  this  form  of  speech  is  employed  in  similar  cases.  It  is  said, 
e.  g.  I  mention  Alexander  the  Great ,  who,  if  he  had  lived  longer ,  would 
have  subjugated  the  whole  world ,  qui  si  diutius  vixisset,  or  cujus 
vita  si  longior  fuisset,  or  c  u  i  si  vita  longior  fuisset,  or  q  ue  m  si  diu¬ 
tius  vivere  licuisset,  totum  terrarum  orbem  subegisset. 

522.  (3)  Since  in  qui  the  particle  nam  is  included,  a  phrase 
containing  qui  and  a  substantive  with  the  verb  esse,  may  be 
explained  by  it.  When  we  say,  According  to  thy  love  for 
me,  which  the  Latins  usually  translate  by  pro  tuo  in  me  amore, 
they  can  also  represent  the  thought  in  this  form  :  For  such 
is  thy  love  to  me,  ox  for  thou  hast  such  love  to  me .  Hence 
the  phrase,  Qui  (for  nam  is)  tuus  est  in  me  amor,  or  (with 
the  ablative  of  quality)  quo  tu  es  in  me  amore.  According 
to  the  mildness  and  gentleness  of  my  disposition  or  for  so 
mild  and  gentle  is  my  disposition ,  quae  mollitia  est  mei  ani¬ 
mi  et  lenitas,  or  qua  mollitia  sum  animi  et  lenitate. 

When  something  already  past  is  spoken  of,  the  perfect 
tense  is  used  ;  e.  g.  Caesar  pardoned  most  according  to  his 
hind  disposition,  quae  ejus  lenis  fuit  natura,  or  qua  leni  fuit 
natura. 

523.  (4)  Qui,  quae,  quod  occurs  very  frequently  in  the 
ablative  before  a  comparative;  e.  g.  Quo  nihil  potest  esse 
stultius,  which  we  translate,  Than  which  nothing  can  be 
more  foolish,  nothing  can  be  more  foolish  than  this,  or  which 
is  most  foolish.  In  such  a  phrase  there  is  always  a  negative 
word,  or  the  interrogative  quis,  quae,  quid,  which  contains  the 
force  of  a  negative.  When  the  English  substantive  to  which 
qui,  quae,  quod  belongs,  stands  alone  and  unconnected  with 
any  sentence,  qui  takes  this  in  its  own  sentence;  e.  g.  A  mad¬ 
ness,  which  is  the  greatest,  or  there  is  no  greater  madness 
than  this,  quo  furore  nullus  major  est,  or  n  i  h  i  1  majus 
est,  or  quo  nullus  furor  major  est.  Nihil  and  quid  can  be 


§  523.] 


SENTENCES  CONNECTED  BY  Q  U  I. 


433 


used  even  with  persons;  e.  g.  Than  whom  what  can  he  or 
who  can  be  more  sluggish  ?  i.  e.  who  is  of  all  the  most  slug¬ 
gish,  than  whom  nothing  can  be  more  sluggish,  quo  quid 
potest  esse  ignavius  ?  quo  nihil  potest. 

F urther  examples  :  You  despise  solitude,  tohich  is  most  dear  to  me, 
solitudinem,  qua  nihil  mihi  amicius.  These  are  boys ,  who  are  most 
happy ,  quibus  nihil  (quid)  potest  esse  felicius.  This  is  an  expedient , 
which  is  the  most  foolish  that  can  be  thought  of,  quo  nihil  (nullum) 
potest  cogitari  stultius.  Cato,  who  at  that  time  teas  the  oldest  and 
wisest,  Cato,  quo  erat  nemo  senior  temporibus  illis,  nemo  prudentior. 
A  work  which  is  indeed  most  splendid ,  or  what  can  be  more  splendid 
than  this  work?  quo  quidem  opere  quid  potest  esse  praeclarius? 
/  see,  and  this  is  the  most  painful,  that  — ,  video,  quo  nihil  est  acer¬ 
bius  — . 

Remark. 

A  parenthesis,  if  it  is  intended  to  explain  a  single  word ,  is  usually- 
placed  after  it,  but  if  it  serves  to  illustrate  a  whole  thought,  it  is  com¬ 
monly  placed  before  it.  So  also  a  sentence  with  id  quod  (§  539)  is 
either  placed  before,  or  inserted  in  that  sentence  to  which  it  refers, 
seldom  placed  after  ;  e.  g.  Gazing  upon  the  villa  of  Curius  (for  it  is 
not  a  great  distance  from  me),  I  can  not  sufficiently  admire — ,  C.  vil¬ 
lam  contemplans  (abest  enim  non  longe  a  me),  admirari  satis 
non  possum.  The  parenthetic  clause  explains  why  he  could  view  the 
country-seat,  and  therefore  follows  contemplans,  if  our  country  is  our 
delight,  xchich  it  most  certainly  ought  to  be,  or  if,  as  it  most  certainly 
ought  to  be,  etc.,  Si  nos,  id  quod  maxime  debet,  nostra  patria  delec¬ 
tat.  What  alone  teas  for  the  present  most  earnestly  desired ,  after  the 
consular  election,  he  returned  to  winter  quarters,  Id  quod  unum  max¬ 
ime  in  praesentia  desiderabatur  —  in  hiberna  rediit.  After  along  pa¬ 
renthesis,  Cicero  usually  repeats,  in  other  words,  the  beginning  of  the 
sentence  interrupted  and  resumes  by  igitur ,  autem ,  ergo ,  sed  tamen, 
inquam ,  or  sed  ut  redeamus. 

Examples  on  §§  519 — 523. 

(1)  The  praise  of  the  good  is  the  echo1  of  virtue,  and  be¬ 
cause2  it  is  generally  the  attendant  of  good3  actions,  it  ought 
not  to  be  despised4  by  good  men.  Wisdom  is  the  know¬ 
ledge5  of  divine  and  human  things.  He  who  censures  the 
study  of  it,  would  consider6  nothing  worthy7  of  praise.  We 
must8  now  speak  of  beneficence  and  liberality,  which  indeed 
are  best  adapted9  to  human  nature.  When  young  men  wish10 
to  give11  themselves  to  pleasure12,  let  them  beware  of  excess  ; 
and  this  will  be  the  easier,  if  they,  at  least  in  such13  things, 
would  permit  older  men14  to  be  present15.  Young  men  are 

37 


434 


SENTENCES  CONNECTED  BY  QUI. 


[§  523. 


most  easily  and  favorably16  known17,  who  have  attached18 
themselves  to  wise  men ;  for  when  they  frequently19  asso¬ 
ciate  with  these,  they  raise20  the  expectation,  that  they  will 
be  like  them.  Great  is  the  admiration  of  a  man,  who21  speaks 
fluently22  and  wisely  ;  for  those  who  hear  him,  believe  that  he 
is  wiser23  than  the  others.  Even  in  animals24,  the  power  of 
nature  can  be  perceived25  ;  for  when  we  observe26  their  cares, 
and  the  labor  of  bringing27  them  up,  we  seem  to  hear  the  voice 
of  nature  herself.  A  philosopher  must  do  this  the  more;  for 
an  art  is  the  philosophy  of  life,  and  whoever28  discourses29 
upon  it,  must  not  employ30  common31  words.  Now  Torqua¬ 
tus,  most  noble32  man,  floats33  before  my  eyes,  and  how  great 
was  his  zeal  for  me  at  those  times,  you  both  must34  know. 
Great  is  the  power  of  conscience;  for  those  who  will  disre¬ 
gard35  it,  will  often  discover  themselves.  Never  can  philoso¬ 
phy  be  sufficiently  praised  ;  since  he  who  is  governed36  by  it, 
can  pass  every  period  of  life  without37  trouble.  Beneficence* 
is  often  destroyed  by  beneficence;  for  the  larger  the  number 
towards  whom  one  has  practised38  it,  the  less  able  is  he  after¬ 
wards  to  practise  it  towards  many.  Nothing  is  more  worthy 
of  love  than  virtue,  and  he  who  shall  have  obtained39  it,  will 
be  esteemed40  by  us,  wherever41  he  may  be.  I  will  mention42 
two  young43  men,  who,  if  their  lives  had  been  longer,  would 
have  acquired44  great  renown  in  eloquence45. 

1  resonare  alicui.  2  quia.  3  recte  factum.  4  repudiare.  5  scientia.  Spu¬ 
tare.  7  laudandus.  8  (participle  in  dtts).  9 accommodatus.  10  velle  (see 
§  234).  11  dare.  12  jucunditas.  13ejusmddi.  14  (omitted).  15interesse. 
10  in  optimam  partem.  17  cognoscere.  18  se  conferre  ad.  19  frequens  esse 
cum  aliquo.  20  afferre  opinionem.  21  (participle).  22  copiose.  23sapere 
plus.  24  bestia.  25  perspicere.  2(3  cernere.  27  educere.  28  (participle). 
29 disserere.  30arripere.  31  de  foro.  32bonus.  33versari.  34necesse  esse. 
35negligere.  36  parere.  37  sine  molestia.  *  benignitas.  38  uti  (second  per¬ 
son,  see  §  (270.  g.).  39 adipisci.  40diligere.  41  ubicumque  gentium. 
42 mentionem  facere.  43 adolescens.  44consequi.  45  (genitive). 

(2)  You  will  cheerfully  take  care1  of  our  business,  with 
your  usual  courtesy2.  If  you  had  permitted3  me,  I  should 
have  accomplished4  the  whole  thing,  such  is  my  love  for  you. 
You  will  obtain5  everything  which  you  wish  from  Caesar, 
since  he  is  so  generous6.  Ulysses,  in  accordance  with  his 
habitual  cunning7,  endured  the  insults8  of  slaves  and  servants. 
By  such  doctrines,  these  philosophers  remove9  friendship  from 
life,  which  is  the  best  and  most  pleasing*  gift10,  that  we  have 
from  the  gods.  When11  the  cluster  has  ripened12,  it  becomes 
sweet13;  and  what  can  be  more  beautiful  to  the  eye14  than 


§  523.] 


SENTENCES  CONNECTED  BY  Q  U  I. 


435 


this  1  Solon  said,  he  grew  old  and15  learned16  much  from17 
day  to  day, — a  pleasure  of  the  mind  than  which  none  cer¬ 
tainly  can  be  greater.  Not  only  planting18,  but  also  grafting19, 
which,  of  all  agriculture  has  discovered,  is  the  most  ingeni¬ 
ous20,  affords  pleasure.  O  glorious21  day,  in  which22 1  shall  re¬ 
turn  to  a  friend,  who23  is  the  best  and  most  remarkable24  for 
his  affection25,  that  has  been  born.  What  are  these26  for¬ 
tunes27,  the  possessor28  of  which  may  be  most  unhappy  ?  We 
see  this  opinion  confirmed  in  that  most  sacred29  Hercules; 
for  after30  his  body  was  burnt31,  immortality  is  said  to  have  fol¬ 
lowed32  his  life  and  virtue.  Often  important33  events  occur,  so 
that  one  must  leave34  his  friends  ;  but  he,  who  wishes  to  prevent 
them,  because*'*  he  cannot  endure  his  ardent35  longing  [for 
friends],  is  not36  only  weak37  and  effeminate38  by  nature,  but36 
also  far  from39  true  friendship.  By  nature,  we  zealously 
strive40  for  that41  which  brings  honor ;  hence,  when  we  per¬ 
ceive42,  as  it  were,  a  glimmer43  of  it,  we  are  ready  to  endure 
everything  to  obtain44  it.  When  I  was  at  my  country-seat,  I 
received  your  letter,  and  after45  I  had  read  it,  I  saw46,  that  you 
had  arrived  safe47.  Demosthenes  was  the  greatest  orator  of  anti¬ 
quity,  and  I  know48  no  one,  whom  I  could  prefer  to  him.  That 
Torquatus  was  the  one,  who,  if  life  had  been  continued49  to 
him,  would  have  been  made  consul.  Do  we  not  wonder  at 
Theodorus,  a  by  no  means50  obscure51  philosopher,  who, 
when  king  Lysimachus  threatened52  him  with  the  cross,  said53, 
With  such54  frightful  things,  threaten  thy  courtiers55  ! 

1  curare,  ’comitas  (§  522).  3  permittere.  4 conficere.  5 impetrare. 
8humanitas.  7  calliditas  8contumelia.  9tollere.  *  jucundus  (§  523). 
10  (omitted).  11  (participle).  12  maturare.  13  dulcescere.  14  adspectus 
(§  523).  15  (participle).  1(5  addiscere.  17  in  dies  (from  —  to  day),  ^con¬ 
sitio.  19  insitio.  20  sollers  (§  523).  21  praeclarus.  22quum.  23  (nemo  is 
repeated  with  each  adjective).  24  praestans.  23  pietas.  2eiste.  27  bona. 
28 qui  habet.  29 sanctissimus.  30 (participle).  31  amburere.  32  excipere. 
33  magnus.  34  discedere.  **  quod.  35  desiderium.  36  et.  37  infirmus. 
38mollis.  39  parum  (far  from).  40 studiosissimum  esse  (to  strive  zeal.). 
41  honestas  (that  —  honor).  42adspicere.  43lumen.  44  potiri.  45  (parti¬ 
ciple).  46 cognoscere.  47  incoldmis.  4S  noscere.  49 suppeditare.  60haud. 
51  ignobilis.  52  minari.  53  inquam.  54  isle.  55purpuratus. 

(3)  Antony,  in  disguise1,  gave2  a  letter  to  his  wife,  and 
while  she  was  reading  it,  the  compassionate  man3  could  not 
endure4  it.  Cicero,  when  young5,  engaged6  in  the  unhappy 
Pompeian  war.  Yet,  when  in  this  war,  Pompey  placed7  him 
over  one8  wing9,  he  gained10  great  renown  in11  the  army. 
Most  shun12  labor  and  pain,  and  can  endure13  everything,  to14 


436 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


[§  524. 


be  free15  from  them.  Antony  asks  rewards  for  his  legions  al¬ 
so16  ;  but  if  he  desires17  that  they  should  be  pardoned,  he  may 
well  be  considered18  as  most  shameless.  Our  country  is  the 
mother  of  us  all,  for  which  no19  good  man  hesitates  to  die20, 
if  he  can  do  her  service21.  These  twelve  days  have  effected22, 
that  he,  whom  no  one  then  offered  to14  defend,  has  now23 
consular  men  for  his  advocates24.  Marcellus  wished  to  pre¬ 
serve  Archimedes,  and  therefore,  when  he  heard  that  he  had 
been  killed,  he  was  very  much  displeased25. 

1  velare.  2  tradere.  3  homo.  4  ferre.  5  adolescens.  6  interesse.  7  prae¬ 
ficere.  8  alter.  9  ala.  10 consequi.  11  a.  12  fugere.  13  perpeti.  14  ut.  15  ca¬ 
lere.  16etiam.  17  (with  the  subjunctive).  18judicari.  19  quis  (this  inter¬ 
rogative  pronoun  is  used  in  animated  discourse  for  nemo,  nullus ). 
20  mortem  oppetere.  21  prodesse  (subjunctive  of  the  periphrastic  con¬ 
jugation).  22  proficere.  23jam.  24  patronus.  25  permoleste  ferre. 


VARIOUS  PARTICULAR  RULES  FOR  WRITING  LATIN. 


524.  (I)  The  Latin  relative  words,  both  declinable  and  in¬ 
declinable,  often  have  the  sense  of  our  as,  when  demonstrative 
words  referring  to  them,  stand  before  them.  Hence  it  is  to  be 
observed,  that, 


tantus 

is  followed  by 

tantidem 

<( 

talis 

tt 

toties 

tt 

tot 

tt 

tam 

it 

tantopere, 

t( 

t  a  rn  d  i  u 

(t 

idem 

t( 

i  s 

tc 

ejusmodi 

It 

e  a  t  e  n  u  s 

ti 

quantus, 

quanti, 

qualis, 

quoties, 

quot, 

quam, 

quantopere, 

quamdiu,  dum,  quoad, 

qui, 

qui, 

qualis, 

quatenus. 


Those  of  the  above  words  that  are  declinable,  must  agree 
in  number  and  gender  with  the  substantive  to  which  they  re¬ 
late  ;  but  their  case  depends  upon  the  verb  of  their  sentence; 
e.  g.  Xerxes  made  war  upon  Greece  with  such  a  force  (t  a  n- 


§  524.] 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


437 


t i s  exercitibus,  tantis  copiis),  as  (quantos,  quantas) 
no  one  ever  ltd  either  before  or  since.  I  have  seen  some  such 
(tale  s)  towards  you ,  as  (q  u  a  1  e  s)  you  have  seen  towards  me. 
Pisander  was  of  the  same  feeling  (eodem  s  e  n  s  u),  as  (quo) 
Alcibiades.  I  do  not  receive  letiers from  you  so  often  (toties), 
as  (quoties)  they  arc  sent  me  by  your  brother.  So,  con¬ 
versely,  when  the  relative  words  stand  first,  then  the  demon¬ 
strative  words  belonging  to  them  must  follow  in  the  principal 
sentence  ;  e.  g.  As  the  head ,  so  the  herd ,  qualis  rex,  talis 
grex.  As  great  as  your  love  has  been  for  me,  so  great  has 
mine  been  for  you,  quantus  tuus  in  me  amor  fuit,  tantus 
meus  in  te. 

What  has  been  remarked,  §  515,  should  here  be  borne  in 
mind,  viz.  that  quantus ,  etc.,  with  the  words  belonging  to 
them,  when  they  stand  in  an  interrogative  sentence,  can  be 
placed  before  the  demonstrative  sentence  with  tantus,  etc., 
when  that  order  seems  preferable. 

After  idem,  aeque, perinde,  pariter,  as  is  generally  express¬ 
ed  by  ac  or  atque.  So  often  after  talis.  In  the  same 
manner,  than  is  expressed  by  ac  or  atque  after  alius. 

Examples. 

Whom  has  your  letter  rejoiced1  so  much,  as  us  all  ?  Among 
such  men,  friendship  gives2  such  great  advantages3,  as  (that) 
I  can  scarcely  name4  [them.]  I  ask5  you,  that  you  would 
show6  yourself  such  as  you  have  hitherto  proved7  yourself. 
The  citizens  are  usually*  such  in  a  state,  as  the  rulers  are. 
Many  wish  to  have  such  friends,  as  they  cannot  be  themselves. 
We  do  not  wish  to  terminate  our  renown  by  the  same  limits, 
as  our  life.  Such  friendship  will  continue8  as  long,  as  ad¬ 
vantage  will  arise  from  it.  Let  us  have  the  same  feeling9 
towards  our  friends,  as  towards  ourselves.  Upon  no  temple 
were  there  so  many  decrees  of  the  senate,  as  upon  Cicero’s 
house.  Everything  is  such  in  its  kind,  as  nature  wishes  it. 
Albinus  bought  the  estate10  of  Laberius  for  as  much11,  as  they 
were  worth12  before  the  civil  war.  I  rest13  as  long  as  I  am  either 
writing  to  you,  or  am  reading  your  letters.  This  is  not  so  pain¬ 
ful14  as  it  seems.  When  you  will  so  regard15  this  envy  of  others, 

37* 


438 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


[§  525. 


as  I  have  always  believed16  that  it  ought  to  be  regarded,  you  will 
act17  wisely.  A  slave  has18  the  same  nature,  as  the  master. 

I  enjoy19  here  by  no  means  as  much  pleasure,  as  I  had  hoped. 
The  father  of  the  Gracchi  will  be  praised,  as  long  as  the  re¬ 
membrance  of  the  Roman  state20  shall  continue8.  Honor 
these  the  same21  as  myself.  It  is  the  same22,  as  if  you  had 
denied  it.  Duilius  was,  during  his  whole  life,  as23  dear  to 
the  senators,  as  to  the  people. 

gaudio  afficere.  2  habere.  3  opportunitas.  4  dicere.  5  quaeso.  6  se 
impertire.  7  praebere.  *  solere.  8  manere.  9  animo  esse.  10  praedium. 

II  tanti.  12  stare  13requiescere.  14  tantus  labor  (genitive).  15  tanti  facere. 
16judicare.  17  facere.  18  esse  (with  genitive).  19capere.  20res  Roma¬ 
nae.  21  aeque.  22  idem.  23  pariter. 

525.  (2)  The  words  and  not  are  expressed  either  by  et 
(ac)  non  or  nec ,  neque.  But  the  use  of  each  is  different. 

Et  non ,  ac  non,  are  used : 

(a)  When  a  single  word  is  to  have  a  negative  sense,  in  the 
place  of  which  also  another  negative  word  might  be  put;  e.  g. 
He  taught  what  is  to  he  done  and  not  (et  n  o  n)  to  be  done. 
On  account  of  a  small  and  not  (e  t  non)  necessary  pleasure. 
So  it  is  often  put  before  necesse,  opus,  satis,  etc.,  particular¬ 
ly  when  the  idea  of  and  above  all  not ,  is  contained  in  it. 
Hence  especially : 

(b)  When  there  is  a  particular  contrast,  or  when  an  em¬ 
phasis  is  contained  in  them,  and  the  idea,  and  by  no  means, 
and  not  at  all,  and  not  rather,  and  yet  not,  but  not,  is  to  be 
expressed.  Here,  however,  ac  non  is  mostly  used ;  e.  g. 
You  indeed  think  right,  if  they  differed  in  respect  to  the  thing, 
and  not  (ac  non)  in  respect  to  the  words.  You  mention  a 
very  trifling  dispute  and  not  (ac  non)  such  as  decides 
everything.  Why  do  I  call  him  merely  happy  and  not 
rather  [et  non )  the  happiest  of  men  ?  Is  this  to  advise 
against  and  not  rather  ( a  c  non)  to  overturn  everything  ? 
It  is  possible  that  any  one  may  think  correctly,  and  yet  not  be 
able  to  express  elegantly  what  he  thinks,  et  —  polite  eloqui 
non  possit. 

Neque  is  used  : 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


439 


§§  526,  527.] 

526.  (a)  When  the  word  not  connects  a  whole  sentence  ne¬ 
gatively,  rather  than  a  single  word  ;  e.  g.  Epaminondas  had 
Lysias  for  his  teacher ,  and  he  did  not  dismiss  him  before  — , 
neque  eum  prius  dimisit,  quam  — .  Epicurus  believes  that 
that  is  the  same ,  and  does  not  distinguish  pleasure  from 
the  absence  of  pain,  n  e  c  distinguit  a  non  dolendo  volupta¬ 
tem. 

(b)  When  and  not  has  the  sense  of,  and  not  even;  e.  g. 
Cato  had  a  strong  desire  to  read ,  and  it  could  not  even  be  sat - 
isftd,  n  e  c  satiari  poterat. 

(c)  But  it  stands  also,  frequently  for  et  non  of  the  first 
case  mentioned  above,  when  it  contains  no  contrast,  e.  g. 
This  will  seem  shameful  and  not  worthy  of  a  man ,  neque 
viro  dignum.  I  burn  with  an  incredible,  and  as  I  think,  not 
censurable  desire,  neque  —  reprehendenda.  Yet  when  two 
words  are  connected  by  ar\d  not,  and  et  is  placed  before  the 
first  word,  et  non  follows  in  all  cases ;  therefore,  hoc  e  t  tur¬ 
pe  et  viro  non  dignum  videbitur ;  et  incredibili,  et  non 
reprehendenda. 

Neque  also  signifies  merely  not  even  ;  e.  g.  I  ought  not  even 
to  promise  this,  neque  debeo.  I  do  not  even  think,  that 
the  Lacedemonians  doubt,  neque  arbitror.  Here  the  stu¬ 
dent  must  be  cautious  not  to  use  etiam  non.  When  not 
even  signifies  not  so  much  as,  it  is  expressed  by  ne  —  quidem  ; 
e.  g.  n  e  legere  quidem  scit,  he  cannot  so  much  as  read, 

527.  But  whenever  another  negative  word  stands  instead 
of  the  word  not,  e.  g.  no  one,  nothing,  never,  etc.,  then  the 
negative  is  removed  from  this  word  and  united  with  and  or 
even  in  neque.  Hence  it  is  said  ;  and  no  one,  neque  quis- 
quam,  neque  ullus  ;  and  nothing,  neque  quidquam  ;  and  nev¬ 
er,  neque  unquam  ;  and  nowhere,  neque  usquam  ;  and  not  yet, 
neque  dum  ;  and  never  anything,  neque  quidquam  unquam  ; 
and  never  any  one,  neque  quisquam  unquam. 

As  here  the  negation  is  removed  from  one  word  and  is 
placed  in  another,  so  it  also  takes  place  without  and,  in  such 


440 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


[§  527. 


English  expressions,  as,  never  any  one ,  nemo  unquam  ;  never 
anything ,  nihil  unquam,  or  nunquam  quidquam  ;  never  any 
one  anything ,  nihil  quisquam  unquam  ;  no  one  anything ,  ni¬ 
hil  quisquam  ;  no  one  yet ,  nondum  quisquam  ;  nothing  yet , 
nihildum  or  nondum  quidquam  ;  never  any  one  else ,  nemo 
unquam  alius. 

Examples  on  §§  525 — 527. 

This  is  a  great  work,  and  requires  not  a  little  practice.  If 
this  philosopher  is  consistent1  with  himself,  and  is  not  some¬ 
times  overcome  by  kindness  of  nature,  he  cannot  respect 
friendship.  The  mind  enjoys2  the  present  pleasure,  foresees 
the  future,  and  does  not  permit3  the  past  to  escape4.  I  came 
to  Athens  and  no  one  recognized5  me.  Hannibal  said,  he 
had  seen  no  one  who  was  a  greater  fool6,  than  Phormio.  And 
in  truth7  not  unjustly8. — So  Cicero  said  of  himself,  and  did 
not  lie  in  his  boasting9.  P.  Scipio  did  not  indeed10  speak 
much,  and  not  often,  but  he  excelled  all  in  wit11  and  pleas¬ 
antry12.  Friendship  prevails13  through  the  whole14  life,  and 
no  age  is  without15  friendship.  The  earth  never  resists16  the 
dominion  of  man,  and  never  returns  without  usury,  what  she 
has  received.  We  have  heard  nothing  of  this.  Seldom  and 
reluctantly17  do  good  men  indulge18  in  censure,  and  never  un¬ 
less19  compelled.  The  earth  gives  to  animals  and  to  men 
many  and  various  comforts ;  and  yet  the  highest  good  of  the 
animal20  and  of  man  can  in  no  way  be  the  same21.  Then  all 
things  wTere22  under  the  control23  of  one,  and  nowhere  did  sa- 
gacity  and  worth24  have  influence25.  Never  will  a  wise  man 
believe,  that  a  traitor  ought  to  be  trusted26.  I  have  never 
said,  nor  done  anything,  which  could  have  been  against  your 
reputation27.  I  believe  that  no  one  can  do  anything  preemi¬ 
nent28,  except  what  pleases29  him.  This  is  a  very  long30  and 
not  sufficiently  sure  way.  They  were  known  to  all;  but  yet 
no  one  knew  you.  Never  has  there  been  any  one,  neither 
poet,  nor  orator,  who  has  believed,  that  any  one  was  better 
than  he.  I  would  write  to  you  more  at  length,  if  the  matter 
required31  words,  and  would  not  speak  for  itself.  Never  has 
any  scholar  said,  that  the  change  of  resolution  was  fickleness. 

Consentire.  2  percipere.  3  sinere.  4  praeterfluere.  5  agnoscere.  6  de¬ 
lirare.  7rnehercule.  8  injuria.  9  gloriari.  10  quidem.  11  sal.  12  facetiae. 
13  serpere.  14  omnis.  15  expers.  16  recusare.  17  invitus.  18  venire  ad. 
19nisi.  20 pecus.  21  idem.  22  teneri.  23  dominatus.  24  existimatio.  25  locus 


§  528.] 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


441 


esse,  ^credere.  27 existimatio.  23praeclare.  29 libere.  30  perlongus. 
31  desiderare. 

528.  (3)  The  particles,  for  not,  but  not ,  yet  not ,  are  ex¬ 
pressed  in  Latin  either  by  neque  enim ,  neque  vero ,  neque  ta¬ 
men ,  or  non  enim,  non  vero,  non  tamen.  When  neque  or  nec 
is  used  for  non,  the  nearest  sentence  is  connected  with  the 
preceding  by  one  of  these  alone,  as  often  by  qui,  and  then 
nee  signifies,  not  even.  Hence,  neque  enim,  neque  vero,  neque 
tamen,  are  so  often  used  to  connect  two  sentences;  e.  g. 
The  Stoics  say,  pain  is  contrary  to  nature ,  yet  not  an  evil, 
neque  tamen  malum.  My  friends  do  not  miss  me;  for 
I  have  never  subscribed  to  that  ancient  proverb,  n  e  c  e  n  i  m 
unquam.  It  is  sometimes  lawful  for  man  to  sigh,  but  a  cour¬ 
ageous  man  never  sighs,  except  to  strengthen  himself,  n  e  c 
v  e  r  o  unquam  ingemiscit.  Yet  nothing  else  delights  me, 
neque  tamen  ulla  res  alia  me  delectat.  But  Cicero  says 
only  neque  or  nec  vero,  not  n  e  q  u  e  (n  e  c)  autem.  In 
sentences,  as  :  For  those  subjects  are  neither  so  dark  nor  so 
doubtful — the  Latin  savs :  neaue  enim  illae  res  aut  ita 
sunt  obscurae,  aut  ita  dubiae. 

When  the  negation  is  expressed  by  any  other  word  than 
not,  the  usage  stated  under  §  527  is  applicable ;  e.  g.  For  I 
do  nothing,  neque  enim  quidquam  facio.  For  he 
never  laughed,  neque  enim  unquam  risit. 

Yet  non  enim ,  non  vero  and  non  tamen,  are  also  often  re¬ 
tained;  (1)  in  a  parenthesis,  where,  however,  the  others  fre¬ 
quently  occur  ;  (2)  when  there  is  a  contrast  with  'sed  or  non 
tarn —  quam,  and  generally,  when  not  is  used  to  distinguish 
a  single  word  from  another,  with  which  it  is  contrasted,  and 
(3)  when  the  writer  wishes  to  make  the  negation  more  prom¬ 
inent,  which  is  uniformly  the  case  where  yet  not  stands  in 
the  conclusion  of  a  sentence  introduced  by  although  ;  in  short 
generally,  where  no  connective  also  or  even  can  be  supplied 
in  thought,  which  is  very  often  the  case  with  non  enim  ; 
e.  g.  By  very  many  indeed  (for  I  cannot  say  otherwise)  1  am 


442 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


[§  528. 


honored,  non  e n  i  m  possum  aliter  dicere.  This  orator  must 
he  read  by  the  young ;  for  he  not  only  sharpens  the  intellect, 
hut  he  nourishes  it  also,  non  enim  solum.  For  the  advan¬ 
tage  obtained  by  a  friend  does  not  please  so  much,  as,  non 
enim  tam  utilitas  —  quam.  For  we  ought  not  to  become 
tired  of  friendships ,  as  of  other  things,  non  enim  amici¬ 
tiarum.  For  what  does  this  mean  1  for  I  do  not  understand  it, 
Quidnam  est  istuc  1  non  enim  intelligo.  But  these  are 
not  so  much  to  be  censured,  as  yourself,  non  v  e  r  o  tam  isti, 
quam  tu  ipse.  As  much  as  I  wish  it,  yet  I  cannot,  tamen 
non  potero. 

For  the  places  where  neither  non  vero  nor  neque  vero  is 
proper,  see  §  530. 

Examples. 

But  no  one  can  judge  of  this  with  truth1.  Yet  I  knew9 
very  well,  when  I  wrote  this.  To  no  one  of  these  three  opin¬ 
ions  do  I  give  my  full3  assent ;  for  that  first  is  not  true.  The 
power4  of  many  very  influential5  persons  excludes  true  friend¬ 
ships  ;  for  fate  itself  is  not  only  blind,  but  generally  blinds* 
those  also,  to  whom  it  has  become  attached6.  That  ease  of 
mind7  is  frequently8  to  be  thrown9  off;  for  it  is  not  becom¬ 
ing10,  not  to  undertake  any  honorable11  action  in  order  not  to 
be  anxious12.  The  honorable  and  brave13  citizens  will  so 
guard14  the  state,  that  he  may  take  care15  of  all.  But  he  will, 
also,  make  no  one  odious16  by  false  accusations17.  Let  us  do 
nothing  inconsiderately  and  carelessly  ;  for  we  have  not  been 
so  born  as  to  seem  to  be  made  for  sport  and  jest.  Wisdom 
is  like  Phidias,  for  she  has  not  produced  even  man  himself, 
but  has  preserved  him  after  he  was  begun18  by  nature.  I 
have  stated19  to  you  the  reason  of  my  wish  (for  I  will  not  say, 
my  desire),  in  my  former20  letter.  Curius  rejected21  the  gold 
offered  to  him  by  the  Samnites,  for  it  did  not  seem  to  him 
honorable22,  he  said,  to  have  gold,  but  to  command23  those, 
who  had  gold. 

Were.  2  non  nescium  esse.  3  prorsus  assentiri.  4  opes.  5  praepotens. 
*  caecum  efficere.  6complecti.  7  securitas.  amultis  locis.  9repudiare. 
,0  consentaneum  esse.  11  honesta  res.  12  sollicitum  esse.  13  fortis.  14  tueri. 
15consulere.  16  in  odium  vocare.  17crimen.  lainchoatus.  ,9exponere. 
20  superior,  21  repudiare.  22  praeclarus.  23  imperare. 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


443 


§  529.] 

529.  (4)  As  neque  is  very  often  used  for  et  non ,  so  the 
force  of  dicere  (to  say)  with  non  following,  is  usually  express¬ 
ed  by  the  verb  negare  (to  deny),  where  this  is  possible,  and 
gives  the  proper  sense ;  e.  g.  Who  can  say,  that  loisdom  is 
not  old?  Quis  negare  potest,  sapientiam  esse  antiquam  ? 
for  dicere,  non  esse.  So  also  nolle  is  used  for  non  velle. 
Hence,  I  will  not  and  cannot,  is  expressed  by  Nolo  n  e  c 
possum. 

When  instead  of  not,  another  negative  word  is  employed, 
then,  in  Latin,  the  corresponding  affirmative  word  is  used  in 
its  place,  according  to  §  527 ;  e.  g.  I  say  that  there  is  no 
one,  Nego  quemquam  esse.  I  wish  that  no  one  were  af¬ 
flicted,  Nolo  quemquam  d  olere. 

Before  ne  —  quid  em,  not  even,  and  before  nec,  negare  is 
used  in  the  sense  of  our  English  say ,  ajjirm  ;  e.  g.  Epicurus 
says,  that  he  cannot  even  conjecture,  Epicurus  negat  se 
posse  n  e  suspicari  quidem.  He  said  that  neither  this  nor 
that  pleased  him ,  Negavit  ille  sibi  nec  hoc  nec  illud 
placere.  But  the  verb  must  stand  in  the  first  part  of  the  sen¬ 
tence,  and  not  at  the  end  ;  for  in  that  case  neither  negative 
destroys  the  other. 

In  like  manner  a  negative  word  can  precede  ne  —  quidem., 
but  not  follow  it ;  when  it  is  placed  after,  an  affirmative  word 
must  stand  in  its  place ;  e.  g.  No  one  commits  not  even  the  least 
crime  without  cause — is  expressed  either  by,  Nemo  ne  min¬ 
imum  quidem  maleficium  admittit — or  Ne  minimum  quidem 
malef.  q  u  i  s  q  u  a  m  admittit. 

Di  cere  and  non  are  retained  only  when  a  contrast  with  sed 
follows,  with  which  the  affirmative  dicere  is  expressed  or  un¬ 
derstood,  or  when  the  word  not  (non)  refers  to  a  single  word, 
and  not  to  the  whole  sentence  ;  e.  g.  I  say  therefore,  that  1 
do  not  wish  this,  but  take  it,  itaque  ilia  non  dico  expetere, 
sed  sumere.  I  have  not  said  to  you  that  this  is  true,  tibi  non 
dixi. 


444 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


[§  530. 


v 


Examples. 

Many  affirm,  that  the  mind  cannot  think1  without  the  body. 
Epicurus  says,  that  a  long  discussion2  is  not  here  necessary3. 
The  Stoics  have  affirmed,  that  no  one  can  be  a  good  man, 
except4  a  wise  man.  Scipio  said,  that  no  language5  was  more 
dangerous6  to  friendship,  than  that  of  Bias.  I  affirm  that  no 
one  can  live  happily,  unless  he  also  lives  virtuously7.  I  affirm 
rather,  that  this  decision8  is  not  right,  because  it  is  not  ex¬ 
pedient.  Epicurus  says,  that  pleasure  is  not  diminished9  even 
by  length10  of  time.  It  is  foolish  not  to  be  willing  to  receive 
that  which  is  offered.  Cicero  would  not,  and  could  not  agree11 
with  Caesar. 

1  intelligere.  2  disputatio.  3  opus  esse.  4  nisi.  5  vox.  0  inimicus. 
7  honeste.  8  sententia.  9  minuere.  10  diuturnitas  (length  of  time).  11  as- 
sentiri. 

530.  (5)  When  bat  stands  in  a  negative  antithetic  sen¬ 
tence,  which  is  placed  after  an  affirmative  one,  it  is  omitted 
in  Latin,  as  sometimes  in  English,  and  the  emphatic  non, 
placed  before  the  antithetic  word,  is  considered  sufficient; 
e.  g.  This  happened  by  my  fault,  but  not  by  thine,  non  tua. 
These  are  the  faults  of  character,  but  not  of  age,  non  senec¬ 
tutis.  Sed  non,  non  autem,  nec  vero,  are  incorrect.  So  in 
short  single  confutations  of  an  affirmation:  Eat  falsely, 
falso,  non  recte.  This  also  often  happens,  when  the 
negative  sentence  stands  first,  and  the  affirmative  follows,  yet 
only  when  the  verb  is  common  to  both  sentences  and  is  re¬ 
peated  :  e.  g.  The  consulship  cannot  be  taken  from  him,  but 
life  jc  an,  consulatus  ei  eripi  non  potest,  vita  potest. 
Even  in  two  short  affirmative,  antithetic  sentences,  but  is 
omitted  ;  e.  g.  My  house  is  open  to  you ,  but  to  me  it  is  shut, 
mea  domus  tibi  patet,  in  i  h  i  clausa  est. 

Instead  of  but ,  we  also  use  and  in  such  connections  ;  e.  g. 
in  the  above  sentence,  and  not  of  age.  This  and  likewise 
is  not  translated. 

In  similar  phrases  non  item  (not  so)  is  used,  and  placed 
last,  or  the  principal  word  is  repeated  ;  e.  g.  The  spectacle  was 


§531.] 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


445 


phasing  to  you  alone ,  but  not  so  to  the  others,  ceteris  non 
item;  for  the  mind,  that  was  sufficient,  but  not  for  the  ears, 
auribus  non  s  a  t  i  s. — Ceteris  satisfacio  omnibus ;  mihi  ipse 
nunquam  satisfacio,  I  satisfy  all  the  others,  but  never 
myself 


Examples. 

This  certainly  is  to  deceive,  not  to  judge.  This  was  done1 
by  the  powers  of  the  mind,  but  not  by  those  of  the  body. 
Friendship  has  been  givena  by  nature,  as  a  promoter3  of  vir¬ 
tue,  but  not  as  a  partner  of  vice.  Timidity  arises4  from 
things,  and  not  from  words5.  Those  often  speak  the  truth, 
but  these  never.  So  the  powers  of  the  body  are  strength¬ 
ened6,  not  weakened7.  1  have  sometimes  repented  of  hav¬ 
ing  spoken,  but  never  of  having  been  silent.  Dionysius 
took8  the  golden  bowls9,  which  were  held10  by  the  extended11 
hands  of  the  gods,  and  said,  that  he  accepted  them,  but  did 
not  take8  them  away. 

1  effici.  2  dare.  3  adjutrix.  4  nasci.  5  vocabulum.  6  reficere.  7  oppri¬ 
mere.  8  auferre.  9  patera.  10  sustinere.  11  porrectus. 

531.  (6)  Substantives  denoting  persons  are  often  used  for 
substantives  denoting  things ;  e.  g.  Consul  for  consulatus 
(consulship) ;  P  r  a  e  t  o  r  for  praetura  ;  dux  for  ductus 
(guidance,  direction) ;  auctor  and  suasor  for  auctoritas 
(counsel);  in  fa  ns  for  infantia;  puer  for  pueritia;  se¬ 
nex  for  senectus,  and  soothers  which  can  be  changed  in 
this  manner. 

So  adjectives  and  participles  are  often  used  for  substan¬ 
tives;  e.  g.  vivus,  in  the  life  (lifetime);  insciens,  ig¬ 
narus,  ignorans,  nescius,  from  ignorance,  without 
knowledge ;  imprudens,  necopinans,  without  think¬ 
ing,  without  knowing  ;  sciens,  with  knowledge  ;  invitus, 
contrary  to  one’s  icill ;  praesens,  in  the  presence  of;  a  b- 
s  e  n  s,  in  the  absence  of;  properans,?»  haste,  etc.  Comp. 
§§-80,  4G3 

It  should  be  here  noticed,  that  with  this  change,  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  words  is  often  changed  also. 

38 


446 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


[§  532. 


Some  Examples. 

Scipio  died  before  my  censorship ,  Scipio  ante  me  censo¬ 
rem  mortuus  est.  In  my  consulship  (when  I  was  consul), 
me  consul  e.  Many  live  in  want  in  their  old  age  (when 
old),  multi  senes  in  egestate  vivunt.  I  follow  the  guidance 
of  nature ,  naturam  ducem  sequor.  To  me  contrary  to 
my  tcill ,  m  i  h  i  invito.  Me  in  my  absence ,  me  absen¬ 
tem.  During  my  absence  (while  I  was  absent),  nothing 
new  happened ,  me  absente. 

Examples  for  practice. 

We  highly  esteemed1  those  old  men  in  our  youth.  Scipio 
answered2  the  expectation,  which  the  Romans  had  formed3 
of  him  in  his  boyhood.  I  was  permitted4  in  my  youth,  to 
devote5  myself  to  this  study.  This  happened  in  my  pretor- 
ship.  By  the  advice6  of  Cratippus,  Cicero,  when  young7, 
devoted5  himself  to  the  philosophy  of  the  Peripatetics.  P. 
Sulla,  in  the  dictatorship  of  his  uncle8,  permitted  the  goods 
of  the  proscribed9  to  be  sold.  The  sons  of  Gracchus  were 
esteemed10  by  the  good,  neither  in  their  life  nor  after  their 
death11.  I  have  done  this  at  your  entreaty12.  What  has 
been  done13  in  your  consulship  without  arms?  The  con¬ 
queror  must14  do  much,  even  against  his  will.  To  no  good 
man  can  anything  evil  happen15,  neither  in  his  life  nor  when 
he  is  dead.  By  the  counsel  and  under  the  direction  of  Bru¬ 
tus,  the  death  of  Lucretia  was  the  cause  of  the  freedom  of 
Rome.  I  know  not,  whether  Cn.  Caepio  perished  by  ship¬ 
wreck  in  the  lifetime  of  his  father,  or  after  his  death.  This 
book  has  come15  into  the  hands  of  the  people  without  my 
knowledge16  and  will.  In17  and  after  the  consulship  of  Ci¬ 
cero  and  Antony,  no  war  was  carried  on  abroad18.  We 
have  written  this  in  haste. 

1  diligere.  2  respondere.  3  habere.  4  licere.  5  versari  in  aliqua  re. 
6  auctor.  7puer.  8patruus.  9 proscriptus.  10probare.  11  mortuus,  ^hor¬ 
tator.  13  oe  re  re.  14  (verbal  adjective).  ,5evenire.  16  prudens.  17  (comp. 
§  491).  18 foris. 

532.  (7)  When  the  other  or  each  other  follows  a  substan¬ 
tive  or  pronoun,  and  suggests  this  same  substantive  or  pro¬ 
noun  to  tiie  mind,  the  Latin  does  not  use  alter ,  but  repeats  the 


§533.] 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


447 


word,  and  usually  places  one  directly  after  the  other,  so  that  the 
subject  is  made  to  stand  before  the  oblique  case;  e.  g.  One 
hand  w ashes  the  other ,  manus  manum  lavat.  One  egg  is 
very  much  like  the  other,  ovum  ovo  est  simillimum.  The 
one  has  more  strength  than  the  other ,  alius  alio  plus  habet 
virium,  or,  when  two  definite  persons  are  spoken  of,  alter 
altero  plus  h.  v.  Each  is  concerned  for  the  other,  uterque 
u  t  r  i  q  u  e  est  cordi. 

1  r 

The  reciprocal  each  other,  when  it  refers  to  several,  can 
also  be  expressed  by  a  double  alius  after  the  definite  substan¬ 
tive;  e.  g.  The  soldiers  call  each  other,  milites  alius  alium 
appellant;  when  two  are  referred  to,  alter  alterum  is  used. 
Uter  is  usually  followed  by  another  liter,  not  by  alter  ;  neuter 
by  another  neuter ;  but  uterque,  sometimes  by  another  uter - 
que,  sometimes  by  alter;  therefore,  Uterque  alteri  est 
cordi. 

Examples  for  practice. 

One  guest  murdered  the  other.  Citizens  envy  each  other. 
Which1  of  the  two  surpasses2  the  other  ?  One  day  presses  up¬ 
on3  another.  The  judge  determines4  what  each  ought5  to  ren¬ 
der  to  the  other.  Which  of  the  two  laid6  an  ambush  for  the 
other  1  It  is  contrary  to  nature,  that  one  man  should  promote 
his  interest  by  the  injury  of  another.  Men  can  be  especially7 
serviceable  to  each  other.  When  both  armies  stood8  opposite9 
to  each  other,  both  commanders  advanced10.  The  virtues  are 
so  connected11  and  united12,  that  all  participate13  in  each  other, 
and14  no  one  can  be  separated  from  the  others. 

1  uter  (which  of  two).  2  praestare.  3  trudere.  4 statudre.  5  oportere. 
c  facere.  7  maxime.  sesse.  9  contra.  10  prodire.  11  copulatus,  ^con¬ 
nexus.  13  participem  esse.  14  nec  alius. 

533.  (8)  The  phrase,  the  one  this,  the  other  that,  the  Lat¬ 
ins  express  more  briefly  by  a  double  alius  or  alter.  Alius 
is  used,  when  the  number  is  indefinite,  but  alter  only  of  two, 
and  is  to  be  used  but  seldom.  These  words  are  put  in  such 
cases  as  the  nature  of  the  sentence  requires.  Instead  of  the 
second  word,  adverbs  derived  from  alius  are  also  used,  where 
it  is  necessary,  e.  g.  aliter ,  alio,  aliunde,  alias;  e.  g.  One 


448 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


[§  534. 


thinks  this  (so,  one  thing),  another  that  (so,  another),  alius 
aliud  cogitat.  This  seems  best  to  one,  that  to  another,  or 
one  thing  seems  best  to  one,  another  to  another,  alii  (aliis) 
aliud  videtur  optimum.  One  went  here,  another  there,  alius 
alio  concessit.  One  is  moved  in  one  way,  another  in  another , 
alius  alio  modo  movetur. 

Examples  for  practice . 

The  one  is  more  useful1  in  one  thing,  the  other  in  another. 
Some  think  a  happy  life  consists  in  this,  others  in  that.  Those 
orators  are  deficient  in  two  very  important2  things,  one3  in  this, 
the  other  in  that.  This  disaster4  befell5  one,  that  another. 
The  infant  Hercules  seized6  the  serpents,  one  with  one  hand, 
the  other  with  the  other.  One  will  prefer  to  excel  in  one  vir¬ 
tue,  another  in  another.  No  one  of  the  ancient  poets  em¬ 
braced  the  whole7  department8  of  poetry,  but  one  selected9  this, 
another  that  branch,  in  order  to  cultivate10  it  carefully.  The 
same  things  in  one11  place  are  named  in  one  way,  in  another, 
another.  One  mind  is  inclined  to  this  vice,  another  to  that. 

1  utilis.  2  magnus.  3  alter.  4  clades.  5  opprimere.  6  apprehendere. 
7  universus.  8  genus.  9  sibi  seponere.  10 elaborare  (to  —  carefully). 

11  alibi, 

534.  (9)  The  word  namely, \s  often  employed  in  English, 
to  specify  definitely  the  names  of  persons  or  things,  which 
before  had  been  mentioned  only  generally  or  indefinitely.  This 
word  is,  for  the  most  part,  omitted  in  Latin,  but  if  expressed, 
it  is  done  by  using  dico  or  inquam  after  the  word  first  named, 
but  not  by  scilicet,  videlicet,  nempe,  nimirum , — which  have 
a  different  signification  ;  e.  g.  Zeno  abused  not  only  those  then 
living,  namely,  Apollodorus,  Syllus,  and  the  rest,  but  also, 
qui  tum  erant,  Apollodorum,  Syllum  ceterosque. 
We  have  neither  the  external  parts  in  vain,  nor  the  internal, 
namely,  the  heart,  the  lungs,  the  liver  and  the  others,  nec  in¬ 
teriora,  cor,  pulmones,  jecur,  cetera.  He  feared, 
more  than  all,  that  which  he  thought  not  fearful,  namely,  death 
and  the  gods,  mortem  dico  (I  mean)  et  deos. 

In  the  phrase,  On  the  following  clay,  namely ,  the  first  of 
April — and  in  similar  ones — the  Latins  say  either,  Postridie, 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


449 


§  535.] 

qui  fuit  dies  Kalendar.  Aprilium,  or  Id  est  Kal.  April. 
Comp.  §  520. 

Examples. 

He  must  be  most  respected,  who  possesses1  the  gentler2  vir¬ 
tues,  namely,  modesty,  temperance  and  justice.  Man,  as 
Aristotle  says,  is  born  for  two  things,  namely,  to  think3  and  to 
act.  The  ancient  musicians,  who  were  at  the  same  time4  also 
poets,  devised5  two  things  for  pleasure,  namely,  verse  and  mu¬ 
sic6.  Both7  of  these  therefore,  namely,  melody8  of  tone9  and 
the  harmonious10  arrangement  of  words,  the  orators  transfer¬ 
red11  from  poetry  to  oratory.  This  man  violates  two  most 
sacred  things,  namely,  truth  and  friendship. 

1  ornatum  esse.  2  lenis.  3intelligere.  4  idem  (at  —  also").  5  machi¬ 
nari.  6  cantus.  7  duo.  8  moderatio.  9  vox.  10  conclusio  (harmonious  ar¬ 
rangement).  11  traducere. 

535.  (10)  The  English  both  can  be  translated  by  the  sin¬ 
gular  uterque ,  and  also  by  the  plural  utrique,  yet  the  best  Latin 
writers  distinguish  between  them. 

The  singular  uterque  is  used,  (1)  when  it  refers  to  two  pre¬ 
ceding  words  in  the  singular  ;  e.  g.  To  Caesar  and  Pompey 
—  both ,  uterque;  to  justice  and  equity  —  both,  utraque. 
(2)  When  a  substantive  belongs  to  it,  which  in  English  is  in¬ 
deed  in  the  plural,  but  yet  only  individual  persons  or  things 
are  to  be  understood  by  the  word  both.  Therefore,  the  sub¬ 
stantive  must  conform  to  the  singular  uterque;  e.  g.  Both 
brothers ,  uterque  frater;  both  armies ,  uterque  exer¬ 
citus.  When  these  are  the  subjects  of  the  sentence,  Ci¬ 
cero  uses  the  verb  only  in  the  singular ;  e.  g.  Both  waged 
war,  uterque  gessit;  both  brothers  died ,  uterque  frater 
mortuus  est.  Hence  it  happens  also,  that  we  find  in  Ci¬ 
cero  only  uterque  nostrum  (both  of  us  or  ice  both), 
uterque  horum  (both  of  these)  and  the  like,  when  only 
two  individuals  are  meant.  As  uterque  is  the  principal  word, 
it  takes  only  the  third  person  singular  of  the  verb,  even  with 
uterque  nostrum,  we  both,  and  uterque  vestrum, 
you  both  ;  e.  g.  I'Ve  both  agree,  uterque  nostrum  consentit. 

Comp. §  145.  Both  the  others  is  expressed  by  uterque  alter. 

38* 


450 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


[§  536. 


The  plural  utrique  is  used,  (1)  when  it  refers  to  two  pre¬ 
ceding  words  in  the  plural, — when  therefore  two  parties  are 
spoken  of ;  e.  g.  Of  the  partisans  of  Caesar  and  Pompey , 
utrique;  of  the  sterner  and  gentler  virtues ,  utraeque; 
of  orators  and  poets  —  hath  these ,  hi  utrique;  we  both, 
nos  utrique.  (2)  When  a  substantive  is  connected  with 
it,  which  is  used  only  in  the  plural,  at  least,  in  a  certain  sense, 
only  in  the  plural;  e.  g.  Both  camps,  utraque  castra; 
both  armies ,  utraeque  copiae.  The  same  distinction  is 
made  between  uter  and  utri» 

Examples. 

If1  eternity  is  taken2  away,  Jupiter  is  in  no  respect  happier 
than  Epicurus  ;  for  both  enjoy  the  highest  good.  At  that  time, 
Gracchus  and  Carbo  lived  ;  both  were  very  distinguished3  ora¬ 
tors.  There  is  nothing  so  unlike,  as  Cotta  was  to  Sulpicius  ; 
and  yet  both  very  far  excelled4  their  cotemporaries5.  Cicero 
came  to  help6  both  provinces.  The  body  of  Curio  swayed7  to 
both  sides8.  The  ambassadors  of  the  Achaeans  and  yEtoli- 
ans  came  to  Rome ;  an  assembly9  of  the  senate  was  granted10 
to  both.  The  world  is,  as  it  were,  a  common  house  of  gods 
and  men,  or  a  city  of  both.  We  will  both  rest  in  company11  at 
this  country  seat.  These  both,  as  I  know,  have  commended 
their  children  to  you.  In  this  studio,  you  both  find12  your 
pleasure. 

1  (participle).  2  demere.  3summus.  4  praestare.  5  aequalis.  Subve¬ 
nire.  7  vacillare.  8  pars.  9senatus  (assembly  of  senate).  10dare.  11  una. 
12  delectari. 

536.  (11)  Our  expressions,  voluntarily ,  of  one’s  self  ’,  of 
one’s  own  accord ,  are  very  often  expressed  in  Latin  by  sponte. 
But  to  this  is  usually  added  one  of  the  possessives  mea,  tua , 
etc.,  according  to  the  difference  of  the  subject ;  e.  g.  I  did 
this  of  my  own  accord ,  ego  hoc  feci  mea  sponte  ;  we  do 
this  of  our  own  accord ,  nostra  sponte  hoc  facimus.  In 
these  phrases,  the  possessives  are  regularly  to  be  placed  before, 
and  not  after  sponte ,  because  they  are  emphatic,  except  when 
the  person  is  made  prominent  by  an  ipse  standing  in  the  sen¬ 
tence,  as  in  Cicero  (proSext.  47),  audaces  homines  nutu  im- 


§  536.] 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


451 


pelluntur,  et  ipsi  etiam  sponte  sua  contra  rempubli- 
carn  incitantur. 

So  the  mode  of  translating  the  English  with  each  other ,  de¬ 
pends  upon  the  difference  of  the  subject,  since  it  can  be  ex¬ 
pressed  by  inter  nos,  vos  and  se  ;  e.  g.  W e  contend  with  each 
other,  contendimus  inter  nos.  But  when  it  does  not  re¬ 
fer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  but  to  a  subordinate  sub¬ 
stantive,  inter  se  is  not  used,  but  either  inter  ipsos,  or  the 
substantive  is  repeated  ;  e.  g.  The  association  of  men  with  each 
other,  societas  hominum  inter  ipsos  or  inter  hom¬ 
ines. 

The  English  perhaps  is  most  commonly  expressed,  in  Ci¬ 
cero,  by  fortasse,  or  by  forsitan,  which  is  almost  exclusively 
joined  with  the  subjunctive,  but  not  by  forsan,  which  is  po¬ 
etical  and  unclassical,  nor'  by  fortassis,  which  was  more  used 
by  later  writers,  nor  by  fors,  fors  sit,  jortassc  an  or  forte 
an.  It  is  also  expressed  by  forte,  but  only  with  si,  sin,  nisi 
and  ne,  with  which  the  foregoing  words  are  incorrect;  e.  g. 
if  anything  perhaps  was  lost,  si  quid  forte;  unless  perhaps, 
nisi  f  o  r  t  e. 


Examples. 

Must  you  be  exhorted1  by  us,  or  are  you  inclined2  to  it  of 
your  own  accord  even  ?  We  have  said  to  each  other  what 
we  have  never  said.  Pompey  was  often  accustomed  to  speak 
of  you  to  me,  of  his  own  accord.  We  hate  Hannibal,  and 
perhaps  with  reason.  You  advise  us  to  do  what  we  have  been 
doing  of  ourselves  for  some  days.  When  you  are  with  each 
other,  say  whatever3  you  wish.  The  Romans  and  Sabines 
made4  an  alliance  with  each  other.  You  contend  with  each 
other,  with  words,  but  not  with  arms.  There  is  nothing 
which  reaches5  farther,  than  the  connection6  of  men  with 
each  other.  If  you  perchance  know7  any  one,  who  is  more 
attached8  to  you  than  to  your  circumstances9,  gladly  indeed10 
rank11  him  among  your  friends. 

1  adhortari.  2propensus.  3quidquid.  4facere.  5 latius  patere.  Con¬ 
junctio.  Cognoscere.  8amans.  9  vero.  10adscribere  ad  suorum  num¬ 
erum  (rank  am.  one’s  friends). 


452  PARTICULAR  RULES.  [§  537. 

537.  (12)  The  two  following  modes  of  expression  are  con¬ 
trary  to  all  good  classical  usage  : 

(a)  The  participial  phrases,  viz.  the  so  called,  above ,  be¬ 
fore,  after  named,  just  mentioned,  and  the  like,  which  often 
occur  in  English,  are  frequently  translated  by  participles  ita 
(sic)  dictus,  supra  (prae,  ante,  post)  dictus,  modo  (proxime, 
ante)  memoratus,  nominatus.  But  such  constructions  were 
used  first  by  writers  after  the  time  of  Augustus,  whereas  the 
classical  writers  employ  only  a  periphrasis  with  qui ;  e.  g. 
The  so  called,  greatness  of  soul,  altitudo  animi,  quae  dici¬ 
tur  or  quam  dicimus.  I  and  our  Atticus  have  heard 
the  philosophers  I  just  named,  philosophos  illos,  quos  modo 
nominavi.  A  tax  was  imposed  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the 
province,  called  the  stipendiarium,  quod  stipendiarium  d  i- 
c  i  t  u  r.  In  Italy  is  situated  the  so  called  Magna  Graecia,  or 
M.  G.  as  it  is  called,  Graecia,  quae  magna  dicta  est. 
The  meadows  of  Quinctius,  as  they  are  called,  or  the  so  called 
etc.,  prata  duinctia,  quae  nominantur.  At  Sybaris, 
now  called  Thurii,  Sybari,  qui  nunc  Thurii  dicun- 
t  u  r.  In  the  book  entitled  “  The  Natural  Philosopher,”  in 
eo  libro,  qui  Physicus  inscribitur.  Together  with  the 
one  last  named  by  me,  unacum  eo,  quern  proxime  nom¬ 
inavi. 

In  the  phrases  above,  before,  just  named,  mentioned,  when 
the  active  verb  is  used,  its  personal  form  shows,  who  named 
or  mentioned  the  object.  The  connection,  however,  makes 
this  plain  in  English. 

(b)  When  we  say  in  English  :  The  word  idleness  is  de¬ 
rived  from  the  adjective  idle,  knowledge  from  the  verb  know, 
the  name  Cicero  from  cicer,  and  the  like,  in  such  instan¬ 
ces  in  Latin,  every  declinable  word  is  really  declined, 
and  considered  as  depending  on  a  word  of  the  sentence,  and 
is  put  in  the  necessary  case,  but  is  not  allowed  to  stand  in 
the  nominative.  Usually  also  the  English  expletives,  the 
word,  adjective,  verb  and  the  like,  are  omitted;  e.  g.  What 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


453 


§  537.] 


we  call  lenitas ,  others  call  by  a  faulty  name,  lenitudo,  Q,uam 
lenitatem  dicimus,  alii  vitioso  lenitudinis  nomine 
appellant.  The  poets  say  Ceres  instead  of  fruits,  Liber  in¬ 
stead  of  wine,  Neptune  instead  of  the  sea,  poetae  Cererem 
dicunt  pro  frugibus,  Librum  pro  vino,  Neptu¬ 
num  pro  mari.  The  ancients  say,  that  the  name  Neptune, 
is  derived  from  nare  (to  swim),  veteres  Neptunum  dicunt 
appellatum  esse  a  nando.  From  fari  comes  the  word  fa¬ 
num ,  from  voluntas  and  from  volatus,  the  verb  volo,  a  fando 
dictum  est  fanum,  a  volatu  volo.  Tjet  us  avoid  the 
ambiguous  name,  invidia,  effugiamus  ambiguum  nomen  i  n- 
v  i  d  i  a  e.  The  name  Apollo  is  a  Grecian  name,  A  p  o  1 1  i- 
n  i  s  nomen  est  Graecum  — .  I  ani  more  to  be  blamed  because 
1  added  the  word  in,  quod  in  addidi — .  But  no  change  is 
made  by  declension,  where  one  form  of  a  word  stands  for 
another,  or  where  for  a  single  word,  this  or  that  other  one 
should  have  stood  ;  or  where,  from  their  nature,  the  words 
must  remain  unchanged  ;  e.  g.  S  o  d  e  s  pro  si  audes; 
nolle  for  non  velle;  pro  industriae  dicendum  erat 
industriam;  nosquid  juvat  vox  ista  veto  (that  word 
veto)',  quam  crebo  usurpat  et  consul  et  Antonius 
(how  often  he  uses  the  words  the  consul  and  Antonius). 

Examples  for  practice. 

We  assembled  in  this  gymnasium,  called  Ptolemaeum. 
Phalaris  did  not  perish  by1  ambush,  as  Alexander,  just2  men¬ 
tioned  by  me.  The  stoics  do  not  reckon3  the  seven  wise 
men,  as  they  are  called,  among4  the  wise.  Upon5  Lentulus, 
Cethegus,  and  the  others  mentioned  above,  capital6  punish¬ 
ment  was  inflicted7.  Did8  old9  age  compel  Homer,  Hesiod, 
did  it  compel  those  before  named,  Isocrates  and  Gorgias,  to 
be  speechless10  ?  The  books  of  Plato  on  the  state,  the  so  call¬ 
ed  Politics,  were  held11  in  high  respect12  among  the  ancients. 
This  book  is  in  no  respect  better  known,  than  the  three 
books  before  mentioned  by  you.  Your  so  called  life,  is  death. 
The  word  aratrum  has  its  name13  from  arare,  messis  from 
metere,  scriptor  from  scribere ,  hosticus  from  hostes.  The 


454 


PARTICULAR  RULES 


[§  538. 


word  tibicen  comes13  from  tibiae  and  canere.  What  the 
Latins  call  furor,  the  Greeks  call  pelay^oh'a.  The  name 
Bacchus,  is  Greek,  on  the  contrary,  the  name  Liber,  is  Latin. 
I  believe,  that  Juno  was  named  from  juvare ,  as  the  name 
Janus  was  derived14  from  ire.  What  the  Greeks  call  evfioh'a, 
it  is  more  proper15  to  call  bona  fama,  than  gloria.  The 
word16  piety  seems  to  be  too  feeble17  for  your  kindness  to  me. 

'ex.  2modo.  3  habere.  4  in  numero.  5de.  6  supplicium.  7  sumere. 

8  (num  is  used  to  ask  questions.)  9  senectus.  10 obmutescere.  11  esse. 
12 honor.  13  dici.  J4duci.  15  aptus.  16noir.en.  17  levis. 

538.  (13)  The  word  without  is  expressed  in  different 
ways : 

(a)  By  a  substantive  with  the  preposition  sine  or  such  a 
word  as  nullus  ;  e.  g.  I  dismissed  him,  without  praising  him, 
sine  laudatione;  without  any  fear,  n  u  1 1  o  timore;  icithout 
any  merit  of  mine,  nullo  nieo  rnerito. 

(b)  By  ut  non  (so  that  not),  or,  where  a  negative  sentence 
precedes,  by  quin,  or  also  by  ut  and  a  negative  verb;  e.  g. 
Apelles  passed  no  day  without  practising  his  art  in  drawing, 
quin  (ut  non)  exerceret  artem.  The  Decii  devoted  them - 
selves  to  their  country ,  without  in  the  least  thinking  of 
their  own  advantage,  nihil  u  t  de  commodis  suis  cogi¬ 
tarent.  Can  L.  Cornelius  be  condemned,  without  the  deed  of 
Marius  being  condemned,  u  t  n  o  n  Marii  factum  condemne¬ 
tur  1  Without  mentioning ,  ut  taceam,  ut  omittam. 

(c)  By  qui  non,  followed  by  a  subjunctive.  This  is  espe¬ 
cially  the  case,  when  there  is  a  pronoun  in  the  sentence, 
which  refers  to  a  substantive  previously  mentioned.  But  when 
qui  non  would  follow  in  the  nominative,  quin  is  generally  used 
in  its  place.  Compare  §  400.  Verres  saw  nothing  valuable 
in  Sicily  without  carrying  it  away,  quam  non  abstulerit. 

Who  has  sailed  upon  the  sea  without  exposing  himself  to  the 
danger  of  death  ?  quin  (qui  non)  se  mortis  periculo  com¬ 
mitteret. 

(d)  By  a  negative  participial  sentence,  which  is  the  most 
usual.  Respecting  which  see  above,  §  4G7. 

(e)  By  the  ablative  of  the  gerundive  or  the  verbal  adjec- 


§538.] 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


455 


tive  with  a  negative  word ;  e.  g.  Who,  without  carefully 
plowing  the  field,  can  expect  rich  fruits  ?  agro  non  diligenter 
arando. 

(f)  By  neque  (and  not),  when  this  analysis  is  appropriate; 
e.  g.  Horatius  Codes  swam  over  the  Tiber,  without  throwing 
aicay  his  arms ,  neque  arrna  dimittit. 

(g)  By  quum  and  a  negative  word,  when  the  clause  admits 
such  an  analysis;  e.  g.  He  left  the  city  without  having  seen 
anything,  quum  nihil  vidisset.  Finally, 

(h)  By  negative  adjectives,  among  which  may  be  particu¬ 
larly  mentioned,  such  as  begin  with  in ;  e.  g.  inscius,  i  n- 
sciens,  ignarus,  without  knowing  ;  immemo  r,  without 
thinking ;  also  imprudens,  incognitus,  etc.  These 
are  treated  as  praticiples  ;  e.  g.  Many  lie  without  knowing  it, 
multi  mentiuntur  ignari.  Datames  came  without  any 
one1  s  knowing  it,  D.  omnibus  insciis  eo  venit.  The 
commander  has  betrayed  you,  without  your  knowing  it,  dux 
vos  ignaros  prodidit. 

The  connection  must  decide  what  mode  of  translation  is 
most  natural ;  and  there  may  be  cases,  where  a  different 
mode  of  translation  from  those  here  stated,  might  properly  be 
used. 

Examples. 

Our  age  gradually1  becomes  old'3  without  its  being  per¬ 
ceived3.  How  can  we  pass4  our  life  without  fear5  ?  Even 
he  who  hates  men  cannot  live  without  seeking6  some  one7, 
with  whom  to  vent8  the  poison9  of  his  bitterness.  A  rumor 
does  not  easily10  arise  without  some  reason11.  The  elder 
Pliny  read  nothing  without  making  extracts12  from  it.  The 
consuls  returned  home  without  having  accomplished13  any¬ 
thing  worthy  of  notice14.  The  youth  wept  long,  without 
speaking15.  Perseus  went16  to  the  camp,  without  another  of 
his  soldiers  as  a  companion17.  Minucius  announced,  that,  at 
Locris,  money  had  been  stolen  from  the  temple  of  Proser¬ 
pine,  without.18  there  being  any  traces  to  whom  the  crime  be¬ 
longed19.  Two  young  Acarnanians  had  gone20  into  the  tem¬ 
ple  of  Ceres  without  being  acquainted21  with  the  religious22 


456 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


[§§  539, 540. 


usage.  I  have  torn23  the  letter  without  its  deserving2**  it. 
Magnify  the  dignity  of  Arrian,  without  his  expecting25  it, 
without  his  knowing26  it,  yea27,  even  perhaps  without  his 
wishing28  it.  Many  have  done29  much  without  the  know¬ 
ledge30  of  Sulla.  Many  cannot  lose  their  fortunes  in  a  state, 
without  drawing  many  others  into  the  same  calamity.  In 
this  matter,  nothing  has  been  done  by  my  colleague  without 
my  knowledge31. 

‘sensim.  2  senescere.  3  sensus.  4  degere.  5  metus.  6  anquirere. 
7  aliquis.  3evomere.  9virus.  10temere.  11  subesse.  12  excerpere  aliquid. 
13 gerere  (participle).  14  res  memorabilis.  15  tacitus.  16ingredi.  17  comes. 
13  (with  neque).  19  pertinere.  20  ingredi.  21  imprudens.  22  religio  (reli¬ 
gious  usage).  23  conscindere.  24innocens.  25  i  nop!nans>  26  nesciens. 
21  imo.  23  nolens.  29  committere.  30  imprudens.  31  insciens. 

539.  (14)  The  pronoun  is,  ea,  id,  when  it  refers  to  a  fol¬ 
lowing  who,  which  (qui),  is  very  often  either  omitted,  or, 
when  the  sentence  with  qui  precedes,  is  put  emphatically  in 
the  first  part  of  the  principal  sentence  that  follows  ;  especial¬ 
ly,  when  qui,  quae,  quod,  attracts  to  itself  the  substantive,  which 
belongs  to  is,  ca,  id ;  but  the  omission  takes  place,  for  the 
most  part,  only  when  both  are  in  the  same  case.  Yet  the  pro¬ 
noun  is  stands  as  frequently  before  qui,  when  definite  expres¬ 
sion  is  required.  Comp.  §  123. 

But  when  an  intervening  explanatory  sentence  with  and 
this,  and  that  or  what,  refers  not  to  a  single  substantive,  but 
to  an  entire  preceding  or  following  remark,  and  the  sentence 
is  only  parenthetic,  then  the  Latins  generally  employ  the  full 
expression  id  quod ;  e.  g.  Whoever  sufficiently  understands, 
and  that  is  clearer  than  the  light,  that  — ,  id  quod  est  luce 
clarius.  But  that  Greek,  and  that  was  an  evidence  of  a  wise 
and  distinguished  man,  believed — ,  id  quod  fuit  sapientis 
et  praestantis  viri. 

540.  (15)  The  phrase  not  only  not,  followed  by  but  not 
even,  but  scarcely  and  the  like  negatives,  is  expressed  by  non 
moelo  (solum)  non,  followed  by  sed  ne  —  quidem  ( sed  viz  and 
the  like) : 

(a)  When  both  clauses  are  complete,  so  that  they  have 


§540.] 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


457 


their  own  predicates,  which  are  to  be  negatived,  whether  the 
subjects  are  the  same  or  different. 

Examples.  Non  so  lam  excellentes  viri  deterriti  non  sunt, sedi 
ne  opifices  quidem  se  removerant.  Id  non  modo  non  feci,, 
sed  ne  potui  quidem  facere.  Hic  non  modo  non  huic  proelio, 
praeerat,  sed  ne  intererat  q  u  i  d  e  m. 

(b)  When  both  clauses  have  indeed  a  common  predicate,, 
but  this  stands  with  non  modo  in  the  first  clause.  Since  the 
first  is  to  be  negatived,  non  cannot  be  admitted  after  non  modo ; 
the  predicate  must  be  understood  in  the  second,  and  as  here 
ne  — quidem  denies,  therefore  both  are  negative. 

Examples.  Horum  summorum  imperatorum  non  modo  res  ges¬ 
tas  non  antepono  meis,  sed  ne  fortunam  quidem  ipsam.  Non  mo¬ 
do  pristinam  voluntatem  recuperare  non  potui,  verum  ne  causam 
quidem  elicere.  Dolabella  non  modo  proficisci  non  potuit,  sed 
vix  in  oppido  consistere. 

On  the  contrary,  merely  non  modo  (solum)  without  nonr 
followed  by  .sec?  ne  —  quidem  [sed  vix  and  other  negatives), 
is  used,  when  the  common  predicate  of  both  clauses  is  ap¬ 
pended  to  the  second  clause,  in  which  case  it  is  negatively 
understood  in  the  first. 

Examples.  Ego  non  modo  praemiis  (not  only  not  by  rewards), 
sed  ne  periculis  quidem  compulsus  sum.  Hae  virtutes  non  solum 
in  his  hominibus  (not  only  not  i?i  these  men),  sed  vix  jam  in  libris  re- 
periuntur.  Ita  non  modo  querendi  (not  only  no  end  of complaining), 
sed  ne  lugendi  quidem  finem  reperimus. 

Remarks. 

(1)  Instead  of  the  second  not  in  the  first  clause,  another  negative 
word  can  also  be  used,  e.  g.  no  one,  nothing,  never ,  etc.,  for  which,  in 
the  last  case  with  non  modo  without  non,  the  words  quisquam ,  quid - 
quam,  unquam  are  used. 

But  natural  as  it  seems,  that  in  the  first  two  cases,  non  modo  nonr 
and  in  the  third  case,  merely  non  modo  should  be  used,  and  although 
this  is  the  predominant  construction,  yet  there  are  many  passages  in 
Cicero  and  others,  where  in  the  first  two  cases  non  modo  is  found,  and 
in  the  last,  non  modo  non,  and  more  especially  in  this  last  case,  per¬ 
haps  that  by  the  negation,  the  antitheses  may  be  made  more  promi¬ 
nent ;  e.g.  Quum  filius  non  modo  non  mortuus,  sed  ne  natus 
quidem  esset:  ita  ille  vivit,  ut  non  modo  homini  nemini,  sed  ne 
cupiditati  quidem  ulli  serviat.  But  whether  non  modo  has  been  also 
used  for  non  modo  non,  before  sed  etiam,  is  very  doubtful. 

(2)  The  position  of  the  clauses  may  be  inverted,  so  that  ne  quidem 
stands  first.  The  following  non  modo  is  then  translated  by  not  to  say , 
much  less  ;  e.  g.  The  oracles  of  JJ polio  never  satisfy  even  an  ordinary 

39 


458 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


[§  540. 


man,  much  less  (not  to  say)  a  wise  man,  n  e  mediocri  quidem,  non 
modo  prudenti  probata  sunt.^  Even  swine  would  not  like  that,  much 
less  he,  ne  sues  quidem  id  velint,  n  o  n  modo  ipse.  So,  /  had 
nothing  at  all,  much  less  a ;  great  deal,  etc.,  nihil  habui  sane,  non 
modo  multum. 

(3)  Similar,  but  not  to  be  interchanged  with  non  modo ,  is  the  pre¬ 
ventive  nedum,  which  is  also  translated  by  not  to  say,  not  to  say  that. 
By  this  something  is  rejected  as  not  conceivable,  because  something 
else,  that  might  more  easily  happen,  does  not  happen.  It  generally 
takes  a  complete  sentence  in  the  subjunctive  ;  e.g.  In  the  ebst  times, 
the  greatest  men  could  not  bear  up  against  the  power  of  the  tribunes,  not 
to  say  that  ice,  or,  much,  less  can  we,  in  our  times,  be  safe,  nedum  his 
temporibus  —  possimus.  This  sentence  is  sometimes  abbreviated, 
and  nedum  stands  like  an  adverb,  without  a  finite  verb.  E.  g.  Ill  could 
the  shock  of  such  a  multitude  unarmed  be  sustained ,  much  less  armed,, 
aegre  inermis  tanta  multitudo,  nedum  armata,  sustineri  potuit,  (in 
full),  nedum  arm.  sust.  potuerit. 

Examples  for  practice. 

Flattery1  is  not  only  not  worthy  of  a  friend,  but  not  even  of 
a  freeman.  Not  only  no  one  of  his  friends,  but  not  even  one 
of  his  slaves  went9  to  the  body  of  the  murdered3  Caesar.  Such 
a  man  ought  not  only  not  to  be  considered4  as  a  commander, 
but  in  general5,  not  even  a  freeman.  Such  a  government  is 
not  only  to  be  suffered  by  no  Roman,  but  not  even  by  a6  Per¬ 
sian.  Roscius  has  not  only  not  committed  this  crime7,  but 
could  not  even  have  done  it.  You  have  not  only  not  been  in 
Rome,  but  far  from  this  city.  A  good  man  will  not  only  not 
dare  to  do  anything,  but  not  even  to  think  of  anything,  which 
he  cannot  dare  to  speak8  of  openly.  Then,  it  was  not  only  not 
lawful  for  the  Senate  to  assist9  the  state,  but  not  even  to  mourn 
for  it.  I  not  only  do  not  accuse10  you  of  this  crime,  but  I  do 
not  even  blame11  you  with  just  censure12.  Antony  can  not 
only  not  endure  the  voice,  but  not  even  the  look13  of  any  one. 
If  perhaps  letters  have  been  sent14  to  you  more  seldom  by  me 
than  by  others,  I  ask  you  not  only  not  to15  attribute  this  to  my 
negligence,  but  not  even  to  my  business16.  Whatever  shall 
befall17  me  in  a  state  so  ungrateful,  will  find18  me  not  even 
declining19,  much  less  opposing20  it.  Scarcely  under21  our 
very22  roofs  is  the  cold  avoided,  much  less  on  the  sea  is  it  easy 
to  escape23  the  rigor  of  the  season24.  I  could  not  think  that 
even  immortality  was  to  be  accepted  against  the  interests  of25 
the  state,  much  less  could  I  wish  to  die  to26  the  ruin  of  the 
state. 

1  assentatio.  2accedere.  3trucidare.  4 habere.  5omnIno.  6quisquam. 

7  facinus.  8 praedicare  (to  speak  openly).  9juvare.  10argu6re.  11  repre- 


PARTICULAR  RULES. 


459 


§541.] 


hendere.  12  reprehensio.  13vultus.  ,4reddere.  ,5ut.  16occupatio.  ,7ac- 
cidere.  18evenire  (with  dat.).  19recusare.  20repugnare.  51  in.  22ipse. 
23abessc.  24 tempus  25 contra.  26 cum. 

(541.  b.)  (16)  It  is  very  common  to  express  an  affirmative 
superlative  by  a  negative  comparative,  therefore  by  nemo , 
nullus,  nihil ,  or  the  interrogative  quis,  quid ,  where  the  sen¬ 
tence  admits  it,  especially  in  relative  sentences,  respecting 
which  see  §  523. 

Examples .  The,  elephant  is  the  most  discerning  of  all  animals ,  ele¬ 
phanto  belluarum  nulla  pru  dentior  est.  Man  is  the  cnost  beau¬ 
tiful  of  beings ,  quid  (nihil)  homine  est  pulchrius  ? 

(541.  c.)  (17)  The  Latins  frequently  express  affirmative 
ideas  by  two  negatives  ;  e.  g.  Non  ignoro,  non  nescio, 
non  sum  ignarus  (nescius),/  know  well ;  non  pos¬ 
sum  non  (followed  by  an  infinitive),  or,  non  possum 
facere,  quin  — ,  I  cannot  but,  I  must ;  neque  non,  and 
(for  et),  neque  tamen  non,  and  yet — and  the  like;  ne¬ 
mo  non,  everyone ;  nullus  non  (as  an  adjective),  each 
one,  every  one;  nunquam  non,  always;  nusquam 
non,  everywhere;  nihil  non,  everything,  all ;  non  n  i- 
s  i,  only  (comp.  §  477) ;  nihil  nisi,  only  that,  only  this. 

Yet,  non  nemo  signifies  many ,  many  a  one,  some  one;  non 
nullus,  some;  non  nihil,  something ;  non  nunquam,  some¬ 
times ; — when  the  words  are  thus  placed,  non  diminishes  the  negative 
force  of  the  following  word. 

(541.  d.)  (18)  In  Cicero  and  others,  the  full  periphrastic 
construction  with  facere,  ut,  for  the  single  verb  following,  is 
very  frequent,  and  is  to  be  imitated. 

Examples.  Come ,  or,  be  sure  to  come,  fac  venias.  You  can  men¬ 
tion  this,  tu  potes  id  facere,  ut  commemores.  I  reluctantly 
banished  him  from  the  senate ,  invitus  fe  c  i,  u  t  eum  e  senatu  ejice¬ 
rem.  1  thought  I  must  write  to  you ,  fac  i  e  n  d  u  m  rnihi  putavi,  u  t 
tibi  scriberem.  Here  belong  also  v  e  1  i  m  quaeras,  ask  him  ;  n  o- 
1  i  m  te  existimare,  do  not  believe.  Respecting  non  committere,  ut,  as 
the  negative  of facere,  vt,  see  §  552.  6. 

(541.  e.)  (19)  When  a  sentence  begins  with,  As  it  respects 
this,  that,  or  simply  with  that,  in  reference  to  the  words  of 
another,  or  with  ut  or  ne,  e.  g.  That  you  may  perceive,  that 
I  must  do  this,  ut  intelligas,  then  the  phrases,  As  it  respects 


460 


USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


[§  542. 


this,  hear  (audi),  know  (scito),  I  will  say  to  you  (tibi  dicam), 
which  are  almost  necessary  in  English,  are  generally  omitted 
in  Latin,  while  that,  which  any  one  should  know  or  hear  fol¬ 
lows  immediately  in  the  oratio  recta  with  the  indicative. 

Examples.  In  order  that  you  may  understand  this ,  (know,)  that  as 
soon  as  Varro  came  to  the  forum,  he  visited  me,  ut  hoc  intelligas, 
quum  primum  Varro  —  venit,  se  contulit,  rind,  that  my  oration  may 
commence  where  this  whole  cause  originates ,  (know,  or  /  will  inform 
you )  that  —  atque  ut  inde  oratio  mea  proficiscatur,  unde  haec  omnis 
causa  ducitur,  bellum  grave  vestris  vectigalibus  infertur.  Jis  it  re¬ 
spects  this ,  that  you  tcish  (as  to  your  wish)  to  know  what  is  the  feeling 
of  each  one,  know  that  (I  will  say  to  you)  it  is  difficult  to  speak  particu¬ 
larly  of  each  one,  quod  scire  vis,  qua  quisque  voluntate  sit;  difficile 
dictu  est  de  singulis. 

Examples  on  §§  (541  b.) — (541.  e.) 

I  will  not  vex1  thy  mind  with  complaints2.  Every  one  must3 
especially4  praise  thy  resolution.  I  thought  I  must5  answer 
your  letter  briefly.  Philosophy  has  always  been  most  dear6  to 
me  in  life,  and  it  is  the  great  gift  that  has  been  conferred  up¬ 
on  the  human  race.  I  have  succeeded7,  by  every  indulgence*, 
in  being  most  dear6  to  both.  Although  all  know  well,  how 
things  stand8,  yet  I  will  mention  some.  What  I  have  said, 
must3  be  said  honorably9  for  you.  After  you  have  departed, 
remember10  what  I  have  said  of  you  in  the  senate.  He  per¬ 
mitted  me  to11  swear  only  this.  You  desire12  my  letters  ;  but  I 
have  always13  furnished14  a  letter  for  you,  when  it  was  told  me 
that  any  one  was  going15.  As  it  respects  your  request16,  that 
I  would  send  you  my  writings,  know  that  there  are  some  of 
my  speeches  which  I  have  given  to  Menocritus.  That  you 
may  not  wonder,  why  I  now  so  earnestly  ask  respecting  this, 
I  will  tell  you  :  The  desire  of  haste17  incites18  me. 

1  angere  (accord,  to  no.  d  ).  2  querela.  3  non  possum  non.  4  maxime. 
5  (accord,  to  no.  d.).  6  carus  (accord  to  no  b.).  7  efficere  ut.  *  obsequium. 
8se  habere.  9  honorifice.  10  recordari  (accord,  to  no. d.).  nut. 12  requirere. 
J3  (accord,  to  no.  c.).  14  dare.  15  ire.  16  rogare.  17  festinatio.  18  incendere. 


USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

542.  In  the  use  of  prepositions,  we  differ,  in  many  respects, 
from  the  Latins.  The  force  of  many  of  our  prepositions  is 
expressed  in  Latin  by  the  genitive  case  depending  on  a  sub¬ 
stantive  ;  e.  g.  Desire  of  glory,  gloriae;  fear  of  punish - 


USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


461 


§§  543,  544.] 

rncnt,  poenae.  Comp.  §  134.  Further;  the  force  of  En¬ 
glish  prepositions  is  often  expressed  by  the  genitive  or  dative 
depending  on  adjectives ;  e.  g.  Useful  for  the  body,  c  o  r  po  r  i ; 
skilled  in  law,  juris.  Finally,  we  often  join  prepositions  with 
verbs,  where  the  Latins  put  merely  the  appropriate  case  after 
the  verb  ;  e.  g.  To  strive  for  glory ,  petere  gloriam. 

Remark.  The  difference  between  the  Latin  and  English,  in  the 
use  of  prepositions,  is  owing  mostly  to  the  fact,  that  the  Latin  nouns 
are  declined,  while  the  English  are  not.  The  termination  of  the  La¬ 
tin  nouns,  therefore,  can  indicate  the  relation  which  must  be  ex¬ 
pressed  in  English  by  prepositions. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  often  find  prepositions  used  in  both 
languages,  but  in  Latin  not  always  those  we  should  expect, 
according  to  the  English.  The  greater  attention  must  there- 
fore  be  paid  to  the  various  and  unexpected  constructions  that 
occur,  and  to  a  proper  choice  from  among  them.  Thus, 
Contrary  to  expectation,  is  expressed  by  praeter  expecta- 
tionem  ;  in  and  of  — self,  by  per  se  ;  you  have  my  permis¬ 
sion,  by  per  me  licet,  also  simply  by  per  rr>rf ;  to  speak  ac¬ 
cording  to,  govern  one's  self  by  the  will,  pleasure,  etc.,  of  some 
one,  by  ad  voluntatem,  ad  nutum  abcujus  loqui,  se  confor¬ 
mare,  accommodare;  to  happen  according  to  one's  wish,  ex 
sententia.  Per  is  sometimes  used  where  we  say  on  account 
of;  e.  g.  I  could  come  on  account  of  my  health,  or  my  health 
allowed  me  to  come,  per  raletudinem  potui  venire.  I 
could  not  come  on  account  of  the  weather,  per  tempesta¬ 
tem  venire  non  proii. 

Hence  a  good  lexicon  must  be  used,  and,  if  accessible, 
some  book  on  Latin  particles. 

Only  the  following  will  be  mentioned  here: 

543.  (1)  Many  English  adverbs  are  best  expressed  in  Latin 
by  a  preposition  and  substantive;  e.  g.  Literally,  ad  litte¬ 
ram  ;  unexpectedly,  ex  improviso;  heartily,  ex  a  n  i- 
m  o ;  slanderously ,  per  calumniam;  insidiously,  trea¬ 
cherously,  per  i  n s i d  i  a s,  etc.  Comp.  §  21 1.  Rem.  (1.) 

544.  (2)  The  Latins  often  join  participles  with  certain 

39* 


462 


USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


[§  544. 


substantives,  especially  with  such  as  denot e  feeling  or  an  af¬ 
fection  of  the  mind ,  e.  g.  From  (by)  fear,  on  account  of  this  in¬ 
jury,  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  the  ideas  contained  in  the 
substantives  more  fully,  than  they  otherwise  would  be.  Such 
a  participle  is  chosen  as  is  adapted  to  the  idea  of  the  substan¬ 
tive,  and  as  will  express  the  thought  most  appropriately  and 
vividly.  The  most  usual  participles  are:  motus ,  commo¬ 
tus,  permotus,  ductus,  adductus,  inductus,  incitatus ,  im¬ 
pulsus,  incensus,  inflammatus,  perterritus,  victus,  doctus, 
corruptus,  impeditus ,  deterritus,  captus,  coactus,  etc. ;  e.  g. 
From  displeasure,  from  disgust,  taedio  victus;  on  account 
of  this  injury,  ea  contumelia  commotus;  from  experience , 
re  doctus;  from  (by)  love,  amore  captus;  from  want, 
inopia  adductus;  from  (by)  desire,  aviditate  incensus; 
from  fear,  metu  coactus,  timore  perterritus;  from 
.rage,  furore  impulsus;  on  account  of  feeble  health,  vale¬ 
tudinis  imbecillitate  impeditus;  from  pity,  misericordia 
oaptus;  font  folly ,  stultitia  obcaecatus;  from  shame , 
verecundia  deterritus.  So,  benevolentia  impulsus, 
odio  inductus,  spe.  inductus,  familiaritate  inductus 
(adductus).  He  did  not  do  it  from  religious  scruples ,  re¬ 
ligione  impeditus;  why,  wherefore,  quibus  rebus  ad¬ 
ductus,  and  so  others.  In  English,  however,  we  often 
supply  words  similar  to  the  LatV«. 

In  like  manner,  instead  of  adjectives  ot  the  simple  ablative  of  qual¬ 
ity,  the  participle  praeditus  is  often  used  in  wiping  to  designate  inter¬ 
nal  and  external  endowments,  but  only  with  persons  ;  e.  g.  Tu  tali 
capientia  praed  i  t  u  s,  you,  so  icise  a  man  ;  Cuuo,  summo  ingenio 
et  prudentia  praeditus,  a  man  of  the  greatest  understanding  and 
wisdom.  Further;  Insigni  p-etate,  virtute,  fide,  crudelitate,  singula¬ 
ri  immanitate,  beneficiis,  audacia,  cupiditate,  scelere,  spe,  njetu  im¬ 
perio,  potestate,  auctoritate,  sacerdotio  praeditus, — and  so ’with 
-other  ablatives. 

The  participle  usus  is  joined  with  a  noun,  to  denote  that  which  is 
used  as  a  means  by  which  or  with  which  something  is  done  ;  e.  g. 
With  his  help ,  auxilio,  ejus  ope  usus;  by  this  mode  of  life ,  hac  vitae 
ratione  usus;  by  this  fortune,  ea  (qua)  fortuna  usus;  by  many  ma¬ 
chines,  tormentis  multis  usus,  and  so  others. 

So,  with  is  expressed  by  ornatus,  instructus,  and  without  by 
non  ornatus,  non  instructus;  e.  g.  Without  knowledge  or  learning, 
nulla  cognitione  rerurn,  nulla  scientia  ornatus. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SEVERAL  VERBS. 


463 


§  545.] 

In  such  phrases  as,  Of  a  distinguished ,  low ,  obscure  family,  natus  is 
used  :  Summo  loco,  humili  atque  obscuro  loco  natus. 

Where  we  say  of  writings,  in  Greek,  Latin,  in  prose,  in  verse  — , 
scriptus,  compositus  and  the  like  are  added  ;  e.  g.  I  have  sent  you  a 
sketch  of  my  consulship  in  Greek,  commentarium  consulatus  mei 
Graece  compositum  misi  ad  te. 

Finally,  in  the  phrase,  He  moved  in  the  splendour  of  a  triumph,  afes- 
tivc  parade  and  the  like,  circumdatus,  fulgens,  celebratus,  or  a  similar 
word,  must  be  added  to  splendore. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SEVERAL  VERBS. 

545.  In  the  section  on  the  government  of  cases,  many 
verbs  have  been  already  mentioned,  which  have  a  construc¬ 
tion  different  from  the  English.  But  they  could  not  all  be 
stated  there,  and  even  in  this  section  all  the  others  will  not 
be  adduced.  The  student  should  refer  throughout  to  good 
lexicons.  But  every  construction  there  quoted  is  not  to  be 
imitated,  unless  it  has  the  authority  of  the  best  writers.  Let 
the  student  therefore  be  cautious  in  their  use. 

Only  certain  verbs  will  here  be  introduced. 

Abdere  se  in  locum,  to  conceal  one's  self  in  a  place.  Hence,  ab¬ 
dere  sedomum,  to  conceal  one's  self  at  home,  in  his  house ;  R  o- 
m  a  m,  in  Koine  ;  in  Graeciam,  in  Greece.  But  the  participle  ab¬ 
ditus  is  sometimes  construed  with  in  and  the  ablative,  because  the  act 
of  concealing  is  already  completed.  The  figurative  phrase,  to  be  ab¬ 
sorbed  in  letters,  or  to  devote  one's  self  to  letters,  is  expressed  by,  se  in 
litteras  or  se  litteris  abdere. 

Abdicare  se  aliqua  re,  to  free  one's  self  from  something,  to  resign , 
to  lay  down ;  e.  g.  Consulatu,  to  resign  the  consulship ;  tutela,  to 
give  up  the  guardianship. 

Abire  ab  aliqua  re,  to  go  away,  to  depart  from  something  ;  e.  g 
E  loco,  from  a  place.  But  magistratu,  to  resign  an  office. 

Abjudicare  aliquid  ab  aliquo,  to  take  something  from  some  one , 
by  sentence  or  verdict ;  but  sibi  aliquid,  to  take  something  from  one's 
self,  to  say  and  judge  that  one  has  not  something. 

Accommodare  aliquid  ad  al  quid,  to  jit  something  to  something , 
to  adjust  according  to  something  ,  se  ad  aliquid,  to  accommodate  one's 
self  to  something ,  to  adapt,  both  in  the  figurative  sense,  in  the  phy¬ 
sical  sense,  to  fit  something  to  something,  to  attach  is  expressed  by,  ac- 
com.  aliquid  alicui,  e.  g.  capiti,  but  when  the  personal  object  is 
in  the  dative,  by  ad  caput;  e.  g.  e  i  coronam  ad  caput  accom  Also 
to  lend  something  to  some  one  is  expressed  by,  accom.  aliquid  alicui, 
and  to  be  obliging  to  one ,  by  accom.  se  alicui. 

Actum  e  s  t  de  me,  it  is  all  over  with  me. 

Adire  aliquem,  locum  and  ad  aliquem,  ad  locum,  to  go  to  one,  to 
go  to  a  place.  But  ad  i  t  u  s  ad  aliquem,  access  to,  audience  with  some 
one. 


464 


CONSTRUCTION  OE  SEVERAL  VERBS. 


[§545. 


Adjungere  alicui,  ad  aliquem,  to  connect  with  something. 

Admonere  aliquem  de  aliqua  re,  to  admonish  one  of  something , 
to  remind;  aliquem  alicujus  rei,  to  remind  one  of  something. 

A  d  sp  i  rare  ad  aliquid,  to  strive  for  something ,  to  seek  to  obtain 
something  ;  in  is  used  only  with  places ,  i  n  locum. 

Adsuesccre,  see  assuefacere. 

Ad  u  lar  i  aliquern  and  alicui,  to  flatter  one  ;  before  Livy  aliquem , 
after  alicui.  The  word  does  not  occur  in  Caesar. 

Advenire  in  locum,  to  come  to  a  place.  Hence,  He  came  home , 
to  Delphi,  advenit  do  mum,  Delphos.  So  also  the  substantive, 
adventus  in  locum,  e.  g.  in  urbem.  Where  ?  quo?  here ,  hue;  there , 
illuc,  istuc. 

A  ffe  r  r  e  alicui  aliquid,  or  ad  aliquem  aliquid,  to  bring  something  to 
some  one ,  to  procure  for , to  announce  something  to  one.  In  the  passive, 
affertur  mihi  or  ad  me  de  aliqua  re,  something  is  announced  to  me. 
Yet  only  aft’,  alicui  vim,  manus,  necem  and  the  like. 

Alienare  aliquem  ab  aliquo,  to  make  one  dislike  another ,  to  es¬ 
trange  one  from  another. 

Appellare  aliquem,  to  name  one ,  to  call  to,  to  appeal  to  one. 

Appelli  ad  locum  aliquem,  to  be  driven  to  a  place,  to  land  some¬ 
where  ;  e.  g.  Navis  appellitur  ad  littus,  milites  navigiis  appelluntur  in 
Africam.  Where ?  quo?  there,  e  o.  In  the  active,  only  of  the  person, 
who  causes  a  ship  to  land,  or  drives  it  somewhere  :  nauta,  (or  who¬ 
ever  is  in  the  ship,  or  even  ventus)  appellit  navem. 

Assuefacere  alicui  rei,  ad  aliquid,  to  accustom  one  to  something. 
So,  assuefieri,  assuescere,  assuetus. 

Attende  re  aliquid  or  aliquem,  to  attend  to  something  or  some  one, 
to  be  attentive  to  ;  but  writh  animum  or  animos  —  ad  aliquid  (ad 
aliquem  ). 

Attinere  ad  aliquid,  ad  aliquem,  to  concern  anything,  any  one,  to 
relate  to;  e.  g.  This  in  no  respect  concerns  me,  hoc  nihil  ad  me  attinet, 
and  briefly,  nihil  ad  me. 

Audire  aliquid,  to  hear,  to  listen  to  something ;  aliquem,  to  hear, 
to  listen  to  some  one,  to  give  car  to,  to  obey  some  one  ;  de  aliqua  re 
or  aliquo,  to  hear  of  or  concerning  some  person  or  thing ,  but  also 
ex  or  de  aliquo,  to  hear  something  from  one,  who  relates  something  ; 
Cicero  seldom  says  ab  aliquo.  Audire  bene  (male)  ab  aliquo, 
to  hear  good  (ill)  of  one's  self  from  some  one,  i.  e.  to  be  held  in  good 
(evil)  repute,  to  be  praised  (blamed)  by  some  one.  The  participle  audi¬ 
ens  in  the  sense  of  obedient  has  the  dative  alicui,  in  the  best  writers 
alwrays  with  the  additional  dicto  ;  e.  g.  Audiens  alicui  dicto,  obe¬ 
dient  to  the  word  of  any  one. 

Auferre  ab  aliquo  aliquid,  to  take,  to  tear  something  from  one. 

Auspicari  ab  aliqua  re,  to  begin  with  something.  Comp  incipere. 

Cadere  animo  or  animis  to  let  one's  courage  fail, to  despair  ;  cau¬ 
sa  or  in  judicio,  to  lose  one's  suit ;  in  aliquem,  to  meet  any  one,  to  be 
exposed  to  any  one ,  to  be  applicable  to  one,  to  suitany  one  ;  sub  sensum 
aliquem,  sub  oculos,  to  be  perceived,  to  be  seen  ;  in  aliquid,  to  etui  in  or 
with  something. 

Canere  aliqua  re,  to  play  upon  something,  to  pi  ay  something  ;  e.  g. 
Cithara,  tibiis,  fidibus.  Canere  receptui,  to  sound  a  retreat. 

Cedere  loco,  ex  and  de  loco,  to  leave  a  place ;  alicui  aliqua  re,  to 
yield  something  to  some  one  ;  alicui  (in)  aliqua  re,  to  be  inferior  to  one 


$  545.  J 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SEVERAL  VERBS. 


465 


in  something;  nihil  cedo  alicui,  I  am  in  nothing  inferior  to  some 
one. 

Circumspicere  aliquem,  aliquid,  to  look  round  for  or  after  some 
one,  something,  to  consider,  to  attend  to  some  one ,  something  ;  e.  g.  Co¬ 
mites,  omnia. 

Cogitare  aliquid,  to  think  of  something,  to  reflect  vpon  something  ; 
de  aliqua  re,  to  meditate  upon  something,  to  have  something  in  the  mind, 
especially  future  things  j  secum,  to  think  with  one's  self,  to  muse; 
in  locum,  to  design  to  travel  to  a  place ;  e.  g.  Cogito  Romam,  in 
Italiam. 

Cognoscere  aliquid,  to  make  one's  self  acquainted  with,  to  learn 
by  examination,  to  inquire  into,  investigate  something  ;  aliquid  ex  ali¬ 
quo,  to  learn  something  from  one  who  relates  it. 

Coire  in  aliquem  locum,  to  go  together  somewhere.  So  coitio. 

Collocare  aliquid  in  aliquo  loco,  to  place  something  in  something  ; 
e.  g.  In  navi,  in  foro,  Romae,  at  Rome;  hie  (not  hue),  here  ; 
beneficium  apud  aliquem,  to  show  a  kindness  to  one  ;  alicui  filiam,  to 
give  a ;  daughter  in  marriage  to  one. 

Communicare  aliquid  cum  aliquo,  to  communicate  something  to 
some  one ,  to  make  common  with  one  ;  inter  aliquos,  to  share  among 
some,  with  some. 

Conciliare  sibi  amorem,  benevolentiam  ab  aliquo  or  alie  u- 
j  u  s,  to  gain  the  love  of  one  ;  aliquem  alicui,  to  join  one  with  one  ; 
al  iquos  inter  se,  to  join  some  together  or  with  each  other. 

Concurrere  in  aliquem  locum,  to  run  together  into  some  place  ; 
ad  aliquem,  to  come  together  to  one.  So  concursus ,  as  hereafter  confluere . 

Conferre  aliquid  in  aliquem  (aliquid),  to  attribute  something  to 
some  one,  to  bestoiv,  to  give;  also  ad  aliquid,  to  bestow  upon  something ; 
e.  g.  Curam  ad  philosophiam  ;  inter  se,  impart  to  one  another  ;  cum 
aliqua  re,  to  compare  with  something ;  se  in  fugam,  to  betake  one's  self 
to  flight  ;  se  in  locum ,  to  goto  a  place  ;  se  ad  locum,  to  turn  one's  self  to 
something. 

Confluere  in  aliquem  locum,  to  flow  together  into  a  place  ;  hence, 
where ,  quo;  here,  hue;  there,  e  o. 

Conquiescere  in  aliqua  re,  to  find  one's  peace  and  satisfaction 
in  something. 

Conscendere  in  aliquid  or  aliquid,  to  mount  something ,  to  climb 
upon;  ab  aliquo  loco,  to  embark  at  some  place  ;  e.  g.  There,  inde,  ab  eo 
loco,  icher e,  unde ;  at  Ephesus,  ab  Epheso  or  Epheso. 

Constare  inter  omnes  or  omnibus,  to  be  known  to  all ;  sibi ,  to  be 
consistent  with  one's  self;  in  aliqua  re,  to  persevere  in  something,  tore - 
main  true  to,  to  rest  upon  something  ;  alicui  r  e  i,  or  cum  aliqua  re, 
to  agree  with  something  ;  ex  aliqua  re,  to  consist  of,  to  be  composed  of 
something. 

Consumere  aliquid  in  aliqua  re,  to  employ  something  upon  some¬ 
thing,  to  spend  in  something. 

Contendere  ab  aliquo,  to  ask  one  earnestly. 

Conterere  tempus  (etc.)  in  aliqua  re,  to  spend  time  upon  (with, 
on)  something. 

Convenire  aliquem,  to  visit  some  one ;  in  aliquem,  to  suit  or  be¬ 
long  to  one  ;  in  locum,  to  come  together  to  a  place  ;  e.  g.  In  forum,  to 
the  market;  hence,  where,  q  u  o,  not  ubi  ;  there ,  e  o,  not  ibi  ;  in  the 
same  place,  e  o  d  e  m,  not  ibidem  ;  hoc  conven’d  mihi,  this  is  suitable 


466 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SEVERAL  VERBS. 


[§  545. 

for  me ;  hoc  convenit  mihi  cum  aliquo,/  agree  with  some  one  in 
this  ;  hoc  convenit  inter  eos,  these  agree  in  this.  Also  the  substantive 
conventus  in  aliquem,  locum. 

Convertere  de  (ex)  aliqua  lingua,  to  translate  from  a  language  ; 
e.  g.  De  (ex)  Graecis,  from  the  Grech. 

Dare  poenas  alicui,  to  be  punished  by  some  one  ;  dare  poenas  ali- 
cujus  rei,  to  suffer  punishment  for  something.  Luere ,  pendere ,  depen¬ 
dere ,  expendere ,  solvere ,  persolvere ,  suscipere ,  sustinere ,  are  also  used 
for  dare. 

Defendere  aliquem  ab  aliquo,  to  defend  one  from  or  against  one. 
Contra,  is  seldom  used  for  ab.  So  tueri  ab  aliquo. 

Defigere  aliquid  (e.  g.  oculos)  in  aliqua  re,  to  direct ,  to  fasten 
something  upon  something. 

Desiderare  aliquid  ab  aliquo,  to  miss  something  in  some  one. 

Desilire  d  e  or  e  x  aliquo  loco,  to  leap  down  from  some  place. 

Desistere  de  or  ab  aliqua  re,  also  aliqua  re,  to  desist  from  some¬ 
thing. 

Detrahere  de  aliqua  re  aliquid,  or  alicui  aliquid,  to  draw  some¬ 
thing  from  something  ;  de  aliqua  re,  to  diminish  something ,  to  disparage. 

De  turbare  aliquem  ex  aliqua  re,  to  deprive  one  of  something. 

Devertere  ad  (in)  aliquem  locum,  to  put  up  somewhere  ;  e.  g. 
Ad  (in)  cauponam,  at  an  inn  ;  ad  aliquem  (not  apud  aliquem),  ivith 
some  one;  e.  g.  Ad  hospitem,  with  a  host.  Hence  eo  devertit,  he 
put  up  there  ;  quo  dev.,  where  he — .  Deversari  is  different  from  this, 
signifying  to  be  a  guest  somexohere ;  apud  aliquem,  in  alicujus  domo 
(domi  alicujus). 

Disputare  aliquid,  to  say  something ,  to  discuss ,  only  with  neu¬ 
ter  pronouns  and  adjectives;  e.  g.  Haec,  multa  —  disputo;  disputo 
de  aliqua  re,  to  speak  respecting  something ;  in  alicujus  sententiam,  to 
speak  in  defence  of  the  opinion  of  some  one  ;  in  nullam  partem,  for  no 
party;  in  contrarias  partes,  in  utramque  partem,  for  and  against. 

Dissentire  cum  and  ab  aliquo  (not  alicui),  to  be  of  a  different 
opinion  from  some  one ,  to  dissent  from  ;  inter  nos  dissentimus,  we  dif¬ 
fer  from  each  other  in  opinion. 

Dissidere  as  above  dissentire. 

Dubitare  de  aliqua  re,  to  be  in  doubt  about  something ;  but,  hoc, 
illud,  to  doubt  this ,  that. 

Ducere  aliquem  in  aliquibus  or  in  numero  aliquorum,  to  reckon 
one  among  certain  persons. 

Efficere  aliquid  in  aliquo  (not  in  aliquem),  to  do  somethingto, 
(against)  some  one.  Comp,  exercere. 

Erudire,  in  the  general  sense  of  to  instruct , —  with  the  ablative 
alone,  wherein ;  e.  g.  Artibus  et  disciplinis,  Graecis  Romanisque  lit¬ 
teris,  institutis  et  praeceptis.  But  when  it  is  merely  of  instruction  in  a 
single  art  or  science,  it  has  in  with  the  ablative  ;  e.  g.  In  jure  civili. 

Excidit  hoc  ex  ore,  this  falls  from,  escapes  the  mouth  ;  but,  hoc 
mihi  excidit,  this  escapes  me,  I  have  forgotten  this.  So,  hoc  excidit 
ex  animo,  the  mind  forgets  this,  this  is  forgotten. 

Exercere  aliquid,  to  practise  something ;  se  (or  exerceri)  in  ali¬ 
qua  re,  or  aliqua  re,  to  exercise  (employ)  one's  self  with  (in)  something. 
Hence,  exercere  crudelitatem,  iracundiam,  and  the  like,  in  aliquo,  to 
practise  cruelty  on  one.  Whether  Cicero  has  said,  in  aliquem  is  to 
be  doubted.  Comp,  efficere  and  expromere. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SEVERAL  VERBS. 


467 


§  545.] 

Exire  in  aliquem  locum,  to  go  out  somewhere ,  alight ,  land.  Comp. 
conscendere. 

Exordium  sumere  ab  aliqua  re,  to  begin  with  something . 

Exprimere  de  aliqua  lingua,  to  translate  from  a  language; 
e.  g.  de  Graecis,  from  the  Greek . 

Expromere  aliquid,  to  bring  forth  something,  to  show;  aliquid 
in  aliqua  re,  to  show  something  in  (to)  something.  Hence,  as  before, 
expr.  crudelitatem  in  aliquo,  to  show  cruelty  to  some  one.  Comp,  ex¬ 
ercere. 

Figere  aliquid  in  aliquam  rem  and  in  aliqua  re,  to  fasten,  to  hang 
something  upon  something .  So  also,  telum  figere  in  aliquo,  to  thrust 
a  dagger  into  some  one  ;  studium  figere  in  aliqua  re,  io  bestow  labor 
or  pains  on  something ,  and  so  only  in  an  intellectual  sense. 

Gigni  ex  aliquo  (aliqua),  to  be  begotten ,  to  be  born  of  any  one. 
Comp,  the  concluding  remark  at  the  end. 

Grat  u  1  a  r  i  alicui  aliquid  or  de  aliqua  re,  to  congratulate  one  on 
account  of  something. 

Impedire  aliquem  ab  aliqua  re,  or  alicujus  rem,  to  hinder  one  in 
something. 

Imprimere,  incidere,  inscribere,  insculpere  aliquid 
in  aliqua  re,  to  stamp ,  to  engrave  something  upon  something.  Seldom 
with  in  and  the  accusative. 

Incipere  ab  aliqua  re,  to  begin  with  something  ;  hinc,  inde,  with 
this  ;  unde,  with  which ,  where. 

Intercedit  aliquid  (e.  g.  amicitia)  mihi  tecum  or  inter  me  et  te, 
1  and  you.  have  something. 

Intercludere  aliquem  (ab)  aliqua  re,  and  alicui  aliquid,  to  shut 
one  up  from  something ,  to  deprive  one  of  something. 

Invadere  in  aliquem,  in  locum,  to  make  an  assault  upon  one, 
upon  a  place.  Cicero  uses  only  this  construction,  other  writers  omit 
in  ;  it  occurs  only  once  (Fam.  XVI.  12,  2)  with  the  dative,  after  the 
manner  of  the  poets. 

Invehi  in  aliquem,  to  inveigh  against ,  to  chide ,  to  accuse. 

Involvere  aliquid  aliqua  re,  to  wrap ,  to  envelope  something  in 
something  ;  e.  g.  Tenebris,  in  darkness;  nubibus,  in  clouds. 

Laborare  aliqua  re,  and  ex  aliqua  re,  to  suffer,  to  be  in  pain ,  to 
be  sick  in  something ,  when  a  single  diseased  part  is  mentioned  ;  e.  g. 
(ex)  capite,  pedibus,  renibus,  alvo.  Cicero  uses  ex,  Celsus  the  abla¬ 
tive  merely.  So  also  ex  invidia ,  ex  desiderio.  But  aliqua  re,  when 
only  the  disease  is  mentioned;  e  g.  Morbo,  febri.  Celsus:  ex  par¬ 
tu  lab.,  where  the  active  cause  is  named.  F urther,  de  aliquo,  alicujus 
causa,  to  be  afflicted,  to  be  troubled  on  account  of  something  ;  in  aliqua 
re,  to  employ  one's  self  with  something,  to  be  employed  with. 

Liceri  aliquid,  to  bid  for  (upon)  something. 

Locare  aliquid  in  aliquo  loco,  to  place  in  some  place,  to  place  upon 
something.  Comp,  above,  collocare. 

Ludere  aliqua  re,  and  aliquem  rem,  to  play  something  ;  e.  g.  Ball , 
dice,  pi  la  (pilam),  talis  (talos). 

Mereri  de  aliquo,  de  aliqua  re,  to  make  one's  self  deserving  from 
some  one  of  something,  to  merit  from.  So  also  the  participle  mer¬ 
itus.  But  meritum  in  or  erga  aliquem,  not  de  aliquo,  kindness  to 
some  one. 


468  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SEVERAL  VERBS.  [§  545. 

Nasci  ex  aliquo  (aliqua)  to  be  born  of  some  one.  Comp.  §212,  and 
the  concluding  remark. 

Numerare  in  bonis,  in  malis,  to  reckon  among  blessings ,  among 
evils.  So  also,  in  loco  beneficii,  as  a  favor. 

Occupatum  esse  in  aliqua  re,  to  be  employed,  with  (\n)  some¬ 
thing. 

Ordiri  to  begin.  Comp,  incipere. 

Oriri  as  Ordiri. 

Perferre  ad  aliquem  aliquid,  to  bring  something  to  one ,  to  deliver , 
to  announce. 

Pertinere  ad  aliquem,  to  reach ,  to  extend  to  some  one ,  to  relate  to, 
to  concern  some  one,  to  have  influence  upon  some  one.  With  an  a  blative 
as  e  o,  quo,  to  tend,  to  serve,  to  have  for  its  object. 

Placare  aliquem  alicui,  to  reconcile  one  with.  one. 

Ponere  aliquid  in  aliqua  re,  to  put  something  upon  (in)  someth  ng, 
to  bestow  something  upon  something  ;  aliquid  loco  alicujus,  to  consider 
something  as  (in  the  place  of,  for)  something  ;  e.  g.  Loco  beneficii. 
Farther,  ponere  aliquid  in  laude,  and  the  like,  to  consider  something  as 
praise ;  aliquid  in  malis  ponere,  to  reckon  something  among  evils. 
Comp,  collocare. 

Praestare  aliquid  or  aliquem,  to  stand  for  something ,  to  be  good 
for  one,  to  be  surety  for  ;  e.  g.  Fratrem  meurn  praesto,  I  am  good  for 
my  brother,  l  am  surety  for  him  ;  se  aliquem,  to  show  ones  self  as  —  ; 
e.  g.  Bonum,  fortem  civem. 

Procreari  ex  aliquo  (aliqua),  as  gigni  above. 

Provocare  aliquem,  to  challenge,  to  summon  some  one  ;  ad  ali¬ 
quem,  to  appeal  to  some  one.  Comp,  appellare. 

P  u  r  g  a  r  e  aliquem  de  aliqua  re, to  excuse  one  on  account  of  something; 
alicui,  to  some  one ;  e,  g.  Te  mihi  de  Sempronio  purgas,  you  excuse 
yourself  to  me  on  account  of  S. 

Recidere  ad  aliquem,  to  come  back  upon  one,  to  recoil,  to  relapse  ; 
in  aliquem,  to  fall  upon  one. 

Recipere  in  aliquem  locum,  to  receive,  to  harbor  in  a  place  ;  e.  g. 
In  castra,  in  civitatem  ;  with  domus,  merely  domum  ;  also  aliquo  lo¬ 
co  without  in  ;  e.  g.  Urbibus,  tectis,  sedibus. 

Referre  aliquem  in  aliquos  or  i  n  numerum  aliquorum,  to  rer/c- 
on,  to  number  one  among  some  ;  aliquid  (animum,  oculos)  ad  aliquid,  to 
direct,  something  to  something,  to  throw  to,  to  refer  to  ;  ad  aliquem  de  ali¬ 
qua  re,  or  aliquid,  to  ask  some  one  respecting  something,  to  propose 
something  to  some  one  for  his  consideration  ;  ex  and  ab  aliquo  victoriam, 
to  obtain  a,  victory  over  some  one. 

Reponere  as  ponere;  repon.  aliquem  in  aliquos,  or  in  nume¬ 
rum  aliquorum,  to  reckon  one  among  some,  to  rank  among. 

Reportare  ab  or  ex  aliquo  victoriam,  to  obtain  a  victory  over 
some  one. 

Respicere  ad  aliquid  (aliquem),  to  look  back  to  something  (some 
one)  ;  aliquem  (aliquid),  to  have  a  regard  for  one  ( something ),  to  con¬ 
sider. 

Sumere  supplicium  de  aliquo,  to  inflict  punishment  upon  one. 

Supersedere  aliqua  re,  to  lie  releasedfrom,  to  be  spared  something. 

Triumphare  de  or  ex  aliquo,  to  triumph  over  one.  So,  victo- 

iam  ferre  ex  aliquo. 

Tueri  and  tutari  aliquem  ab  aliquo,  to  defend  one  against  one. 


§§546,547.]  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS.  469 

Valere  in  aliquem  (aliquid),  to  have  reference  to  somethin g,  to 
concern  some,  one  ( something ),  to  relate  to  one  ( something )  ;  e.  g.  llaec 
res  in  omnes  homines  valet. 

Versar  i  in  aliqua  re,  to  be  employed  with  something;. 

V  indicare  aliquid,  to  appropriate  something  to  one's  self  to  claim? 
with  and  without  sibi,  or  more  seldom  ail  se.  ;  ab  aliqua  re,  to  free  from 
something  ;  in  aliquem,  to  punish  some  one. 

Remark.  The  verbs  nasci ,  gigni  and  the  like,  are  usually  followed 
by  cr,  or  more  seldom  by  «,  often  by  the  ablative  merely.  In  the  sense 
of  to  he  descended  from ,  especially  as  participles,  they  generally  take 
merely  the  ablative;  e.  g.  Tantalo  prognatus,  Pelope  natus, 
summo  loco  natus,  parentibus  nati  sunt  humilibus. 

DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS. 

546.  There  are  very  many  words  in  Latin,  which  we,  by 
using  the  same  words  to  translate  them,  consider  synonymous, 
and  hence,  in  writing,  often  confound  them  with  each  other. 
Such  words  belong  to  all  the  different  parts  of  speech,  viz. 
Substantives  ;  e.  g.  Mos,  consuetudo,  ritus,  custom ,  usage  ; 
scelus,  maleficium,  flagitium,  facinus,  base  or  wicked  deed; 
Adjectives;  e.  g.  Ingens,  magnus,  great ;  Pronouns,  hic,  iste, 
ille,  is,  he,  this;  Verbs,  amare,  diligere,  to  love ;  putare,  cre¬ 
dere,  censere,  opinari,  etc.,  to  think ;  consequi,  assequi,  adi¬ 
pisci,  nancisci,  impetrare,  etc.,  to  obtain  ;  Adverbs,  certe,  cer¬ 
to,  certainly ;  fere,  paene,  almost;  Conjunctions,  quia,  quo¬ 
niam,  quod,  because  ;  itaque,  igitur,  ergo,  therefore.  And  so 
there  are  many  English  words,  which  may  be  expressed  by 
several  Latin  words,  which  yet  differ  more  or  less  from  each 
other.  Such  words  are  called  synonymes.  Good  Latin 
composition  depends  upon  the  right  use  of  these, — as  in  every 
language,  the  confounding  of  synonymous  words  is  to  be 
avoided. 

Only  some  few  which  occur  most  frequently,  will  be  men¬ 
tioned  here,  and  the  distinction  between  them  pointed  out. 

547.  ( 1 )  More  is  expressed  by  magis  and  plus.  3fagis  is 
used  when  the  comparative  meaning  of  the  word  very  (valde, 
magnopere)  is  expressed,  and  the  quality,  how ,  how  greatly , 
in  its  higher  decree,  is  denoted  ;  therefore  it  signifies,  in  a 
higher ,  stronger  degree.  Hence,  so  often,  eo  magis,  quo 

40 


470 


DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS. 


[§  548. 


magis,  etiam  m  agis,  the  more,  still  more.  It  is  similar  to 
potius  (rather),  except  that  potius  excludes  the  one  entirely, 
while  magis  prefers  the  one  without  depreciating  the  other. 

Examples. 

I  attend  in  part  to  the  present,  but  still  more  to  the  future.  Those 
who  fear,  must  be  blamed  the  more.  I  rejoice  far  more  at  my  act, 
than  at  thine.  We  hastened  so  much,  that  there  could  not  be  more 
haste.  When  I  read  thy  last  letter,  1  approved  thy  resolution  still 
more.  This  excites  my  laughter  more  than  my  displeasure.  —  The 
positive  adverb  is  here  valde ,  magnopere ,  the  superlative  maxime. 

Plus  signifies  more  in  relation  to  the  question,  how  much  ? 
when  more  is  the  Nom.  or  Acc.  or  adverb  of  the  comparative 
of  much.  Hence  it  denotes  greatness,  multitude,  superiority , 
consequently  in  a  greater  number  or  quantity.  Amplius  is 
similar  to  it,  which  sometimes  signifies  still  further,  and 
sometimes,  likep/tts,  is  used  to  denote  number. 

Examples. 

50  much  and  yet  more  is  he  indebted  to  me.  They  gave  him  more 
than  they  wished.  These  prevail  more  by  wealth,  power  and  weapons. 
At  that  time  Bibulus  did  not  oftener  depart  from  the  gate,  than  wThen 
at  Rome  from  his  house.  He  is  owino-  more  than  a  thousand  dollars. 

_  co 

The  positive  adverb  is  here  multum,  the  superlative  plurimum. 

Sometimes  we  find  both  in  single  phrases.  Thus  it  is  said  :  m  ag  i  s 
te  amo,  magis  te  diligo  ;  but  also,  plus  te  amo,  plus  te  diligo; 
just  as  it  is  said  :  valde  te  amo,  valde  te  diligo,  and  rnultum 
te  amo,  multum  te  dilio-o. 

548.  (2)  If  not,  unless,  si  non  and  nisi. 

51  non  is  used,  when  the  emphasis  lies  upon  not  (non),  so 
that  either  the  whole  sentence  or  a  single  word  in  contrast 
with  another  sentence  or  word,  is  to  be  negatived.  Hence  it 
is  used:  (1)  after  another  preceding  affirmative  condition, 
which  yet  is  sometimes  wanting,  and  must  then  be  supplied 
in  thought ;  (2)  where  it  is  the  same  as  perhaps,  and  conse¬ 
quently  one  assertion  outweighs  the  other ;  (3)  where  such  a 
limitation  as  but  yet  occurs,  and  if  not  contains  the  idea  of  yet, 
at  least ;  here  si  minus  also  is  used  ;  and  (4)  when  two  words 
are  contrasted  with  each  other.  Such  an  antithetic  sentence 
must  sometimes  be  understood,  when  it  is  omitted.  So,  also, 


§519.]  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS.  471 

after  mirari;  e.  g.  Do  not  wonder ,  if  it  is  not  fit,  si  non 
convenit.  In  the  second  clause,  without  a  verb,  if  (but)  not 
is  expressed  by  si  or  sin  minus ,  sin  aliter ,  si  contra,  but  not 
by  si  non. 

Examples. 

If  any  one  breathes,  he  lives;  if  he  does  not  breathe,  he  is  dead. 
If  this  was  not  lawful,  a  mistake  has  been  committed.  This  is  a  great 
orator,  perhaps  (if  not)  the  greatest.  Take  all  your  forces  with  you, 
but  if  not,  yet  (at  least)  as  many  as  possible.  If  we  are  not  enticed 
by  virtue  itself,  but  by  some  advantage,  then — .  If  we  cannot  equal 
a  great  orator,  we  can  at  least  imitate  him. 

Nisi  is  used,  when  the  emphasis  does  not  fall  upon  not  (non), 
but  upon  si.  Hence  it  is  used  in  all  negative  conditional  clauses 
considered  merely  as  possible.  In  supplementary  subordinate 
remarks,  unless  perhaps  is  always  expressed  by  nisi  or  nisi 
forte.  , 

Examples. 

These  men  would  not  have  been  chosen,  if  they  had  not  then  been 
the  first.  Marcellus  would  assist  in  this  conversation,  if  he  were  not 
absent.  All  this  has  no  power,  unless  bravery  is  provoked  by  anger. 
The  memory  is  impaired,  if  it  is  not  used.  Unless  I  am  wholly  de¬ 
ceived,  Pompey  is  abandoned  by  all. 

Remark.  When,  however,  in  such  sentences,  the  speaker  gives  the 
emphasis  to  tire  not ,  then  si  non  can  also  stand  for  nisi. 

549.  (3)  The  rest  is  expressed  by  ceteri  and  reliqui.  The 
first  occurs  very  rarely  in  the  singular  ;  indeed,  the  mascu¬ 
line  ceterus  never  occurs  in  the  nominative,  although  often  in 
other  cases,  cetera,  and  ceterum  only  occasionally,  the  feminine 
frequently,  especially  in  Livy.  On  the  contrary,  Cicero  always 
uses  reliquus ,  a ,  ton,  instead  of  it.  He  connects  reliquus  with 
singular  substantives,  and  then  it  signifies  remaining ,  what  re¬ 
mains ,  is  left,  and  signifies  the  rest,  only  in  the  neuter  gender ; 
e.  g.  Reliqua  conjuratorum  manus;  reliqua  supellex, 
reliqua  vita  agitur  sub  terra ;  animus  si  est  corpus,  interi¬ 
bit  cum  reliquo  corpore;  rei  i  qu  u  m  (venenum)  ejecit 
e  poculo.  With  respect  to  time,  it  means  future,  omne  reli- 
quum  tempus. 

The  plurals  reliqui  and  ceteri,  resemble  each  other  so  nearly 


472  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS.  [§550. 

in  signification,  that  one  can  often  be  put  for  the  other,  at  least 
ceteri  for  reliqui. 

Yet  reliqui  is  generally  used,  when  it  signifies  those  still  re¬ 
maining  ;  ceteri  signifies,  the  others,  others  of  the  kind.  When 
a  numeral  stands  in  connection,  or  has  preceded,  reliqui  is  used, 
and  denotes  the  part  still  wanting ;  and  thus  reliqui  denotes 
the  remaining  parts  of  a  whole  specified  in  part  ;  e.  g.  Q-  u  a- 
tuor  corpora  —  terrena  et  hurnida  —  reliquae  duae  par¬ 
tes.  Prima  illa  res  ad  meurn  officium  pertinet,  duas  autem 
reliquas  vobis  pop.  Romanus  imposuit. 

Examples  of  r  e  1  i  q  u  i. 

He  alone  possessed  all  virtues  in  a  higher  degree,  than  all  other 
commanders  have  possessed  them.  1  will  inform  the  senate  respect¬ 
ing  the  arrangement  of  the  other  affairs.  The  minds  of  the  rest  can 
be  instructed.  Three  estates  were  delivered  up  to  Capito;  all  the 
rest  of  the  goods,  this  Roscius  took  possession  of.  He  gave  away  not 
a  little,  the  rest  he  sold.  Whoever  has  easily  comprehended  a  little, 
will  as  easily  comprehend  the  rest.  I  follow  Plato  and  the  rest  of  the 
Socratics.  Grief  and  the  other  maladies  of  the  soul  have  a  remedy. 
They  have  only  labored  on  the  head,  the  rest  of  the  body  they  have 
left  incomplete. 


Examples  of  ceteri. 

As  others  are  wont  to  be  named  from  their  fathers,  so  he  must  be 
named  from  his  son.  What  have  those  boasters  better,  with  which  to 
meet  these  two  great  evils ?  or  do  Epicurus  and  the  other  (reliqui) 
philosophers  seem  inadequately  furnished  against  other  supposed 
evils?  To  the  other  great  advantages,  this  also  is  added.  Pompey 
the  Great  has  waged  more  wars  than  others  have  read  of.  Why  do 
we  not  intrust  this  war  also  to  the  same,  to  whom  the  other  wars 
have  been  intrusted  ?  Take  care  for  your  life,  ye  judges,  and  for  that 
of  the  other  citizens.  I  do  not  buy  my  grain  dearer  than  others. 

550.  (4)  Especially  is  expressed  by  in  primis,  praecipue , 
potissimum,  maxime,  plurimum  and  praesertim . 

Only  the  last  differs  so  perceptibly  from  the  rest,  that  none 
of  them  can  supply  its  place ;  the  others  differ  but  little,  and 
of  these  maxime  is  most  used. 

(«)  In  primis  (imprimis),  signifying  properly  among 
thefrst,  strengthens,  in  the  highest  degree,  an  adjective  or  a 
verb,  and  so  qualifies  an  object,  that  it  is  ranked  among  the 
first,  especially  with  reference  to  single  things. 


§  550.] 


DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS. 


473 


Examples . 

Polybius  especially  is  sufficient  authority.  Philodamus  was  espe¬ 
cially  rich  (the  richest)  among  his  fellow-citizens.  The  writings  of 
these  men  are  especially  distinguished  (the  most  distinguished)  in  the 
Asiatic  style.  It  is  that,  of  which  we  especially  treat.  We  love  him 
especially,  and  hold  him  dear.  M.  Brutus  was  especially  (very  inti¬ 
mately)  acquainted  with  the  civil  law.  He  is  distinguished  in  all 
the  liberal  arts,  especially  in  poetry. 

(|3)  Praecipue  also  strengthens,  for  the  most  part,  verbs 
and  adjectives,  distinguishes  single  persons  or  things  above 
others,  and  attributes  something  to  them  preeminently  or  as 
peculiar. 

Examples. 

Precision  must  be  peculiarly  honored  by  us.  The  inhabitants  of 
Vicetia  especially  esteem  M.  Brutus.  You  have  nothing  special  to 
fear.  Pompey  arrogated  nothing  especially  to  himself.  1  have  been 
especially  employed  in  defending  him.  White  is  a  color  especially 
proper  for  the  deity.  I  ask  you  especially  for  this  one  thing.  Who 
will  say,  that  nothing  has  been  specially  given  to  man  by  nature  ?  I 
do  not  now  speak  particularly  of  the  consular  men.  Eloquence  has 
always  preeminently  flourished  among  every  free  people,  and  espe¬ 
cially  (maxime)  in  peaceful  states. 

(y)  Potissimum  as  superlative  of  potius,  rather ,  con¬ 
tains  the  idea  of  above  all ,  and  is  chiefly  used,  where  a  choice 
among  many  is  spoken  of. 

Examples. 

The  Roman  people  chose  you  in  preference  to  all  others  among  the 
consular  men.  I  was  reflecting  upon  what  I  should  especially  write 
to  you.  The  soothsayers  are  wont  to  speak  especially  of  this  holy 
place.  One  of  this  family  appeared,  especially  that  blind  one.  Against 
you  especially  has  he  directed  his  already  enfeebled  power. 

(5)  Maxime  and  plurimum;  the  former,  as  the  su¬ 
perlative  of  magis ,  contains  the  idea  of  magis  quam ,  pluri¬ 
mum. ,  as  superlative  of  plus,  the  idea  of  plus  quam.  Hence, 
wherever  magis  is  appropriately  used  in  the  comparative, 
there  maxime  is  used  ;  and  wherever  plus  is  appropriate, 
there  plurimum  is  used.  The  former  occurs  more  frequent¬ 
ly,  and  is  strengthened  by  quam  or  vel. 

40* 


474 


DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS 


L§  550. 


Examples. 

He  adopts  the  custom  of  the  philosophers,  especially  of  those,  who 
are  wont  to  speak  on  every  subject,  for  and  against.  In  the  greatest 
pain,  hope  especially  consoles  me.  I  have  especially  used  thy  advice. 
Let  him  learn  history,  especially  that  of  our  state.  1  write  this  to 
you  on  this  account  especially,  that  — .  1  had  indeed  heard  this  from 
others,  but  1  learned  it  especially  from  my  brother. 


(s)  Praesertim  is  used  only  with  emphatic  accessory 
clauses,  which  are  designed  to  make  the  rest  of  the  assertion 
more  prominent,  and  stands  sometimes  in  connection  with 
qnum,  quod ,  si,  sometimes  with  a  participle  or  abridged  sen¬ 
tence,  provided  that  one  of  those  conjunctions  is  understood. 

Praecipue  and  imprimis  never  stand  before  si,  when  it 
renders  the  condition  emphatic. 

Examples. 

An  orator,  especially  in  our  state,  must  have  at  his  command  every 
elegance  of  speeeh.  You  must  use  every  effort,  especially  when 
these  hear.  This  reputation  of  wisdom  does  not  please  me,  espe¬ 
cially  since  it  is  unfounded.  You  are  in  fault,  especially  because  you 
think  it  was  done  by  me. 

(£)  Omnis,  totus,  cunctus,  universus.  Omnis= 
nag,  may  be  said  in  general  of  all  the  individuals,  of  all  the 
species  of  a  genus,  and  of  all  the  parts  of  a  thing,  whether 
these  objects  be  considered  as  united  or  dispersed  ;  e.  g.  O  m- 
nis  exercitus,  omnes  milites,  omnis  clamor,  omnes 
homines.  Tutus  =  oXog ,  only  signifies  a  whole,  in  reference 
to  all  its  parts ;  e.  g.  T  o  t  a  e  aedes,  totus  exercitus.  We 
do  not  say  omnis  orbis,  but  totus  orbis.  Cunctus  —  dnag  in¬ 
cludes  the  assemblage  of  all  the  individuals,  or  of  all  the  spe¬ 
cies,  considered  as  united  together;  e.  g.  Cuncta  gens, 
cuncta  civitas.  Cuncti  simul  ore  fremebant  Dardanidae 

• 

Had  Virgil  intended  to  say  that  all  the  Trojans  that  were  in 
the  world  had  such  or  such  a  sentiment,  he  should  have  said 
omnes,  and  not  cuncti.  Universus  =  ovpjtag  rises  above  the 
idea  of  cunctus ;  it  not  only  signifies  all  the  objects  united, 


§  550.] 


DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS. 


475 


but  also  all  without  exception,  all  at  once  and  together. 
Cuncti  clamare  coeperunt  signifies  that  all  those  who  com¬ 
posed,  for  example,  an  assembly  of  the  people,  cried  out. 
Universi  clamare  coeperunt  adds  to  the  above  idea ;  that  all, 
without  any  exception,  cried  out  at  once,  as  it  were  but  one 
cry.  Phoedrus,  in  the  tale  of  Princeps  Tybicen,  says,  Ut 
vero  cuneis  res  patuit  omnibus,  as  soon  as  it  was  known  in  all 
parts  of  the  amphitheatre ,  either  to  all  at  once ,  or  to  one  after 
the  other ;  Princeps  ab  universis  capite  est  protrusus  foras,  all 
at  once  cried  out  that  he  should  be  driven  out  of  the  place . 
Omnis  is  opposed  to  nullus,  or  to  pauci ;  totus  to  pars ;  cunc¬ 
ti  to  sejuncti  ;  universi  to  singuli.  In  many  instances  these 
four  words  may  be  used  the  one  instead  of  the  other,  when 
we  wish  to  express  the  whole  of  a  thing  in  reference  to  its 
different  parts.  It  is  true  totus  cannot  have  the  extensive 
signification  of  omnis  ;  but  omnis  includes  that  of  totus.  In 
not  considering  the  union  or  dispersion  of  the  parts,  we  may 
say  with  propriety,  obviam  se  effudit  omnis  civitas,  in  the 
sense  of  Horace  :  dicemus,  io,  triumphe,  civitas  omnis.  To¬ 
ta  civitas,  cuncta  civitas,  universa  civitas  se  obviam  Caesari 
effudit.  Poets  sometimes  use  these  words  indiscriminate¬ 
ly. — D umes nil' s  Latin  Synonyms. 

(//)  Atque,  ac,  et,  q  u  e.  Atque  and  ac  do  not  differ 
in  signification.  Therefore,  if  they  connect  single  words,  the 
ideas  which  they  express  must  be  of  the  same  kind.  And,  in 
the  first  place,  these  ideas  are  such,  that  the  second  enhances 
or  augments  the  first.  Interim  omnes  servi  (not  only)  atque 
(but  also)  liberi.  Nep.  Them.  6.  Therefore  atque  etiam,  at¬ 
que  adeo.  Liv.  XLIV,  22.  In  omnibus  circulis  atque  etiam, 
si  diis  placet,  in  convivis  sunt,  qui  exercitum  in  Macedoniam 
ducant.  Cic.  Rose.  Amer.  35.  Ea,  si  prodierit,  atque  adeo 
quum  prodierit,  scio  enim  proditurum  esse  audiet. 

In  the  second  place,  these  ideas  can  be  such,  that  the  last 
is  a  more  definite  and  exact  explanation  of  the  first;  yet  al¬ 
ways  such  an  explanation,  that  the  addition  appears  as  an  ex- 


476  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS.  [§  550. 

pansion  of  what  precedes.  Vestros  portus  atque  ( and  more¬ 
over,  and  indeed,  and  also )  eos  portus,  quibus  vitam  et  spiri¬ 
tum  ducitis,  in  praedonum  fuisse  potestate  scitis.  Cic.  Manii. 
12.  Semper  se  interposuit,  atque  ita,  uti  usuram  ab  iis  nun¬ 
quam  acceperit.  Nep.  Att.  2.  But  these  particles  connect 
whole  sentences  also,  when  the  latter  sentence  augments, 
more  fully  explains  and  continues  what  precedes  =  and,  and 
then,  and  therefore,  and  yet.  Atque  ut  omnes  intelligant, 
me  Lucullo  tantum  laudis  impertire,  quantum  ei  debeatur,  di¬ 
co,  etc.  Cic.  Manii.  8.  His  rebus  in  causa  judicioque  pa¬ 
tefactis,  quis  est,  qui  illum  absolvi  potuisse  arbitraretur? 
Atque  haec  parva  sunt :  cognoscite  majora.  Id.  Cluent.  8. 
Ingeram  mala  multa :  atque,  aliquis  dicat,  nil  promoveris. 
Ter.  Andr.  IV,  I,  16. 

Et *  connects  things  which  are  different  from  one  another, 
and  which  do  not  belong  together  by  nature  or  by  any  inter¬ 
nal  connection,  but  are  both  of  the  like  substances,  which 
are  connected  only  for  some  present  purpose.  Hence  it  is 
used  in  inscriptions  :  Cervus  et  Leo.  Que  connects  things, 
which  seem,  in  some  way,  to  be  united  by  a  natural  and  in¬ 
ternal  connection  or  by  a  connection  arising  from  some  rela¬ 
tion.  But  here  the  things  connected  are  not  of  the  same 
substance ;  what  follows  is  only  an  accident,  naturally  as  it 
were,  depending  on  what  precedes.  Hence  que  generally  has 
the  force  of,  and  accordingly ,  and  therefore ,  and  also.  Da¬ 
rius  classem  quingentarum  navium  comparavit,  eique  Datim 
praefecit  et  Artaphernem.  Nep.  Milt.  4.  Et,  because  Data¬ 
mes  and  Artaphernes  are  different  and  are  connected  only 
for  the  present ;  eique,  because  comparare  classem  and  prae¬ 
ficere  classi  naturally  belong  together.  Therefore  so  often 

*  E  t  may  also  be  said  to  connect  words  or  sentences  equally  im¬ 
portant ;  e.  g.  Socrates  e  t  Plato  sapientissimi  fuerunt;  que  annex¬ 
es  something  to' what  precedes  ;  e.  g.  Senatus  populus  que  Roma¬ 
nus  decrevit.  Here  the  Senate  and  people  are  not  considered  of  equal 
authority  or  importance,  since  they  do  not  constitute  an  organized 
body ;  only  the  Senate  decrees ,  and  the  people  approve. 


§  550.]  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS.  477 

conjuges  Uberique;  and,  therefore,  generally  (quique,  not  et 
qui,  because  the  addition  is  considered  as  naturally  connected 
with  what  precedes.  Se  suaque  alienis  crediderunt.  Caes. 
B.  G.  VI,  31.  Mulieres  quique  per  aetatem  ad  pugnam  inu¬ 
tiles  erant.  Ibid.  II,  10. — Schmalfeld’ s  Latin  Synonyms . 

(9)  Q  u  i  s  ?  (masc.  and  fem.)  quid?  as  a  substantive,  who  ? 
what?  Qui,  quae,  quod,  as  an  adjective,  which? — Quis, 
quid  asks  for  the  object  itself,  without  reference  to  any  qual¬ 
ity  which  belongs  to  it.  When  quis  is  joined  with  a  substan¬ 
tive,  the  latter  is  to  be  considered  as  in  apposition  with  the 
former.  Then  only  the  object  itself  (person  or  thing)  is  in¬ 
quired  for,  and  the  quality  of  the  object  is  known  to  the  speak¬ 
er  ;  e.  g.  Q.  u  i  s  philosophus  praeclaram  illam  senten¬ 
tiam  pronuntiavit  ?  Here  the  speaker  wishes  to  know  mere¬ 
ly  the  name  of  the  philosopher.  But  when  it  is  said :  Qui 
philosophus  —  pronuntiavit?  the  speaker  at  the  same  time 
wishes  to  know  what  kind  of  a  philosopher  he  is  who  has  ex¬ 
pressed  the  noble  sentiment,  e.  g.  of  what  school.  More¬ 
over,  the  adjective  qui  is  used  substantively,  when  the 
quality  of  the  object  is  inquired  for,  but  the  object  itself 
is  supposed  to  be  already  known  ;  e.  g.  Themistocles  domino 
navis,  qui  sit,  aperuit,  Them,  informed  the  master  of  the 
ship,  who  he  was  ;  he  did  not  tell  him  his  name  merely,  but  also 
how  great  a  man  he  was. — Kithner.  See  also,  §§102,  333  (6). 

(t)  A  u  t,  vel,  v  e,  s  i  v  e.  Aut  is  used  when  things  or  ideas 
are  disjoined,  one  of  which  necessarily  excludes  the  other. 
T  his  exclusion  is  either  actual ,  so  that  the  words  or  mem¬ 
bers  contradict  each  other,  and  cannot  be  conceived  at  the 
same  time;  e.  g.  Quicquid  enunciatur,  aut  verum  est, 
aut  falsum.  Omne  corpus  aut  aqua,  aut  aer,  aut  ig¬ 
nis,  aut  terra  est,  a  u  t  id  quod  est  concretum  ex  his,  aut 
ex  aliqua  parte  eorum;  or  it  is  represented  as  necessary, 
for  the  purpose  of  emphatic  distinction;  e.  g.  Cicero  says: 
j Beauty  of  expression,  which  is  consistent  with  the  use  of 
common  words,  depends  upon  this,  that  such  words,  aut  op- 


478  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS.  [§  550. 

time  sonant,  aut  rem  maxime  explanant.  He  puts  two  cases 
here,  as  excluding  one  another,  although  it  is  conceivable, 
that  both  should  be  true  of  one  and  the  same  word.  So 
again  he  says  :  The  reasons  for  leaving  office  are  various ,  narn 
aut  inimicitias,  aut  laborem,  aut  sumptus  suscipere  no¬ 
lunt,  aut,  etc.  Aut  often  introduces  ideas  of  less  or  greater 
extent,  that  exclude  the  foregoing, — where  we  can  translate 
or  at  least ,  or  much  more  :  e.  g.  Eripe  rnihi  hunc  dolorem,  aut 
minue  saltern.  Non  multum  aut  nihil  omnino  Graecis  ce¬ 
ditur. 

Vel  represents  the  exclusion  as  arbitrary  or  assumed,  not 
Wkeaut,  as  actual  and  essential.  It  is  derived  from  vclle,  and 
therefore  contains  the  idea  of  choice,  as  one  chooses,  and  de¬ 
notes  a  separation  depending  upon  the  will  or  view  of  the  - 
speaker  ;  e.  g.  Sero  a  Romanis  poetae  v  el  cogniti,  vel  re¬ 
cepti  sunt.  It  is  conceivable  that  both  have  taken  place;  this 
would  be  positively  asserted,  if  et — et  were  used;  with  aut  only 
one  of  the  two  must  have  happened. — With  vcl  something 
else  besides  what  is  named,  is  admissible,  while  with  aut  ev¬ 
erything  else  not  named  is  excluded.  E.  g.  Hanc  tu  mihi  v  el 
vi,  vel  clam,  vel  precario  fac  tradas,  either  by  violence, 
or  craft,  or  entreaty,  in  any  way  you  can,  without  excluding 
a  fourth  ;  aut  would  mean,  in  no  other  way  than  one  of  the 
three  named.  Hence,  expressions  or  ideas,  which  are  related 
or  synonymous,  are  disjoined  by  vel,  fo  indicate  that  either 
may  be  taken ;  e.  g.  Mens  mundi  vel  prudentia  vel  provi¬ 
dentia  appellari  recte  potest.  If  the  first  vel  is  omitted,  the 
separation  is  not  so  emphatic.  Vel  then  expresses  a  correc¬ 
tion  or  amendment  of  what  precedes,  in  the  sense  of  or  better, 
or  rather,  and  therefore  is  often  joined  with  dicam,  potius,  eti¬ 
am;  e.  g.  Homo  minime  malus,  vel  potius  optimus.  Lau¬ 
danda  est,  vel  etiam  amanda.  Sed  stuporem  hominis, 
vel  dicam  pecudis.  A  virtute  profectum,  v  e  1  in  ipsa  virtute 
positum,  But  if  the  second  clause  is  used  merely  to  explain 


§550.]  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS.  479 

the  first,  so  that  it  could  stand  in  its  place,  aut  is  employed. 
E.  g.  Experti,  quid  efficere,  aut  quo  progredi  possent. 

Ve  doubled  is  used  only  by  the  poets.  Singly  it  expresses 
the  same  kind  of  separation  as  vel ,  though  as  an  enclitic  with 
less  emphasis ;  but  it  disjoins  only  words,  and  is  almost  ex¬ 
clusively  used  in  such  sentences  as  begin  with  a  conjunction, 
the  relative  pronoun  or  an  interrogative,  or  serves  to  indicate 
a  closer  connection  between  two  members  of  a  sentence, 
which  are  in  common  contrasted  with  a  third.  With  nume¬ 
rals  it  means  or  at  most.  E.  g.  Si  florem,  acerbamve  pi  ram, 
aliudwe  decerpseris.  Esse  ea  dico,  quae  cerni  tangite  possunt. 
Quid  est  aliud  mali  damni?;*?  1  Qui  consules  praetoresre  aut 
legati  gesserunt,  where  consuls  and  praetors  are  jointly  con¬ 
trasted  with  lieutenants.  Ter  quaterre,  three  or  at  most  four. 

She — sive  is  used,  when  the  speaker  wishes  to  indicate, 
that  he  is  uncertain  which  of  two  statements  is  true  =  wheth¬ 
er  this  or  that,  I  cannot  or  will  not  decide.  It  may  often  be 
resolved  into  vel  si,  and  therefore  differs  from  vel ,  in  that  it 
can  form  a  subordinate  sentence  with  the  mere  verb,  but 
this  may  be  so  blended  with  the  main  sentence,  as  not  to  be 
recognized  as  a  separate  clause.  Sive  used  alone,  com¬ 
monly  refers  to  a  preceding  si,  and  then  means  or  if;  in  the 
sense  of  or  perhaps,  or  better,  to  amend  what  precedes  or 
connect  synonymous  expressions,  sive  is  indeed  used  by 
later  Latin  writers,  but  Cicero  almost  exclusively  employs 
vel.  E.  g.  Consul,  sive  praesentiam  ejus  timens,  sive  ira 
commotus, orationem  habuit.  Leges,  quas  sive  Minos  sive 
Jupiter  sanxit.  — 

Remark. 

Caes.  B.  G.  12.  says :  Sive  casu,  sive  consilio  deorum, 
ea  civitas  poenas  persolvit.  Here  he  indicates  that  he  does  not 
know  which  of  the  two  is  true.  If  ant — aut  were  used,  the 
meaning  would  be,  that  Caesar  judged  that  the  punishment 
must  necessarily  proceed,  either  from  accident  or  from  the 
divine  decree.  Vel — vel  would  leave  to  the  reader,  which 


DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS. 


480 


[§  550. 


he  chooses  to  believe,  and  would  merely  give  the  conditions, 
under  which  the  punishment  might  be.  possible. 

(x)  Sed,  at,  autem,  verum,  vero.  Scd  is  derived 
from  the  particle  se,  which  denotes  separation.  It  therefore 
properly  serves  to  separate  or  set  apart  what  is  different. 
Hence  it  stands  in  such  sentences  as  denote  a  restriction ,  cor¬ 
rection  ox  more  exact  definition  of  what  precedes ;  e.  g.  Ty¬ 
rannus  fuit  appellatus,  s  e  d  justus.  Here  sed  corrects  the  idea, 
that  would  naturally  arise  from  the  word  tyrannus,  and  de¬ 
fines  the  man’s  character  more  precisely.  Magnus  homo, 
sed  varius  in  omni  genere  vitae  fuit.  Here  it  restricts  the 
first  assertion.  This  sense  it  preserves  also  after  quidem  (it  is 
true,  indeed),  after  negations,  and  after  non  modo,  etc.;  e.  g. 
Plura  quidem  exempla  proferre  possemus,  sed  modus  adhi¬ 
bendus  est.  Quidem  concedes,  while  scd  restricts.  Otii 
fructus  est  non  contentio  animi,  sed  relaxatio.  Here  scd  cor¬ 
rects  by  distinguishing  and  separating  rel.  from  cant.  Hence 
it  happens,  that  sed  is  so  often  used,  to  indicate,  that  one  does 
not  wish  to  pursue  a  subject  farther,  either  for  the  purpose  of 
returning  from  a  digression  and  resuming  a  previous  topic, 
or  of  passing  to  a  new  one,  or  of  breaking  off  altogether ; 
e.  g.  Sed  illuc  revertor.  Ego  sane  a  duinto  dissentio ;  sed 
ea,  quae  restant,  audiamus. 

At  serves  to  oppose  and  contrast.  It  is  therefore  used, 
when  to  one  fact  or  idea  admitted  as  true  or  valid,  another  is 
opposed  as  equally  true;  e.  g.  Fecit  idem  Themistocles. 
At  idem  non  fecit  Pericles.  Non  placet  Antonio  consulatus 
meus,  at  placuit  Servilio.  Brevis  a  natura  nobis  vita  data 
est,  a  t  memoria  bene  redditae  vitae  sempiterna  ;  i.  e.  I  ad¬ 
mit  that  life  is  brief,  but  set  over  against  this,  that  the 
remembrance  of  a  well  spent  life  is  eternal.  This  con¬ 
cession  is  sometimes  formally  expressed  by  a  clause  with 
si,  etiamsi  or  quamvis,  in  which  case  at  is  o  ften  join¬ 
ed  with  certe,  vero  or  tamen,  and  rendered  yet.  With  the 
same  idea  of  opposition,  at  is  used  to  introduce  objee- 


§  550.]  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS.  481 

tions,  excuses,  warnings  or  ad/nonitinns,  sudden  and  live¬ 
ly  transitions ;  e.  g.  Multo  magis  orator  praestat  impera¬ 
toribus.  A  t  prodest  plus  imperator,  but  it  is  replied  or  objec¬ 
ted,  that,  etc.  Id  quum  omnibus  mirum  videretur,  A  t,  in¬ 
quit,  merito  illud  facio,  where  at  justifies  what  has  preceded,, 
A  t  videte  hominis  intolerabilem  audaciam.  So  with  pray¬ 
ers  or  imprecations,  and  commands,  which  are  uttered  in  op¬ 
position  to  something  going  before.  At  tu  Pater  deum  ho- 
minumque,  hinc  saltem  arce  hostes.  Finally,  it  is  frequent 
in  answers,  in  which  a  question  is  thrown  back  as  unnecessa¬ 
ry,  or  if  it  contains  an  objection,  this  is  shown  to  be  ground¬ 
less;  e.  g.  Quid  porro  quaerendum  est?  Factumne  sit  ? 
A  t  constat.  A  quo  ?  A  t  patet,  shall  it  he  asked  whether  it 
was  done  ?  But  that  is  granted.  By  whom  ?  But  that  is. 
clear.  Quaestorem  Coelium  praeposui  provinciae.  Puerum  T 
inquies.  (True).  At  quaestorem,  a  t  nobilem  adolescentem^ 
At  then  contrasts  opposites,  sed  separates  what  is  different. 

Autem  is  allied  to  the  Greek  av,  aine,  again,  on  the 
other  hand,  on  the  contrary,  moreover.  It  is  the  weakest  of 
all  the  adversative  particles,  and  accordingly  serves  most  com¬ 
monly  to  denote  a  transition  from  one  topic  to  another,  at 
the  same  time  not,  like  sed,  distinguishing  them  emphati¬ 
cally  for  the  sake  of  separation,  but  rather,  merely  continu¬ 
ing  the  train  of  remark.  It  thus  approaches  more  nearly  to 
the  copulatives,  and  may  sometimes  be  translated  by  and, 
and  moreover,  and  on  the  other  hand.  Hence  it  is  used  to 
compare  subjects  having  different  predicates;  e.  g.  Versutos 
eos  appello,  quorum  celeriter  mens  versatur,  callidos  ante  m, 
quorum  animus  usu  concalluit,  while  on  the  other  hand  I 
call  those  callidos  ;  or  to  take  out  from  what  precedes  a  sin¬ 
gle  idea  for  farther  definition,  and  thus  continue  the  train  of 
thought  in  another  aspect ;  e.  g.  Pater,  prout  ipse  amabat 
litteras,  filium  erudivit.  Erat  autem  in  puero,  etc.,  now 
there  was  in  the  youth.  Multi  obtrectatores  inulta  finxe¬ 
runt.  Nihil  est  a  ut  e  in  tam  volucre,  quam  maledictum,  i.  e. 

41 


4&2 


DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  SOME  WORDS. 


[§  550. 


Many  slanders  were  invented ;  now  there  is  nothing  so  swift  as 
slander.  Hence  it  is  frequent  in  explanations  with  est,  sunt, 
likewise,  when  a  word  or  idea  is  taken  out  from  the  previous 
connection,  and  questioned  with  an  expression  of  surprise  or 
displeasure;  e.  g.  Foedera  ac  leges  (erant  autem  eae  duode¬ 
cim  tabulae  et  quaedam  regiae  leges),  etc.  Meum  est,  scire  et 
curare,  quid  in  republica  fiat :  fiat  autem?  (happens,  do  I 
say  ?)  Iinmo  vero  etiam  quid  futurum  sit.  So  in  the  minor 
premise  of  a  syllogism  ;  e.  g  .If  wisdom  is  to  he  sought,  folly 
is  to  be shunned ;  new  icisdom  is  to  he  sought;  tht  ref  ore, etc., 
sapientia  aute  m  petenda. 

Verum,  properly,  it  is  true,  always  preserves  this  meaning 
more  or  less  obliterated,  and  serves  to  define  how  or  how  far 
with  truth,  what  precedes  is  to  be  understood.  It  has,  at  bot¬ 
tom,  the  sense  of  sed,  but  with  the  additional  idea  of  an  assur- 
ance ,  and  therefore  denotes  a  separation  from  something,  with 
an  assurance  that  it  ought  to  be  separated  or  distinguished,  of¬ 
ten  =  but  the  truth  is.  Thus  it  strengthens  the  meaning  of 
sed,  as  vero  does  that  of  autem.  Hence,  generally,  it  restricts  or 
corrects  a  previous  statement,  while  at  the  same  time  it  rep¬ 
resents  this  restriction  or  correctiom  as  a  true  and  safe  one  ; 
e.  g.  Hermagorae  peccatum  reprehendendum  videtur,  veru  m 
brevi,  deserves  to  be  censured,  but  certainly  with  mildness. 
Non  quid  nobis  utile,  verum  quid  oratori  necessarium, 
quaerimus,  not  what  is  useful  to  us,  but  surely,  what  is  need¬ 
ful  to  the  orator.  Non  ego  dicebam  serio,  ut  illam  illi  dares, 
verum  ut  simulares,  i.  e.  my  true  meaning  was.  So  when 
joined  with  tamen;  e.  g.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  raise  a  laugh, 
bid  certainly  notwithstanding,  I  have  often  seen  much  effected 
in  causes  by  pleasantry,  verunla  m  e  n  multurn  —  vidi. 

Vero,  originally  in  truth,  is  properly  used  in  replying 
with  emphasis  and  assurance;  as,  ego  vero,  maxime,  mi¬ 
nime  vero.  This  meaning  of  truly ,  it  retains  with  many 
particles  and  with  negatives;  as,  enirn  vero,  at  or  verum 
enim  vero,  jam  ver  o,  neque  ver  o.  When  it  forms  a  transi¬ 
tion,  it  concedes  what  has  gone  before,  and  adds  something 


§551.] 


CHOICE  OF  CERTAIN  FORMS. 


483 


more  weighty  and  important,  the  truth  of  which  is  repre¬ 
sented  as  confirmed  by  actual  fact.  Hence  it  is  used  in  a 
climax,  where  it  is  often  joined  with  etiam.  Like  autem , 
it  commonly  continues  the  train  of  thought,  but  adds  a 
degree  of  assurance,  precisely  as  verum  does  to  seel.  Hence 
it  may  often  be  rendered  ancl  in  truth ,  moreover  in  truth, 
while  verum  is  but  in  truth  ;  e.  g.  It  was  a  great  honor  through¬ 
out  all  Greece ,  to  be  proclaimed  victor  at  Olympia  ;  and  in 
truth ,  to  appear  upon  the  stage  even,  and  exhibit  before  the  peo¬ 
ple,  urns  no  disgrace  to  any  one,  in  scenaque  ve  ro  prodire. 
Scimus  musicen  abesse  a  principis  persona:  saltare  vero 
etiam  in  vitiis  poni,  and  indeed  dancing  even  was  regarded  as 
a  vice.  Quod  bonum,  id  expectandum ;  quod  autem  exp., 
id  certe  approbandum;  quod  vero  approbaris,  id,  etc., 

where  vero  rises  above  autem ,  and  closes  the  climax.  Ita- 

» 

que  et  dialectici  et  physici  —  utantur;  geometrae  vero, 
etc.,  indeed  geometricians  also. 

CHOICE  OF  CERTAIN  FORMS. 

551.  In  the  time  of  Cicero  and  the  best  writers,  the  or¬ 
thography,  the  formation  of  declinable  and  conjugated  words, 
and  the  forms  of  single  words,  according  to  their  place  in  a 
sentence,  differed  much  from  what  they  were  at  a  later  period. 
Most  of  these,  in  order  to  imitate  the  best  writers  even  in  les¬ 
ser  points,  must  be  retained  ;  in  others,  the  later  usage  is  ra¬ 
ther  to  be  followed.  This  last  would  not  allow  us  to  write, 
hos  civis,  has  omnis  urbis,  homo  magni  i  n  g  e  n  i, 
volt,  vein  us,  caussa,  for  hos  cives,  has  omnes 
urbes,  homo  m.  ingenii,  vult,  vulnus,  causa. 

On  the  contrary,  we  should  follow  Cicero  in  writing,  in 
the  genitive  plural  of  the  second  declension,  duumvirum,  tri¬ 
umvirum,  decemvirum,  sestertium,  denarium,  talentum,  nutnum, 
medimnum,  modium,  jugerum ,  fabrum,  not  with  the  ending 
orum,  particularly  in  such  designations  of  office,  money 
and  measure,  especially  when  to  these  names  of  money  and 
measure  a  numeral  is  joined,  since  otherwise  they  also 


484 


CHOICE  OF  CERTAIN  FORMS. 


[§  551. 


had  the  ending  crum.  The  ablative  singular  of  the  com- 
parative,  as  a  uniform  ending,  has  only  e ,  not  i  ;  e.  g.  majore , 
meliore.  When  masculine,  Cicero  uses  only  equester ,  but  salu¬ 
bris,  not  saluber;  only  imbecillus ,  not  imbecillis;  but  imber¬ 
bis,  not  imberbus. 

In  Greek  words  which  he  adopted,  he  chose  almost  exclu¬ 
sively  the  Latin  ending,  and  therefore  he  censures  himself,  be¬ 
cause  he  once  said  Pirceea  for  Pir cecum.  Hence,  he  would 
have  formed  poesis,  mathesis  and  the  like  in  the  genitive  with 
the  ending  is,  not  eos,  consequently  jwesis,  mathesis,  as  also 
subsequent  writers  generally  did. 

In  regard  to  the  personal  endings  of  the  verb  it  is  to  be  no¬ 
ticed  : 

(a)  The  third  person  plural  of  the  perfect  indicative,  in  Ci¬ 
cero,  usually  ends  in  erunt,  very  seldom  in  ere,  e.  g.  scripse¬ 
runt,  restiterunt.  So  in  Caesar,  who  without  hesitation,  al¬ 
lows  three  or  more  such  to  follow  one  another.  It  is  different 
in  other  writers. 

(b)  The  second  person  singular  passive  has  the  double  end¬ 
ing  re  and  ris.  But  Cicero  uses  the  first  almost  exclusively, 
except  in  the  present  indicative,  where  he  but  seldom  uses  the 
ending  re,  elsewhere  he  uses  ris.  Hence  he  says,  usually,  vi¬ 
deris,  videar e ,  videbdrc,  viderere,  videbere. 

(c)  In  the  perfects  in  ivi,  Cicero  for  the  most  part  retains 
the  v,  where  two  i’s  would  come  together;  he  says  quaesivi, 
audivi,  etc.,  not  quaesii,  audii;  yet  often  petii  from  peto. 
But  when  e  follows  i,  he  generally  omits  the  v ;  e.  g.  arcessie¬ 
runt  for  arcessiverunt ,  audieram  for  audiveram.  But  he  never 
uses  quaesiissem,  audiissem,  petiissem,  etc.,  but  only  the  con¬ 
tracted  forms,  quaesissem,  audissem,  petissem,  abissem  and  the 
like. 

On  the  contrary,  in  compound  verbs  of  the  perfect  ivi  (from 
the  verb  eo ),  he  always  omits  the  v  and  uses  the  double  i ;  e.  g. 
abii,  perii,  transii,  except  in  praeivi  .Yet  where  s  is  doubled, 
he  uses  only  the  contract  form  abissem,  transissem,  praeteris¬ 
sem,  etc. 


§  55*2.]  BREVITY  AND  COriOUSNESS  OF  EXPRESSION.  485 

The  form  of  some  words  is  changed,  according  as  they  stand 
before  a  vowel  or  consonant. 

A  and  e  are  never  permitted  to  stand  before  a  vowel  and 
an  //,  but  only  before  a  consonant;  e.  g.  a  te,  a  me,  a  quo, 
a  fortuna,  e  macello,  e  quibus,  e  continente,  not  a  illo,  eillo, 
a  homine,  e  homine.  Before  t ,  Cicero  often  uses  abs,  the 
stronger  form,  instead  of  a;  hence  so  often  abs  te.  He  uses 
this  abs  but  little  before  q,  e.  g.  abs  quo,  more  a  quo  ;  but  al¬ 
so  ab,  e.  g.  ab  quaestore.  Cic.  Inv.  II,  29,  87. 

Ab  and  ex  must  not  only  stand  before  every  vowel  and  h, 
but  they  also  stand  before  almost  every  consonant,  and  ex  al¬ 
most  always  before  s  ;  e.  g.  ab  illo,  ab  homine,  ab  justitia,  ab 
Jove,  ab  negotio,  ab  se,  ex  eo,  ex  hoc,  ex  se,  ex  te,  ex  quo,  ex 
Latinis,  ex  miseria,  ex  suspicione,  ex  parte.  Yet  before/' and 
m,  ab  seems  not  to  be  used,  nor  ex  before  f,  and  so  perhaps 
before  other  consonants. 

In  Cicero  and  the  other  best  writers,  ac  does  not  stand  be¬ 
fore  a  vowel  or  an  h,  but  only  before  consonants,  though  not 
before  x;  e.  g.  ac  te,  ac  sumptus,  ac  celebrat,  ac  dissolutus, 
ac  portus  ;  not  ac  ille,  ac  ego,  ac  hospes,  ac  Xerxes.  But 
other  writers,  to  the  injury  of  the  euphony,  use  ac  before  a 
vowel. 

Atque  stands  not  only  before  a  vowel  and  h,  but  also  before 
every  consonant,  e.  g.  atque  insula,  atque  amens,  atque  homi¬ 
nes,  atque  superat,  atque  tu,  atque  ceteri. 

So  with  aeque  ac  and  aeque  atque ;  simul  ac  and  simul  atque  ; 
c.  g.  aeque  ac  tu,  aeque  atque  ego  ;  simul  ac  renuntiatur,  simul 
atque  agnoscit,  simul  atque  audivit,  not  aeque  ac  ego,  aeque  ac 
ille,  simul  ac  audivit,  simul  ac  eurn  vidit.  And  so  many  oth¬ 
ers  which  belong  here,  might  be  quoted. 


BREVITY  AND  COPIOUSNESS  OF  EXPRESSION. 

552.  Many  of  the  Latin  usages  in  respect  to  this,  may  be 
found  collected  in  the  larger  grammars.  It  would  be  tedious 

41* 


* 


48G  BREVITY  AND  COPIOUSNESS  OF  EXPRESSION.  [§  552. 

to  mention  them  all.  The  writings  of  Cicero,  when  read  with 
care,  will  afford  the  best  information  on  this  point.  Only  some 
few  will  here  be  noticed. 

(1)  When  an  intermediate  sentence,  especially  a  relative 
one,  has  a  verb  in  common  with  its  principal  sentence,  the 
Latins  usually  omit  this  in  the  intermediate  sentence.  The 
English  also  sometimes  omits  it;  e.  g.  You  have  not  been  as¬ 
sisted  by  those ,  by  whom  you  ought  to  have  been,  a  quibus 
debuisti.  I  will  use  the  form  of  conclusion  which  I  am  wont 
to  use ,  qua  soleo.  You  do  not  see  that ,  which  we  see ,  quae 
nos.  They  do  what  they  have  been  commanded  to  do,  quod 
jussi  sunt.  We  build  upon  hope,  upon  which  you  command 
us  to  build,  qua  jubes;  and  so  very  often. 

j Est  or  sunt  is  almost  wholly  omitted  in  forcible  questions, 
in  proverbial  and  sententious  phrases. 

Quae  res  igitur  gesta  unquam  in  bello  tanta  ?  qui  triumphus  con¬ 
ferendus  ?  Nihil  enim  laudabilius,  nihil  magno  et  praeclaro  viro  dig¬ 
nius  placabilitate.  Quid  aliud  novi  ?  Plena  terroris  et  timoris  omnia. 
Quo  quis  versutior  et  callidior,  hoc  invisior  et  suspectior. 

(3)  When  two  ideas  opposite  to  each  other,  which  the 
English  connects  by  and  or  or,  follow'  one  another,  the  Latin 
generally  omits  et  and  aid,  in  order  to  make  the  ^ideas  more 
striking. 

Velint,  nolint.  Irent,  redirent.  Diem,  noctem.  Multos  dies,  noc¬ 
tes.  Ilostes,  cives.  Maxima,  minima.  Prima,  postera.  Sciam,  nes¬ 
ciam.  Aperte,  tecte.  Ventis,  remis  —  properavi. 

(4)  The  Latins  were  particularly  fond  of  brief  expressions 
in  letters  of  friendship  and  in  conversation. 

Cogito  Romam.  Quid  plura  ?  Coram,  opinor,  reliqua.  Sed  haec 
coram.  Dionysio  plurimam  salutem.  Beneventi  cogitabam  hodie. 
Cicerones  nostros  Deiotarus  filius  secum  in  regnum.  Te  ipsum 
cupio.  Tum  ille  —  (i  n  q  u  it  omitted).  Nam  quum  dissolutus  filius 
(dixissset  omitted).  Heu  me  miserum!  tum  severus  pater  (re¬ 
spondit  omitted).  D  u  m  modo - Sed  et  haec  et  multa  alia 

coram  (loqui)  brevi  tempore  licebit. 

(5)  For  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  particularly  a  person 
•or  thing,  where  two  contrasted  adjectives  or  verbs  belonging 
to  that  person,  are  mentioned  with  indeed  —  but ,  the  pronoun 


PERIODS. 


487 


§§  553, 554.] 


ego, tu  or  ille  referring  to  that  person,  is  placed  before  the  word 

Examples. 

Cleon  teas  at  those  times  indeed  a  troublesome  citizen,  but  yet  an  elo¬ 
quent  man,  Cleon  temporibus  illis  turbulentus  ille  quidem  civis,  sed 
tamen  eloquens  fuit.  Young  Demetrius  followed  them,  indeed  the 
most  learned  among  all ,  but  — ,  Demetrius  successit  eis  adolescens, 
eruditissimus  ille  quidem  omnium,  sed — .  Domitius  spake  indeed 
without  any  art,  but  yet  with  much  freedom,  Domitius  nulla  i  1  le  qui¬ 
dem  arte,  sed  multa  tamen  cum  libertate  dicebat.  You  do  not  indeed 
hate  our  Epicurus,  but  certainly  you  do  not  lore  him ,  Epicurum  nos¬ 
trum  non  t  u  quidem  odisti,  sed  certe  non  probas. 

To  the  full  or  periphrastic  expression  belongs  the  construc¬ 
tion  mentioned  above  §  (541.  d.),  viz  .facere,  at,  for  the  sim¬ 
ple  verb  following  ;  and  so  in  the  negative  sense,  non  com¬ 
mittere,  ut,  e.  g.  IVe  must  not  obey  these,  non  est  com¬ 
mittendum,  ut  iis  pareamus.  I  will  give  you  no 
cause  to  refuse,  non  committam,  ut  tibi  causam  aliquam 
dem  recusandi.  You  will  not,  in  future,  be  able  to  censure 
me  on  account  of  negligence,  non  committam  posthac, 
u  t  me  accusare  —  possis. 


PERIODS. 

553.  A  period  is  a  sentence  which  is  enlarged  by  an  inter¬ 
mediate  sentence,  or  it  is  a  principal  sentence  with  an  intro¬ 
ductory  one. 

Tu  pro  tua  prudentia,  quid  optimum  factum  sit,  videbis.  Quod  si 
ipsi  haec  neque  attingere,  neque  sensu  nostro  gustare  possemus,  ta¬ 
men  ea  mirari  deberemus. 

554.  Especially  are  these  latter  sentences,  which  are  com¬ 
posed  of  an  introductory  and  concluding  member,  called  pe¬ 
riods.  When  these  sentences  are  again  enlarged  by  others, 
and  especially  when  these  new  ones  are  interwoven  with  the 
former  ones,  then  they  are  called  compound  periods. 

So  the  following  period  in  Cic.  pro  Sull.  32,  42 :  Ut  ego,  quid  de  me 
populus  R.  existimaret,  quia  severus  in  improbos  fueram,  laboravi,  et, 
quae  prima  innocentis  mihi  defensio  est  oblata,  suscepi  ;  sic  vos  severi¬ 
tatem  judiciorum,  quae  per  hos  menses  in  homines  audacissimos  facta 
est,  lenitate  ac  misericordia  mitigate. 

So  also  the  following  beautiful  period  in  Cic.  Cat.  I,  13  :  Ut  saepe 
homines  aegri  morbo  gravi,  quum  aestu  febris  jactantur,  si  aquam  ge¬ 
lidam  biberint,  primo  relevari  videntur,  deinde  multo  gravius  vehe- 


488  periods.  [§  555. 

mentiusque  afflictantur;  sic  hic  morbus,  qui  est  in  republica,  relega¬ 
tus  istius  poena,  vehementius  reliquis  vivis  ingravescet. 

In  both  these  periods,  we  find  an  introductory  and  conclu¬ 
ding  sentence,  and  in  both,  there  are  other  explanatory  inter¬ 
mediate  clauses  inserted.  Thus  the  attention  of  the  rnind  is  re¬ 
quired  til!  the  close,  because  in  such  compound  periods,  the 
subject  is  separated  from  its  predicate  by  intermediate  clauses. 
On  this  account,  the  reader  and  hearer  are  made  attentive  to 
what  is  said  of  the  preceding  subject  of  the  introductory  and 
concluding  sentence.  This  attention  is  the  more  requisite,  if 
a  long,  complicated  sentence  precedes,  which  is  only  intro¬ 
ductory  to  the  following  principal  sentence. 

555.  Therefore  a  period  consists  of  a  principal  sentence 
in  connection  with  another,  which  is  either  placed  within  the 
principal  sentence,  or,  as  an  introductory  sentence,  is  placed 
before  it. 

Periods  receive  different  names  according  to  the  difference 
of  the  particle  in  the  sentence,  which  stands  in  connection 
with  a  principal  sentence.  The  following  are  the  principal 
periods : 

(1)  Periodus  con  d  it  ion  al  i  s,  which  contains  a  condi¬ 
tional  sentence. 

S  i  ea;  quae  acciderunt,  ita  fers,  ut  audio,  gratulari  magis  virtuti  de¬ 
beo,  quam  consolari  dolorem  tuum. 

(2)  Periodus  concessiva,  in  which  the  principal  sen¬ 
tence  concedes  something,  although  there  may  be  something 
that  would  hinder  the  occurrence  of  the  principal  sentence. 
This  is  formed  by  the  particles  etsi,  etiamsi,  quanquam,  quam¬ 
vis,  licet. 

Quanquam  gratiarum  actionem  a  te  non  desiderabam,  quum  te 
re  ipsa  atque  animo  scirem  esse  gratissimum  ;  tamen  (fatendum  est 
enim)  fuit  ea  mihi  perjucunda. 

(3)  Periodus  causalis,  in  which  the  cause  of  another 
occurrence  is  stated.  It  is  formed  by  quia,  quoniam,  quod , 
quando,  quum. 

Quum  et  mihi  conscius  essem,  quanti  te  facerem,  et  tuam  erga  me 


PERIODS. 


489 


§  555.] 

benevolentiam  expertas  essem,  non  dubitavi  a  te  petere,  quod  mihi 
petendum  esset. 

(4)  Periodus  comparativa,  in  which  the  action  of  the 
principal  sentence  is  compared  with  something  else.  It  is 
formed  by  ut,  or  quemadmodum  with  sic  or  ita  following. 

Quemadmodu  m  volucres  videmus  procreationis  atque  utilitatis 
suae  causa  fingere  et  construere  nidos,  easdem  autem,  quum  aliquid 
effecerint,  levandi  laboris  sui  causa  passim  atque  libere  solutas  opere 
volitare  ;  sic  nostri  animi  forensibus  negotiis  defessi  gestiunt  ac  vo¬ 
litare  cupiunt  vacui  cura  atque  labore. 

(5)  Periodus  consecutiva  cr  temporalis,  in  which 
a  certain  time,  when  the  action  of  the  principal  sentence  oc¬ 
curs,  is  stated.  It  is  formed  by  a  particle  of  time,  as  post¬ 
quam,  quum,  ut,  ubi,  simulae,  etc. 

Quum  ad  te  tuus  quaestor,  M.  V arro  proficisceretur,  com¬ 
mendatione  egere  eum  non  putabam.  Quo  ut  veni,  hostem  ab  An¬ 
tiochia  recessisse  cognovi. 

(6)  Periodus  proportionalis,  in  which  similar  pro¬ 
portions  are  expressed.  This  is  formed  by  quo  —  eo  (hoc) ; 
quanto  —  tanto  with  comparatives,  or  ut  —  ita  with  super¬ 
latives. 

Quo  quis  versutior  et  callidior,  hoc  invisior  et  suspectior,  detrac¬ 
ta  opinione  probitatis. 

(7)  Periodus  circumscriptiva,  in  which  a  substan¬ 
tive  or  circumstance,  in  reference  to  which  some  one  gives 
his  opinion,  is  expressed  periphrastically  by  a  sentence  with 
quod. 

Quod  epistolam  conscissam  doles  (respecting  the  tearing  of  the 
letter),  noli  laborare  ;  salva  est,  domo  petes,  quum  libebit. 

Quod  scire  vis,  qua  omnes  in  te  voluntate  sint,  difficile  dictu  est 
de  singulis  :  this  is  expressed  briefly,  you  wish  to  know  ichat  arc  the 
feelings  of  all;  this  is  difficult. 

(8)  Periodus  copulativa,  in  which  both  sentences  are 
joined  by  connectives,  affirmative  or  negative.  It  is  formed 
by  et  —  et ;  cum  —  turn  ;  turn  —  turn  ;  non  solum  (modo)  — 
sed  etiam  ;  neque  —  neque,  etc. 

E  t  in  Attilii  negotio  te  amavi,  e  t  inehercule  semper  sic  in  animo 
habui,  te  in  meo  aere  esse  propter  Lamiae  nostri  conjunctionem. 
Cum  multae  res  in  phdosophia  nequaquam  satis  adhuc  explicatae 
sint,  t  u  m  perdifficilis  et  perobscura  quaestio  est  de  natura  deorum. 


490 


TERIODS. 


[§  550. 


(9)  Periodus  m  o  d  a  1  i  s,  in  which  the  quality  or  greatness 
of  a  person  or  thing  is  expressed  periphrastically.  It  is  formed 
by  qualis ,  quantus ,  ut ,  etc. 

Res  quemadmodum  sit  acta,  vestrae  litterae  rnihi  declarant. 
Quod  cujus  modi  sit,  satis  intelligere  non  possum. 

And  so  there  are  still  others,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
sentences,  but  their  names  are  not  of  much  importance. 

Such  sentences  are  used  not  only  as  introductory  to  a  prin¬ 
cipal  sentence,  but  also  as  intermediate  sentences  both  of 
principal  and  introductory  ones. 

55G.  We  use  in  Eliglish  also  the  common  periods  which 
consist  of  antecedent  and  principal  sentences.  Yet  instead 
of  these,  we  not  only  use  single  detached  sentences,  but  in 
these  introductory  and  principal  sentences,  we  seldom  insert 
others,  according  to  the  studied  manner  of  the  Latins,  and 
when  we  do,  they  are  generally  shorter  than  the  Latin  perio¬ 
dic  sentences. 

Therefore,  whoever  wishes  to  form  periods,  at  least  skil¬ 
fully,  must  not  only  make  of  two  single  unconnected  sentences 
two  connected  ones,  by  means  of  conjunctions,  but  he  must 
also  convert  prepositions  with  substantives,  moreover  substan¬ 
tives  and  adjectives  into  appropriate  sentences,  and  insert  these 
in  a  suitable  manner  in  the  principal  and  introductory  sen¬ 
tences.  The  formation  of  new  sentences  depends  upon  the 
meaning  contained  in  the  words  and  in  the  whole  connection. 

The  following  examples  will  explain  this,  and  may  be  of 
service  in  forming  others. 

Your  letter  is  indeed  in  the  highest  degree  pleasing  to  me.  ;  hut  yet  it 
was  stil.l  more  pleasing  to  me ,  that  you  intrusted  it  to  Plancvs.  This  is 
a  concessive  period;  Although  your  letter  is  in  the  highest  degree 
pleasing  to  me. ,  yet  it  was  much  more — ,  Etsi  mihi  tuae  litterae  ju¬ 
cundissimae  sunt,  tamen  jucundius  fuit,  quod — . 

Mescinius  often  heard  from  me  respecting  our  pleasant  and.  strong 
connection  with  one  another.  This  is  a  modal  period  :  Mescinius  often 
heard  from  me,  how  pleasant  and  strong  our  connection  with  one 
another  was,  M.  saepe  ex  me  audivit,  quam  suavis  esset  inter  nos, 
et  quanta  conjunctio. 

Undertake  this  for  the  sake  of  my  honor  ;  I  ask  you  most  earnestly. 
Instead  of,  /  ask  most  earnestly  that  you  would — ,  Id  ut  honoris 
niei  causa  suscipias,  vehementer  te  etiam  atque  etiam  rogo. 

/  associate  icith  this  man  very  intimately  and  cheerfully. — Instead  of, 


§  55?  ] 


PERIODS. 


491 


1  associate  with  this  man ,  as  I  do  with  no  other ,  both  more  famil¬ 
iarly  and  cheerfully ,  hoc  homine  sic  utor,  u  t  nec  familiarius  ullo,  nec 
libentius. 

jW  things  which  have  reason ,  surpass  those  which  are  destitute  of  it ; 
and,  it  cannot  be  said. ,  that  any  among  all  things  surpasses  nature : 
Therefore ,  we  must  confess  that  there  is  reason  in  it.  The  following  is 
the  period  enlarged:  Quum  omnia,  quae  rationem  habent,  praestent 
iis,  quae  sint  rationis  expertia,  nefasque  sit  dicere,  ullam  rem  prae¬ 
stare  naturae  omnium  rerum  :  rationem  inesse  in  ea  confitendum  est. 

557.  Thus,  instead  of  the  particle  indeed,  although  is  used ; 
instead  of  bij  or  on  account  of — because  or  although  ;  instead 
of  in — when;  instead  of  without — unless.  And  so  in  many 
other  cases.  Cut  it  is  not  to  be  supposed,  that  only  the  same 
kind  of  particles  can  be  used  in  every  instance;  everything 
depends  rather  upon  the  sense  of  the  passage.  The  ideas  that 
can  be  enlarged,  are  enlarged,  and  the  sentences  properly  in¬ 
serted.  Therefore,  in  the  periodic  style,  participles  are  seldom 
used,  because  they  contract  or  abridge  sentences  ;  and  hence 
Cicero,  who  writes  mostly  in  periods,  uses  them  much  less 
than  other  writers.  The  following  are  some  examples,  in 
which  the  idea  contained  in  prepositions,  in  adverbs  and  adjec¬ 
tives  is  enlarged. 

In  his  tender  youth ,  d  u  m  est  tener. 

My  small  authority,  si  quid  auctoritatis  in  me  est. 

Therefore  he  esteems  you,  ita  fit  ut  te  diligat. 

Under  these  circumstances,  quae  quum  ita  sint. 

The  rest  of  life,  quod  reliquum  est  vitae. 

The  opinion  of  others,  quid  alii  sentiant. 

Without  doubt,  non  dubito  quin. 

On  account  of  my  connection  with  that  order,  pro  necessi¬ 
tudine,  quae  mihi  est  cum  illocrdine. 

As  I  ought,  pro  eo,  ac  debeo. 

According  to  my  respect  for  you,  pro  eo,  quanti  te  facio. 

On  account  of  his  great  refinement,  quia  magna  est  ejus 
humanitas,  or  quanta  (quae)  est  ejus  humanitas,  or  quanta 
(qua)  est  humanitate. 

Before  your  departure  from  Asia,  a  rqt  e  q  u  a  m  ex  Asia 
egressus  es  (esses,  eris). 


492 


PERIODS. 


[§  558. 


After  my  departure,  quum  discessi  (issem,  ero). 

A  reason  for  their  love  lies  in  these  very  things,  in  his  ipsis 
inest  causa,  cur  diligantur. 

He  shows  his  power,  is,  q  u  a  n  t  u  m  possit,  ostendit. 

I  do  not  know  this  man’s  mode  of  instruction,  hujus  viri 
quae  (qualis)  sit  ratio  docendi,  nescio. 

I  invited,  you  to  what  was  most  urgent ,  sic  te  evocabam,  ut 
nihil  acrius,  neque  (nihil)  incitatius  fieri  posset. 

I  had  nothing  to  write,  nihil  habebam,  quod  scriberem. 

All  my  wishes  succeed ,  mihi  omnia,  quae  opto,  contingunt. 

I  have  never  done  anything  more  on  my  own  account,  than 
on  account  of  my  fellow-citizens ,  ego  is  sum,  qui  nihil  unquam 
mea  potius,  quam  meorum  civium  causa  fecerim. 

Nothing  terrible  and  dreadful  can  befall  man ,  homini  acci¬ 
dere  nihil  potest,  quod  sit  horribile  aut  pertimescendum. 

I  cannot  write  more  for  pain,  intercludor  dolore,  quominus 
plura  scribam. 

558.  So  also  single  words  are  often  expanded ;  e.  g.  quis 
(nemo)  est,  qui,  for  quis  or  nemo;  nihil  est,  quod,  for  nihil. 
Nihil  est,  quod  non,  for  omnia;  quid  est,  quod,  ox  quid  est 
causae,  cur,  for  cur ;  quisquis  est,  qui  or  nemo  (quis)  est,  qui 
non  (quin),  for  omnes;  nullus  locus  est,  in  quo  non,  for  usque 
qua  fine  ;  haud  scio,  an,  for  fortasse  ;  reliquum  est,  ut ;  restat 
ut,  for  ceterum;  extremum  illud  esi,  ut,  for  denique  at  the 
conclusion  of  a  subject ;  itafit,  ut,  for  hanc  ob  rem;  fore,  ut, 
for  the  simple  inf.  future,  and  the  like. 

An  ingenious  mind  cannot  fail,  in  forming  periods,  to  dis¬ 
cover  the  necessary  expansion  of  single  words  in  complete 
sentences.  It  is  an  art  which  is  not  wholly  confined  to  rules. 
It  may  be  best  learnt  from  Cicero,  whose  copious  periods, 
abounding  in  sentences,  must  be  abridged  into  only  a  few 
words  and  sentences,  and  then  a  comparison  made  between 
the  two.  But  the  most  attention  should  be  given  to  his  me¬ 
thod  of  arranging  and  interweaving,  with  one  another,  the 
single  sentences,  which  belong  to  one  oreat  whole. 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


[The  numbers  refer  to  sections.] 


A. 

Abovt ,  with  a  subst.,  159.  About 
what  time  ?  78.  8. 

Above ,  before ,  after  named , 
mentioned ,  537. 

Ablative,  24,  191 — 213.  In  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  question,  When? 
75.  Where  ?  68.  Whence  ?  72. 
Whither?  71.  During,  within 
what  time  ?  76.  How  long  ?  76. 
3.  How  long  before  or  after  ? 
77.  When,  before  the  present 
time  ?  78.  Since  what  time  ?  78. 
7.  About  what  time  ?  78.  8.  Till 
what  time  ?  78.  9.  Of  means  or 
instrument,  208.  Of  cause,  209. 
Ablative  with  a.  Diff.  between 
Abl.  with  a  and  Acc.  with  per , 
210.  Of  mode  or  manner,  211. 
Abl.  of  accompanying  circum¬ 
stance,  211.  (3).  Of  material, 
212.  Abl.  to  denote  the  relation, 
Whereof?  212.  Wherein  ?  213. 
In  respect  to,  213.  2.  Accord¬ 
ing  to,  in  accordance  with,  213. 
3.  On  account  of,  213.  4. 

- with  comparative,  88  et  seq. 

Usually  placed  before  the  com¬ 
parative,  511. 

- of  quality,  192.  Of  price,  194. 

After  words  signifying  worthy 
of,  196.  Of  plenty  and  want, 
197.  Alter  words  signifying  to 
be  free  from ,  exempt,  rid  of,  de¬ 
prived  of,  198.  After  words  sig¬ 
nifying  to  trust,  rest  or  lean  up¬ 
on,  199.  After  words  of  rejoic¬ 
ing ,  grieving,  boasting,  200. 

- of  the  gerund,  358.  Abso¬ 
lute,  454.  Comparative  singu¬ 
lar  ends  in  e,  551. 


Absence,  in  the,  absens,  463,  53IL 

According  to,  in  accordance  with r 
213.  3. 

Accusative,  22,  179 — 189.  Ofthe 
object,  22.  1.  After  verbs,  182 
et  seq.  Independent  of  other 
words,  22.  3.  180.  1.  With  the 
inf.,  61,  380  et  seq.  In  expres¬ 
sions  of  wonder,  irony  and  grief, 
334  .  7.  Position  of  the  acc. 
with  the  inf.,  418.  Of  the  ge¬ 
rund,  357.  How  to  avoid  two 
accusatives  denoting  persons, 
when  the  inf.  is  used,  404.  In 
intermediate  clauses,  384. 

Adjectives, agree  with  substantives, 
3  et  seq.  Degrees  of  compari¬ 
son,  31.  Signification  of  com¬ 
parative,  32,  85.  Indeclinable 
in  English,  4.  In  neut.  plur. 
instead  of  sing.,  34.  In  neuter 
with  inf,  36.  Governing  gen.,. 
20.2.  150 — 152.  As  predicate  of 
two  or  more  subjects,  64.  For 
who ,  which — is,  79.  Denoting 
place,  80.  3.  Denoting  time  and 
place,  84.  Numeral,  98  et  seq. 
Of  measure  and  degree,  ]47_ 
Two  adjectives  connected  by  etr 
81.  Used  for  adverbs,  83.  De¬ 
noting  an  operation  or  state  of 
the  mind,  150,  151.  Position  of, 
when  belonging  to  two  substan¬ 
tives,  507.  Position  of,  490,  505,, 
506.  Expressed  by  Lat.  gen., 
139.  By  dative,  173. 

Adverbs,  degrees  of  comparison, 
96.  Governing  gen.,  161.  Posi¬ 
tion  of,  505.  English  adverbs 
expressed  by  Lat.  adjectives,  83. 
Expr.  by  a  subst.  and  prep.,  543. 


42 


494 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


Ah  no !  338. 

Always ,  with  a  distributive,  100, 

101.  1. 

Among ,  after  a  compar,  or  snperl. 
expressed  by  the  gen.,  07.  By 
inter  or  in,  145.  2,  3,  4. 

Antecedent  and  relative  in  same 
clause,  124. 

Any  one ,  anything ,  quisquam,  ali¬ 
quis,  122. 

And,  omitted  in  Lat.,  458. 

And  this  too,  and  that  too ,  etc., 
107.  And  at  the  same  time,  and 
also,  at  once,  107.  And  not,  525, 
526.  a.  When  now  alone,  530. 
And  yet  not,  525.  b  And  no 
one,  and  nothing, 122,  527.  And 
not  rather,  525  b.  And  not  yet, 
and  never,  527. 

Answers ,  335  et  seq. 

Apposition ,  66  Position  of  words 

in,  488.  With  possessive  pro¬ 
nouns,  what  case  to  be  used  r 
105. 

Article,  1,  2. 

As,  as  much,  non  minus,  86.  As 
little,  just  as  little,  non  magis, 
86. 

As,  before  a  predicate,  129,  184. 
After  the  same,  524.  By  quan¬ 
tus,  qualis,  and  the  like.  524. 
By  ac,  atque,  when  ?  524.  Af¬ 
ter  a  relative  word,  524.  With 
a  verbum  sentiendi  or  dicendi,  [ 
often  omitted,  413.  As  far 
as,  314.  As  it  respects  this, 
that,  audi,  scito  and  dicam  omit¬ 
ted  after  (541.  e  ).  As  if,  49.  7. 

Assassination,  on  account  of  an, 
156. 

At,  expressed  by  the  Abl.,  213.  5. 

Attraction  of  Rel.  and  Anteced  in¬ 
to  the  same  clause,  124. 

B. 

Beginning ,  in  the ,  84. 

Before  or  after,  of  time,  77.  4.  Of 
place,  74.  Before,  ante,  with 
Abl.,  77.  5. 

Believe  me,  mihi  crede,  483. 

Both,  uterque,  utrique,  535.  We, 
you  both  ;  both  of  us,  etc.,  145. 

Boyhood,  in,  infans,  puer,  531 . 


But  not ,  nec  (neque)  vero,  non, 
528.  But,  when  not  translated  ? 
530.  When  non  alone  ?  530. 

By,  expressed  by  Abl.,  209.  When 
by  per  ?  208.  Item.l,  2, 3.  When 
by  quum  ?  288. 

By  whom?  210. 

C. 

Cardinal  numbers ,  98. 

Cases,  origin  of, 18.  Government 
of,  129  et  seq. 

Clauses ,  intermediate,  how  ex¬ 
pressed  ?  416.  Expressing  com¬ 
parison  with  the  acc.  and  inf., 
384. 

Comparative, diff.  significations  of, 
85.  Where  two  persons  or  things 
are  spoken  of,  86.  With  ditF. 
ablatives,  88.  For  superlative, 
87.  2.  (541.  b  ). 

Collective  icords,  often  joined  with 
a  plur.  verb,  214. 

Conjunctions,  followed  by  the  in¬ 
die.  46,  271—280  With  subj., 
49,  281 — 283.  With  indie,  and 
subj.,  284 — 298. 

Consulship,  in  the,  463,  531. 

Contrasted  icords,  position  of, 
513. 

Copula ,1 2.  Often  expressed  in  the 
predicate,  15. 

Could,  1  could,  possum,  225,  270. 

D. 

Daily,  101.  2. 

Dative,  21,  162 — 178.  After  adjec¬ 
tives,  163—167.  After  verbs, 
168 — 178.  Of  the  gerund,  355. 

i  Dependence  of  tenses,  254 — 267. 

:  Design,  how  expressed  ?  374. 

Discourse,  narrative,  419 — 434. 

Distributive  numbers,  101.  When 

j  for  cardinal  ?  101.  3. 

|  During  what  time,  76. 

E. 

Each,  expressed  by  distributive 
numbers,  101. 

j  Each  other,  532.  Each  of  two,  1 45. 

Endings,  ivi,  iveram,  ivisse,  in  the 
verb,  551 . 

Especially ,  550. 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


495 


Even ,  etiam,  multo,  with  the  com¬ 
parative,  89. 

Even  now,  in  Orat.  obi  ,  434. 

Everything ,  expressed  by  omnia, 
34. 

Every ,  by  quisque  and  an  ordinal 
number,  100,482.  By  unusquis¬ 
que,  101 . 

Exclamations ,  in  acc.,  181.  4. 

Exhortation,  by  first  pers.  pi., 213. 

F. 

Far  from ,  to  he,  tantum  abesse, 
ut,  410. 

Fear ,  words  denoting,  followed  by 
ne,  ut  ne  or  ut  non,  406. 

Fire ,  icitk,  and  sword,  400. 

First,  primus,  82. 

For,  by  a  verb  in  the  inf.  or  subj., 
159.  Before  a  predicate,  how 
expressed  ?  129. 

For  not ,  non  enim,  neque  enim, 
523. 

Forms  of  certain  icords,  choice  be¬ 
tween,  551. 

From,  by  quo,  ne,  quominus,  with 
the  subj.,  49.  2,  3.  282. 

From  what  time  ?  78.  7. 

Future  tense,  use  of,  233 — 235, 
(251.  h.).  For  our  pres.,  234. 
Fut.  perf,  246 — 251.  For  im¬ 
perative,  343.  2.  Not  used  after 
words  of  fear,  (251.  h.),  406. 

G. 

Greatly ,  of  value,  magni,  153. 

Gender,  diff.  between  Latin  and 
English,  5. 

Genitive ,  20, 1 31—1 61 .  Of  the  ob¬ 
ject,  134.  Of  quality,  140.  With 
a  participle  in  dus,  372.  7.  To 
denote  place,  63.  2.  To  denote 
•peculiarity ,  mark,  character , etc., 
142.  Dili’,  between  Gen.  and 
Dat.  of  the  possessor,  143.  Diff. 
between  Gen.  and  Abl.  of  qual¬ 
ity,  141 ,  Note.  To  denote  a  part, 
144.  Of  measure  and  degree, 147. 
To  denote  an  operation  or  state 
of  the  mind,  150.  After  adjec¬ 
tives  denoting  participa  ion, 
plenty,  or  want,  152.  After  ad¬ 
jectives  of  l  ikeness,  152.  3.  Of 


worth  and  price,  153.  After 
verbs  denoting  the  state  of  the 
intellect  or  feelings,  154.  After 
verbs  of  accusing,  acquitting  or 
condemning,  1 56.  After  intercsse 
and  referre, 157.  After  adverbs, 
161 .  Position  of,  when  governed 
by  substantives  or  adjectives, 
508.  Gen.  pi.  of  second  deck, 
ending  of,  551. 

Gerunds,  51,  349—358.  Genitive 
of,  how  translated  into  English  ? 
52.  Dative  does  not  govern  an 
acc.,  356. 

Guidance,  under  the  of,  463,  531. 


H. 

To  have,  by  esse  and  the  Gen. ,143. 

By  esse  and  the  Dat.,  172. 

He,  with  a  verb,  when  translated  ? 
215. 

He  himself,  ipse,  126. 

Highly,  by  magni,  153. 

His,  her,  when  translated  ?  104. 
Historical  inf.,  348.  Pres.  224. 
Himself,  126,  127. 

How  long  ?  (of  time),  76.  3.  How 
long  before  or  after  ?  77.  5. 

How  much  ?  by  adjective  in  Abl., 
89.  How  long  (of  measure)  ? 
how  thick  ?  how  broad  ?  how 
deep?  how  far?  how  old  ?  22. 
3.  180. 


How  highly ,  how  much  (of  price)  ? 
153. 


However ,  49.  8. 


1. 

I,  with  the  verb,  when  and  when 
not  translated  ?  215. 

If  not,  unless,  si  non,  nisi,  548. 

/,  denoting  astonishment,  334.  9. 

If  one,  when  one,  in  case  one,  218. 

imperative,  50,  341 — 344.  Diff. 
between  the  longer  and  shorter 
forms  of,  341  and  Note. 

Impersonal  verbs,  171,  220. 

Imperfect  tense,  use  of,  229 — 232, 
(251.  d.  e.  g.).  To  express  a  wish, 
228.  To  denote  a  conclusion  or 
purpose,  258,  260. 

Indicative  mode,  269 — (270.  b.). 
Latin  indicative  for  our  poten- 


496 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


tial,  270 — (270.  b.).  With  rela-  | 
tive  words,  209.  For  subj.,  270  j 
—(270.  b  ). 

Infinitive,  51,  345 — 348.  With  a  J 
predicate,  347.  Historical,  348 
Future  of,  when  used  for  the 
present?  234,402.  When  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  past  tense,  267.  2. 
English  infinitive  present  to  be 
translated  by  Lat.  fut.,  402.  Fu¬ 
ture  of,  wanting  in  many  verbs, 
how  supplied  ?  403.  Expressed 
periphrastically,  403.  As  predi¬ 
cate,  position  of,  512.  To  ex¬ 
press  wonder,  irony,  and  grief, 
334. 


In  order  th.nl,  by  ut,  49.  1. 

In  respect  to,  213.  2. 

In  respect  to,  with  verba  sentien¬ 
di,  etc.,  414. 

Instead  of,  so  far  from ,  tantum 
abesse,  ut,  41 0. 

Interjections ,  omitted  in  oratio  ob¬ 
liqua,  433. 

Interrogative  words ,  their  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  verb,  315.  Posi¬ 
tion  of,  501. 

It  is  my  duty ,  est  meum,  142 

It  icoutd  be  too  tedious,  225,  270. 

It  is  custom,  duty ,  mark,  with  gen., 
142. 

J. - 

Just  as  if,  49.  7. 

K. 

Know,  scito,  habeto,  often  omitted, 
(541.  e.). 


L. 

Land,  by,  70. 

Last,  82. 

Less  than,  with  a  numeral,  94. 
Less,  with  lire  positive  followed 
by  than ,  85. 

Less  —  than,  85. 

Lest,  49.  3 

Little ,  a,  by  the  comparative,  85. 
By  a  little,  89. 

Little ,  (of  price,)  parvi,  etc.,  153. 

M. 

Mentioned,  the  above,  537. 

Middle ,  in  the ,  84. 


Might  and  main,  with,  490. 

Modes,  46,  268  et  seq. 

More,  expressed  by  plura,  34.  By 
rnagis  and  plus,  547. 

More,  more  highly,  (of  worth),  by 
pluris,  153. 

More  than,  by  super.,  27.  4. 

Motive ,  how  expressed  ?  374. 

Much,  by  hoxo  much,  by  much,  with 
comparative,  89.  Of  worth, 
magni,  so  much,  tanti,  153. 

Much  less,  540. 

My,  when  translated  ?  104. 

N. 

Named,  the  above,  the  so,  537. 

Names  of  family  and  gens ,  put  in 
plural,  when  two  or  more  are 
spoken  of,  60. 

Namely,  omitted  in  Lat.,  534. 

Narrative  discourse,  419 — 434. 

Negatives,  two,  (541.  c.). 

Neither ,  in  prohibitions,  342. 

Neuter  verbs,  in  pass,  used  only  as 
impersonals,  171,  220.  Adjec¬ 
tives  and  pronouns  with  gen., 
147. 

Never  any  one,  anything ,  527. 

No  one,  nothing ,  nowhere,  how  ex¬ 
pressed  ?  375,  527. 

No,  followed  by  not,  477. 

Nominative ,  19,  129. 

Not,  denoting  prohibition,  342. 
When  by  ne,  50,  (270.  d.).  3. 
342,  343.  „ 

Not  even,  not  so  much  as,  ne  qui¬ 
dem,  472.  526.  c.  Neque,  526.  c. 

Not  so,  with  positive  followed  by 
as,  85. 

Not  to  say ,  540.  (2). 

Not  true?  not  so  ?  334.  9. 

Not  only  not  —  but  not  even,  540. 

Number  of  substantives,  diff.  be¬ 
tween  Lat.  and  English,  6. 

Numbers  of  the  verb,  40,  214. 

Numbers,  cardinal,  98.  Ordinal, 
98.  Distributive,  101. 

I 

O. 

Object,  when  placed  first?  499. 

Objective  gen.,  134. 

Of,  with  verba  sentiendi  and  di¬ 
cendi,  414.  After  a  comparative 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


497 


expressed  by  a  gen.,  97.  By  , 
an  abl.,  212.  By  ex,  de  or  in, 
145  2. 

Old  age ,  in,  531. 

Omission  of  some  words ,  552. 

On  account  of,  159,  213.  4.  By  a 
participle,  544. 

One,  how  expressed?  218. 

One  this,  the  other  that ,  533. 

Or,  in  questions,  323,  325. 

Oratorical  questions ,  in  oratio  ob-  J 
liqua,  429.  I 

Oroi/.o  obliqua  and  recta,  419. 

Ordinal  numbers,  98. 

Other,  the ,  translated  b}'  the  pre¬ 
ceding  substantive  or  by  pro¬ 
nouns,  532. 

Others,  ceteri,  549. 

Our,  when  translated?  104. 

P. 

Parentheses ,  place  of,  523.  Rem. 

Participles,  443.  For  icho,  which 
—  is,  79.  in  abl.  absolute  with¬ 
out  a  substantive,  455.  Deno¬ 
ting  time,  manner,  cause,  mo¬ 
tive  or  purpose,  condition, 456.1. 
Translated  by  an  English  subst., 
464.  Fut.  pass,  part.,  359.  With 
sum,  54,  363.  Part,  for  inf.  417. 
Perf.  pass,  part.,  as  a  strength¬ 
ening  expression  with  ablatives, 
or  as  a  preposition,  544.  In  an- 
dus  and  end  us,  when  translated 
actively?  465. 

Participial  sentences,  depend., 450. 
Independ.,  454. 

Participial  construction,  when  the 
participle  is  omitted,  462. 

Partitive  genitive,  144. 

Perfect  tense,  use  of,  236 — 242, 
(251.  c,  g.).  Used  as  an  impera¬ 
tive,  242,  343.  After  sic,  tarn, 
adeo,  tantus,  etc.,  261.  a.  With  j 
jam,  vix,  vixdum,  etc.  239.  For 
fut.  perf.,  426.  Ending  of  in 
ivi,  551. 

Perhaps,  how  expressed,  536. 

Periods ,  553. 

Persons  of  the  verb,  215  —  217.  j 
With  two  substs.  of  diff.  per-  , 
sons,  65.  Ending  of  third  pers. 
plur.  perf.  act.,  551.  Ending  of  j 

42* 


second  pers.  sing,  pass.,  551. 
Second  person  sing.,  first  and 
third  plur.,  to  express  general 
statements,  or  to  denote  persons 
in  general,  218. 

Periphrastic  conjugation,  in  ac¬ 
tive,  252.  Passive,  363. 

Peace,  in,  and  war,  490. 

Place,  designations  of,  67  et  seq. 

Poisoning,  on  account  of,  156. 

Pluperfect,  use  of, 243-245,  (251  .e.) 

Position  of  words,  55, 468.  Of  acc. 
with  inf,  418.  Of  the  com¬ 
mon  subject  of  the  introduc¬ 
tory  and  concluding  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  sentence,  497,  498. 
Of  the  common  object  of  two 
sentences,  499.  Of  a  word 
governed  by  a  verb,  505.  Of 
contrasted  words,  513. 

Predicate ,  what  part  of  speech  ? 
14,  62.  How  connected  with  the 
subject?  15.  With  two  sub¬ 
jects,  63 — 65.  In  dative  with 
esse,  174. 

Predicate  nominative ,  19. 

Predicate  substantive,  when  in 
same  gender  as  the  subject  ?  62. 

Prepositions,  different  cases  gov¬ 
erned  by, 25,  26,  27.  Difference 
between  some,  27,  28,  29.  Posi¬ 
tion  of,  491,  492.  Use  of,  542. 
When  used  instead  of  the  ob¬ 
jective  genitive,  134.  When 
separated  from  its  case,  492. 
Two  belonging  to  one  subst., 
position  of,  491.  English  pre¬ 
positions  and  substantives  ex¬ 
pressed  by  a  participle,  463,  464. 

Presence,  in  the  of,  531,  463. 

Present  tense ,  use  of,  223  et  seq., 
(251.  b.).  Historical, 221.  When 
used  for  our  imperfect?  225  et 
seq.  When  for  fut.,  226,  (251. 
h.).  To  express  a  wish,  228. 

Pretty,  by  comparative,  85. 

Price,  by  gen.  and  abl.,  153, 194, 
195. 

Pronouns,  37,  102 — 127.  When 
used  as  adjectives?  37.  a.  When 
omitted  in  Latin  ?  80,  104,  123. 
When  expressed  ?  215.  Position 
of  two  in  the  same  sentence, 484. 


498 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


Position  of  subst. pronouns, 484. 
Pronouns  of  same  pers.,  posi¬ 
tion  of,  484.  lndef.,  position 
of,  505  ;  difF.  between  possess¬ 
ive  and  personals,  135.  Relative 
and  demonstrative,  when  placed 
first?  500.  Who,  which,  in  ora¬ 
tio  obliqua,430.  Pronouns  in  ora¬ 
tio  obliqua,  434. 

Possessive  pronouns ,  the  word  in 
apposition  with,  put  in  gen., 
105, 133.  Position  of,  506. 

Proper  names ,  explanations  of, 
placed  after,  488. 

Q. 

Questions ,  independent  or  direct, 
316.  Dependent  or  indirect,  319. 
In  oratio  obliqua,  429.  Ofaston- 
ishment  or  indignation,  334.  8. 
Answers  to,  335.  Oratorical, 

429. 

R. 

i Relative  and  antecedent ,  in  the 
same  clause,  124.  Sentences, 
their  position,  515,  519.  Qui  at¬ 
tracts  the  subst.  into  its  own 
case,  124.  Qui  in  oratio  obliqua, 

430. 

Rest ,  the ,  the  remaining ,  ceterus, 
reliquus,  549. 

S. 

Say,  to,  that  something  is  not,  ne¬ 
gare,  529. 

Sentence,  of  what  composed  ?  15. 
Principal,  421.  Subordinate, 
425.  Dependent,  110,  (270.  f.), 
450.  Arrangement  of,  515.  Hy¬ 
pothetical,  227.  Imperative,  377. 

Since  what  time  ?  78.  7. 

Situation, in,  statu,  70. 

Singular ,  after  aut — aut;  et  — 
et ;  cum — turn,  63.  a. 

So,  with  positive,  followed  by  as 
85. 

So  long  before ,  (after),  77. 

So  far  from,  to  be,  tantum  abesse, 
ut,  410. 

So  highly,  so  much,  so,  153. 

So  far  as,  314. 

So  called ,  537.  , 


Somewhat ,  by  comparative,  85. 

Some  one,  something,  quisquam, 
aliquis,  122. 

Statements,  general,  by  sec.  pers. 
sing.,  first  pi.,  third  pi.,  third 
sing,  pass.,  218. 

Still,  strengthening  the  compara¬ 
tive,  89. 

Substantives,  used  only  in  pi.,  11. 
With  preposition,  expressed  by 
adverbs,  96.  By  adjectives,  80. 
By  participles,  463.  Denoting 
persons  for  substantives  denot¬ 
ing  things,  531.  Governed  by 
two  or  more  prepositions,  posi¬ 
tion  of,  491 . 

Subject,  agreement  with  predicate, 
12,  61.  Supplied  by  an  infini¬ 
tive,  etc.,  13.  Of  different  per¬ 
sons,  65.  Of  introductory  sen¬ 
tence,  when  placed  first  ?  497, 
498.  Two  belonging  to  one 
verb,  63.  Periphrastic,  13. 

Subjunctive  mode,  (270.,  c)  — 
(270.  h.).  To  imply  doubt  or 
propriety,  (270.  d.).  In  depen¬ 
dent  interrogative  sentences, 
(270.  fi).  To  denote  what  is 
general,  etc.,  (270.  g.).  To  de¬ 
note  the  thought  of  another, 
(270.  h.).  With  relative  words, 
300 — 302.  In  indirect  questions, 
320.  For  the  imperative,  343. 
In  oratio  obliqua,  425. 

Superlative,  95.  For  the  compa¬ 
rative,  95.  2. 

Supines,  53,  435 — 442.  With  ire, 
438.  After  what  verbs  not  used  ? 

438.  Place  of,  how  supplied? 

439. 

T. 

Tenses,  44,  222  et  seq.  Depend¬ 
ence  of,  254.  Signification  of  the 
English  imperfect,  45.  Imperf. 
corresponds  with  the  Latin  perf. 
indef.,45. 2.  DifF.  between  Lat. 
and  Eng.  imperf.,  45.  2. 

That,  by  ut,  49. 1.  By  quin,  49.  4. 
By  ne,  281.  Omitted  in  Eng. 
391.  Omitted  in  Lat.  with  acc. 
and  inf.,  61.  How  translated  ? 
373.  Denoting  motive,  pur¬ 
pose,  design,  374.  Denoting 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


499 


wish,  care,  labor  and  effort,  376. 
Denoting  result  or  effect,  373. 
Conclusion,  379.  Denoting  the 
object  of  a  verbum  sentiendi  or 
dicendi,  330.  Denoting  the 
cause  of  an  action,  337.  When 
by  quod?  333.  In  periphrastic 
explanations,  333.  Sentences 
with,  formed  by  the  genitive 
of  a  participle  and  substan¬ 
tive,  466. 

That  7 wt,  quominus,  49.  2. 

That ,  in  order  that ,  dicam,  audi, 
scito  often  omitted  after,  (541. e). 

Than,  by  ac  or  atque,  when  ?  524. 
After  a  comparative,  90 — 94. 

The ,  with  the  comparative  and  su¬ 
perlative,  89,  95.  2. 

Then ,  denoting  astonishment,  334. 

They,  when  and  when  not  trans¬ 
lated  ?  215. 

Things,  sometimes  not  expressed 
in  Latin,  35. 

Thousand,  mille,  99. 

Till  or  to  what  time,  78.  9. 

Time ,  at  the  right,  75.  Relations 
of,  75  et  seq. 

To,  by  ut,  49.  1.286.  Byqui,311. 

Too,  with  a  positive,  followed  by 
to  or  for,  85. 

Transitive  verbs,  41 ,  219. 

Treacherously,  per  insidias,  543. 

U. 

Under,  expressed  by  abl.,  213.  5. 

Unless,  nisi,  548. 

V. 

Value,  to,  highly,  little,  153. 

Verbs,  transitive,  41,  219.  Intran¬ 
sitive  or  neuter,  42,  220.  Pas¬ 
sive,  42,  219,  220.  Copulative, 
16.  Predicate,  16, 19.  Deponent, 
42,221.  Deponent,  the  use  of 
participles  of,  457.  Impersonal, 
220.  Impersonal,  how  translated 
into  English  ?  189.  Persons  of, 
39,  215.  Number  of,  40.  2.  214. 
Construction  of,  214  et  seq. 
Person  of,  when  two  subjects 
of  d iff.  persons  belong  to  it,  65. 
Those  that  have  a  verbal  adjec¬ 


tive,  360.  Compounded  with 
prepositions,  often  with  the  da¬ 
tive,  176.  Transitive,  with  what 
case  ?  182.  With  the  accusative 
of  the  object  and  the  pred  icate, 
184.  With  the  acc.  of  the  per¬ 
son  and  thing,  185.  Of  joy, 
grief,  etc.,  with  that,  what  con¬ 
struction  follows  ?  387.  Of  fear, 
406.  When  followed  by  the  inf., 
406.  Of  hinderance,399.  Denot¬ 
ing  a  wish,  etc.,  395.  Verba  di¬ 
cendi,  377.  380.  Sentiendi,  380. 
In  passive,  often  translated  as 
impersonal,  411. 

Verbal  adjective,  in  andus  and  en- 
dus, 359-372.  With  sum,  54,363. 

Very,  expressed  by  comparative, 
32,  85. 

Very  highly,  very  much,  153. 

Vocative ,  23,  190.  Not  used  in  ora¬ 
tio  obliqua,  433. 

Voluntarily,  spo ntaiieously ,of  one' s 
own  accord,  536. 

W. 

Way,  upon  the,  70. 

We  both,  both  of  us,  145. 

We,  with  the  verb,  when  and 
when  not  expressed  ?  215. 

What,  when  by  quid?  102. 

When?  before  the  present  time, 

78.  6.  When?  75.  When ,  ex¬ 
pressed  by  ablative,  213. 

Whence?  of  place,  72. 

Where?  of  place,  68. 

Where  in  all  the  world?  161.  2. 

Wherein,  when  with  and  without 
in  ?  213. 

Whether  not,  by  nonne,  332.  3. 

Whither  ?  (of  plaee),  71. 

Which?  when  by  uter?  87.  1. 

Who,  which  not,  49.  4. 

Who,  which,  by  adjectives  and  par¬ 
ticiples,  abridged  and  omitted, 

79.  In  oratio  obliqua,  430. 

Who,  which,  quis,  uter,  106.  Uter, 

utri,  535. 

Why?  quid,  181.  Expressed  peri- 
phrastically,  49.  8.  558. 

Why  not?  332.  2. 

Wish,  expressed  by  second  person 
pi.,  218.  With  what  tense,  228. 


500 


LATIN  INDEX. 


With,  when  by  the  ablative  and 
when  by  cum?  208,  211. 

With ,  expressed  by  usus  or  in¬ 
structus,  544. 

With  each  other ,  536. 

With  fire  and  sword ,  490. 

Without ,  how  expressed  ?  467,  538. 

Words ,  position  of,  468  et  seq. 
Contrasted,  position  of  in  the 
sentence,  513. 

Worth  of  a  thing ,  in  what  case, 153. 


To  he  worth ,  esse,  194. 

Worthy,  to  consider  icorthy ,  196. 
Worthy ,  that  or  of,  dignus  qui, 309. 
Would  be  able ,  would  have  been 
able ,  how  expressed  ?  383. 

Y. 

Yearly ,  101.  2. 

not,  neque  tamen,  528. 

Your,  when  translated,  104. 


LATIN  INDEX. 


[The  numbers  refer  to  sections.] 


A. 

A  and  ab,  when  the  one  and  when 
the  other?  29,  551. 
a,  when  used  with  the  verbal  ad¬ 
jective  ?  364. 

ab,  when  used  to  denote  place  ? 
72.  1. 

abalienare,  204. 

abdere  se,  with  what  case  ?  545. 
abdicare  se,  construe,  of,  204,  445. 
abditus,  construe,  of,  545. 
abducere,  construe,  of,  204. 
aberrare,  construe,  of,  204. 
abesse,  204  ;  with  ut,  378 ;  tantum 
abest,  410. 

abhinc,  with  what  case?  78.  6. 
abhorrere,  construe,  of,  177. 
abire,  construe,  of,  204,  545. 
abjudicare,  construe,  of,  545. 
abs,  when  used  ?  551. 
abscedere,  204. 
absens,  in  the  absence,  531. 
absolvere,  with  the  genitive,  156; 

with  ablative,  204. 
absonus,  166.  8. 
absque,  26. 
abstinens,  151. 
abstinere,  204. 
abundans,  abundare,  197. 
abunde,  161.  1. 


)  abuti,  203. 

ac,  before  a  vowel,  551  ;  as  a  sy- 
nonyme,  550.  (>;) ;  ac  non, when 
used  for  neque  ?  525. 

ac  si,  as  if,  with  what  tense  ?  227. 
accedit,  quod  or  ut,  394. 
acceptus,  construe,  of,  163.  3. 
accidit,  bene  (male),  quod,  387; 

with  ut.  378. 
accire,  184. 

accommodare,  177,  545. 
accommodatus,  164. 
accusare,  156  ;  with  quod,  387. 
actum  est,  545. 
acerbus,  construe,  of,  163.  3. 

ad,  when  used  to  denote  place,  71. 
4  ;  with  the  gerund,  357 ;  but 
not  with  non  and  the  gerund, 
357,  372. 

adaequare,  178. 
adde,  quod,  388.  c. 
addere,  177,  184  ;  with  two  accu¬ 
satives,  184. 
adeo,  with  ut,  378. 
adesse,  construe,  of,  176. 
adjicere,  177  ;  adjice,  quod,  388.  c. 
adipisci,  with  ut  or  ne,  376. 
adire,  186,  545. 

adjungere,  with  two  accusatives, 
184  ;  alicui,  ad  aliquem,  545. 


LATIN  INDEX. 


501 


adjuvare,  186. 

admonere,  154,  545 ;  with  utor  ne, 
377  ;  with  acc.  and  inf.,  396. 
adspirare,  545. 

adsuescere,  and  the  like,  545. 
adulari,  177,545. 
adversarius,  165. 
advenire,  construe,  of,  545. 
adversari,  with  quominus,  399. 
aegre  ferre,  387. 

aequalis,  with  the  genitive  and 
dative,  166.  8. 
aeque  ac,  aeque  atque,  551. 
aequiparare,  186. 
aequum  est,  with  ut  and  the 
acc.  with  the  inf,  397.  See 
also  382. 

aestimare,  denoting  worth,  value, 
153,  194. 

affatim,  construe,  of,  161. 
afferre,  construe,  of,  177,  545. 
afficere,  construe,  of,  205. 
affinis,  construe,  of,  167. 
affluere,  construe,  of,  197.  2. 
agere  id,  with  ut  or  ne,  376. 
agnoscere,  with  two  accusatives, 
184. 

aio,  in  oratio  obliqua,  432. 
alienare,  construe,  of,  545. 
alienus,  construe,  of,  164,  196. 
aliquando,  difference  between  and 
quando,  122. 

aliquantum,  construe,  of,  147. 
aliquid,  construe,  of,  147  ;  aliquid 
est,  quod,  with  the  subj.,  303. 
aliquis,  difference  between  and 
quis,  quisquam  and  ullus,  122 ; 
position  of,  505. 
amans,  construe,  of,  151. 
amarus,  construe,  of,  163.  3. 
amicus,  construe,  of,  165. 
amplius,  difference  between  and 
magis,  547. 

an,  332.  3 ;  annon,  324,  332.  3  ; 
an  vero,  332.  3;  an  —  an,  whe¬ 
ther  right  ?  332.  3. 
angere,  angi,  construe,  of,  201  ; 

with  acc.  and  inf.,  387. 
animadvertere,  construe,  of,  178  ; 

with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
animum  inducere, with  utor  ne, 376. 
ansam  dare  alicujus,  351. 
ante,  with  an  ablative,  77.  5. 


antecedere,  construe,  of,  177. 
anteire,  construe,  of,  177. 
antequam,  anteaquam,with  the  in¬ 
die.  and  subj.,  298. 
antevenire,  construe,  of,  177. 
anxium  esse,  with  ne  and  ne  non 
(ut),  406. 

apparet,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  382. 
appellare,  with  two  accusatives, 
184,  545. 

appellere,  appelli,  545. 
appetens,  construe,  of,  151. 
aptus,  construe,  of,  164. 
arcessere,  construe,  of,  184. 
arduus,  construe,  of,  163.  4. 
arguere,  156. 
arridere,  170. 

assequi,  with  ut  or  ne,  576. 
assuefacere,  assuefieri,  assuescere, 
assuetus,  177,545. 
assumere,  construe,  of,  184. 
at,  placed  first  in  a  sentence,  469 ; 

as  a  synonyme,  550.  (x). 
atque,  when  used  for  ac  ?  551 ;  as 
a  synonyme,  550.  (»/). 
attendere,  construe,  of,  545. 
attinere,  construe,  of,  545. 
auctor,  counsel,  463,  531 ;  auctor 
sum,  with  genitive,  137. 
audire,  followed  by  particip.  for 
inf.,  417  ;  with  acc.  and  inf., 
380 ;  construe,  of,  545. 
auferre,  construe,  of,  545. 
augurato,  as  abl.  absolute,  455. 
auspicari,  construe,  of,  545 ;  aus¬ 
picato,  abl.  absolute,  455. 
aut,  when  omitted  ?  552 ;  as  a 
synonyme,  550.  («)• 
autem,  after  some  words  in  a  sen¬ 
tence,  470,  516;  when  used 
with  qui,  520  ;  as  a  synonyme, 
550.  (x). 

avidus,  construe,  of,  151. 

B. 

Belli,  abroad ,  69. 
bene  emere,  bene  vendere,  195. 
benedicere,  construe,  of,  170. 
bonus,  construe,  of,  164. 

C. 

Cadere,  construe,  of,  545. 
canere,  construe,  of,  545. 


502 


LATIN  INDEX 


capere,  construe,  of,  184. 
caput  est,  followed  by  ut,  390. 
carere,  construe,  of,  197.  2. 
carus,  construe,  of,  165,  194. 
catenae,  with  distributive  num¬ 
bers,  101.  3. 

causa,  on  account  of,  for ,  138; 
with  the  gerund,  350  ;  position, 
138,  350,  506. 

causam  dare,  afferre  alicujus,  351. 
cavere,  construe,  of,  178  ;  with  ut, 
376  ;  with  and  without  ne,  344. 
b.  407,  408. 

cedere,  construe,  of,  545. 
celare,  construe,  of,  185. 
cenatus,  with  active  signification, 
457. 

censeo,  ut  censeo,  placed  within 
a  sentence,  485  ;  with  ut,  377. 
certe,  certo  scire,  546. 
certurn  est,  with  acc.  and  inf., 
382. 


certus,  construe,  of,  150. 
ceterum,  cetera,  181. 
ceteri,  reliqui,  549. 
circumdare,  177. 
circumspicere,  545. 
clam,  27. 

coenatus,  active,  457. 
coepisse,  with  inf,  220. 
cogere,  with  ut,  377. 
cogitare,  construe,  of,  545. 
cognatus,  167. 

cognoscere,  construe. of,  184,545; 

with  acc.  and  inf ,  380. 
coire,  coitio,  construe,  of,  545. 
collocare,  construe,  of,  545. 
comitari,  construe,  of,  177. 
commiserescere,  construe,  of,  189. 
committere,  non,  with  ut,  usedpe- 
riphrastically,  552.  6. 
committere,  with  ut,  378. 
commonefacere,  construe,  of,  154. 
commonere,  construe,  of,  154. 
communicare,  construe,  of,  545. 
communis,  construe,  of,  167. 
comparare,  construe,  of,  177. 
commutare,  194. 
complere,  construe,  of,  197.  2. 
compos,  construe,  of,  152.  2. 
conari,  with  inf,  347. 
concedere,  with  ut  or  the  acc. 
with  inf,  397. 


conciliare,  545. 

concurrere,  545. 

condemnare,  156. 

conditio,  with  ut,  377. 

conducere,  153,  194. 

conferre,  with  and  without  se,  545. 

confertus,  197.  1. 

confidere,  177,  199.  2 

confinis,  167. 

confirmare,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
confluere,  545. 
congruere,  177. 
conjungere,  177. 
conjuratus,  457. 
conquiescere,  545. 
conscendere,  545. 
conscius,  150. 
consentaneus,  166.  8. 
consequens  est,  with  ut  or  the  acc. 
with  inf,  397. 

consequi,  186  ;  with  ut  or  ne,  376. 
consilium,  with  ut,  376. 
consolari,  with  quod,  387. 
consors,  152. 1. 

constare,  to  cost ,  194,  545  ;  with 
acc.  and  inf,  382. 
constituere,  with  ut,  377. 
consuetudo  est,  with  ut,  378. 
consul,  in  the  consulship  of  463. 
consulere, 178 ;  with  ut  or  ne,  376. 
consultus,  150. 
consumere,  545. 
contemnens,  151.  2. 
contendere, 545 ;  with  ut  or  ne, 376. 
contentus,  200. 
conterere,  545. 

contingit,  with  the  dat.  and  inf., 
174  ;  with  ut,  378. 
contrarius,  165. 

convenire,  conventus,  545  ;  con¬ 
venit,  with  ut  and  the  acc.  with 
the  inf,  397,  382 
convertere,  545. 

copiae,  with  the  distributive  num¬ 
bers,  101.  3. 
coram,  26. 
creare,  184. 

credere,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
credo,  ut  credo,  placed  within  the 
sentence,  485  ;  mihi  crede,  483. 
criminari,  with  quod,  387. 
cuicuimodi,  with  the  indicative, 
i  (270.  b.). 


LATIN  INDEX. 


503 


cum  (with),  its  position,  28.  1 . 

492 ;  compared  with  quum,288. 
cumulare,  197.  2. 
cunctus,  as  a  synonyme,  550.  (c .) 
cupere,  178;  with  ut,  376;  with 
acc.  and  inf.,  396. 
cupidus,  151. 

cura  est,  curae  est,  curam  incum¬ 
bere  with  ut  and  ne,  376. 
curare,  with  ut  and  ne,  376. 
cursus,  a  march  to,  with  ad,  71 . 4. 

D. 

Damnare,  156. 

dare,  with  dat.,  773  ;  with  verbal 
adjective,  362  ;  poenas,  545  ; 
with  two  accusatives,  184. 
debere,  with  inf.,  347. 
decedere,  204. 
decere,  189. 

decernere,  with  ut,  377. 
declarare,  184. 
declinare,  204. 
dedecere,  189. 
dedocere,  185. 

deducere,  204  ;  with  quominus, 
399. 

dee  se,  176. 
defendere  ab  — ,  545. 
deficere,  178,  186. 
deficere,  545. 
defraudare,  198.  (4). 
defungi,  203. 

demonstrare,  with  acc.  and  inf., 
380. 

depellere,  204. 
deplorare,  201. 

desiderare,  545;  with  ut,  376;  non 
desiderare  with  quominus,  399. 
designare,  184. 

desilire,  construe,  of,  204,  545. 
desinere,  with  the  inf.,  220. 
desine,  with  the  inf.,  344.  b. 
desiste,  with  the  inf.,  344.  b. 
desistere,  construe,  of,  545. 
desperare,  177. 

deterrere,  with  quominus,  399. 
detrahere,  177,  204,  545. 

Deus  optimus  maximus,  490. 
deversari,  545. 
devertere,  545. 

dicere,  with  two  accusatives,  184; 
with  ut,  377 ;  with  acc.  and  inf., 


380  ;  often  in  the  subj.  (270.  d.). 
5  ;  dico,  I  mean ,  namely,  534  ; 
dici,  in  the  passive,  how  con¬ 
structed  when  that  follows  ? 411. 
dicens,  when  imp'  ed.  *94. 
dictus,  sic,  ita,  supra,  537. 
difficile  est,  270. 

difficilis,  163.  4  ;  with  the  supine, 
442. 

diffidere,  199.  2. 

diffluere,  .197.  2. 

dignare  and  dignari,  196. 

dignus,  196  ;  followed  b}’  qui,  309. 

diligens,  151. 

discedere,  204. 

discere,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 

dispar,  166.  8. 

disputare,  545. 

dissentire,  545. 

dissidere,  545. 

dissimilis,  166.  8. 

diversus,  166.  8. 

docere,  with  two  accusatives,  185  ; 

with  acc.  and  inf,  380. 
dolere,  construe,  of,  201  2  ;  with 
acc  and  the  inf.,  387. 
domus,  in  answer  to  the  question, 
where?  69  ;  whither  ?  71.  3  ; 
whence  ?  73. 
domi  militiseque,  490. 
donare,  177. 

donec,  with  what  mode  ?  297. 
dubitare,  construe,  of,  445  ;  non 
dubitare,  with  quin,  400  ;  with 
the  inf.,  400. 

dubium  non  esse,  with  quin,  400. 
ducere,  with  a  dat.,  173;  duci, 
with  the  genitive,  142  ;  ducere, 
with  two  accusatives,  184  ;  with 
acc.  and  inf.,  380;  ducere  in, 
545. 

dulcis,  163  3. 

dum,  with  the  present,  when  ? 
224,  294  ;  with  what  mode  ?  293 
— 296;  dumne,  296. 
dummodo,  296. 
durus,  163.  4. 

dux,  under  the  guidance  of,  531 . 

E. 

E  and  ex,  when  the  one,  when 
the  other  ?  29. 
eatenus  —  quatenus,  524. 


504 


LATIN  INDEX 


ecquis,  333.  6  ;  ecquid,  331. 
edicere,  with  ut  or  ne,  377. 
edocere,  185. 

efficere,  with  two  accusatives,! 84, 
545  ;  with  ut  or  ne,  376,  378  ; 
with  acc.  and  inf’.,  380;  effici¬ 
tur,  with  ut  and  the  acc.  and  the 
inf.,  397  ;  efficere  aliquid  in  ali¬ 
quo,  545. 

effugere,  186;  with  ex,  188. 
egere,  160,  197.  2. 
egone  ?  334.  9. 
egredi,  204. 

eius,  difference  between  and  suus, 
116—121. 

ejusmodi,  with  ut,  378. 
eligere,  184. 
emere,  153,  194. 

enim,  after  some  word  or  words 
in  a  sentence,  470. 
eo,  so  far,  to  suck  a  degree ,  161. 2 ; 
with  ut,  378. 

eorum,  earum,  difference  between 
and  suus,  1 16. 
equester,  in  masculine,  551. 
ergo,  with  the  genitive,  138  ;  po¬ 
sition  in  the  sentence,  474. 
esse,  with  the  genitive  of  quality, 
140  ;  with  the  ablative  of  quali¬ 
ty,  193  ;  est,  with  a  genitive,  it 
is  tkc  duty ,  mark ,  etc.,  142  ;  es¬ 
se,  with  the  genitive  denoting 
the  possessor,  143;  of  value  or 
worth,  153,  194  ;  with  the  da¬ 
tive  signifying  to  have ,  172  ;  to 
serve ,  to  consider ,  to  conduce  f?'i. 
with  the  dative  of  the  predicate, 
174;  with  the  dative  of  a  ge¬ 
rund,  356 ;  omitted  in  participial 
sentences,  462  ;  est,  when  omit¬ 
ted,  383,  552  ;  est  quod,  with 
the  subj.,  303  ;  est,  it  is  possible , 
with  ut,  378 ;  esse  in  eo,  with 
ut,  378. 
erudire,  545. 

el,  when  omitted  ?  552. 3 ;  et  non, 
neque,  526  ;  et  quidem,  471;  as 
a  synonyme,  550.  (>,). 
etenim,  placed  first  in  a  sentence, 
469. 

etiam,  in  answers,  335;  position 
of,  471;  etiam  tum,  when  for 
etiam  nunc  ?  434. 


etiamsi,  with  what  mode?  278, 280. 
etsi,  with  what  mode  ?  272. 
evadere  ex  aliqua  re,  204. 
evenire,  with  ut  or  ne,  378. 
evincere,  with  ut  or  ne,  376. 
excedere,  204. 
excellere,  177. 
excidit,  545. 

excitare,  with  ut  or  ne,  377. 
excusare,  with  the  conjunction 
that ,  409;  also  with  quoininu3, 
399. 

exercere  in  aliquo,  545. 
exire,  204, 545. 

existimare,  184  ;  in  the  passive 
with  the  conjunction  that,  414. 
exitiosus,  163.  1. 
exonerare,  198.  3. 
exordium  sumere  ab  aliqua  re|  545. 
expedire,  198.  2;  expedit,  with  ut 
and  the  acc.  and  inf.,  397,  382. 
expellere,  204. 
expers,  152.  1. 
explere,  197.  2. 
exprimere,  545. 
expromere,  545. 
exsolvere,  198.  3. 
expectare  dum,  295. 
extremum  est,  ut,  378,  390;  for 
denique,  558. 

extremus, at  the  end  or  lastpart, 84. 
exuere,  177. 

F. 

Fac,  suppose,  380  ;  with  ut  as  a 
periphrastic  imperative,  344  ; 
with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
fac  ne,  344.  b. 

facere,  to  value,  153 ;  with  two  ac¬ 
cusatives,  184  ;  to  do  with  some 
one,  with  the  ablative,  206.  4  ; 
to  admit,  suppose,  with  the  acc. 
and  the  inf.,  380;  with  ne  and  ut, 
376;  with  part.,  417. 
facere  bene,  prudenter,  etc.,  with 
quod,  387. 

facere  ut,  periphrasis,  (541.  d.). 
facilis,  163.  4  ;  with  the  supine, 
440. 

factum  est,  with  ut.  378. 
fallere,  186. 
familiaris,  165. 
farcire,  197.  2. 


LATIN  INDEX. 


505 


fas,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  382. 
fastidiosus,  151. 
fatalis,  163.  1. 
favere,  16!). 

ferre  aequo  animo,  graviter,  etc., 
with  the  acc.  and  inf.,  387. 
ferri,  to  be  said,  how  constructed 
with  that  ?  41  I . 
festinare,  with  the  inf.,  438. 
fidere,  199.  2. 

fieri,  with  genitive  of  quality,  141  ; 
with  genitive  of  the  possessor, 
1 43 ;  to  be  valued,  153  ;  with  da¬ 
tive  of  predicate,  174  ;  with  ut, 
378. 

figere,  545. 

finem  facere,  with  the  genitive, 
137,  351. 

fingere,  with  two  accusatives, 184  ; 

with  part.,  417. 
finitimus,  167. 

flagitare,  185;  with  utorne,  377. 
fore,  ut,  267.  1 , 378,  403. 
formare, with  two  accusatives, 184. 
formidare,  168,  178. 
forsitan,  with  the  subj.,  332.  2. 
fraudare,  198.  4. 
fretus,  199.  1. 
frui,  203. 

fugere,  with  the  acc.,  186 ;  with 
ex,  188. 

fugiens,  with  genitive,  151. 
fultus,  199. 1. 
fungi,  203. 

futurum  esse,  ut,  267.  1,  378,  403. 

G. 

Gaudere,  200.  1  ;  with  the  acc. 

and  inf.,  387. 
gigni  ex  aliquo,  545. 
gloriaii,  202;  with  the  acc.  and 
inf.,  387. 
gnarus,  150. 

gratia,  on  account  of,  138  ;  with 
the  gerund,  350. 
gratias  agere,  with  quod,  387. 
gratulari,  with  quod,  387  ;  con¬ 
strue.  of,  545. 
gratus,  163.  3. 
gravis,  163.  1. 

H. 

Habere,  with  two  accusatives, 

43 


184;  to  value,  153;  haberi, with 
the  genitive,  142  ;  to  he  valued , 
153;  habeo,  non  habeo,  quid; 
nihil  habeo,  quod,  334.  11  ;  ha¬ 
beto,  341. 
habilis,  164. 
haud  scio  an,  334. 10. 
hercule,  338 ;  in  oratio  obliqua, 
433. 

hic,  with  gen.,  125  ;  not  in  oratio 
obliqua,  434  ;  position  of,  479. 
hinc  sequitur,  utor  acc.  with  inf, 
379,  397. 

hoc,  with  the  genitive,  147  ;  with 
a  verbum  sentiendi  or  dicendi , 
superfluous,  385. 

horrere,  168, 178;  with  ne  and  ne 
non,  406. 

horror  est,  with  ne  and  ne  non, 406. 
hortor,  with  ut  or  ne,  377. 
hostis,  165. 

huc,  as  far  as  this,  so  far,  with 
the  genitive,  161.2;  huc  illuc, 
490. 

humus,  in  answer  to  the  question, 
where  ?  69. 

J. 

Jactare,  se  jactare,  202. 
iccirco  (idcirco),  position,  474. 
id,  with  the  genitive,  147  ;  id  ae¬ 
tatis,  181  ;  with  a  verbum  sen¬ 
tiendi  or  dicendi,  385. 
id  quod,  and  that,  539. 
idem,  with  the  genitive,  147  ;  with 
qui,  524. 
idoneus,  164. 

igitur,  position  of,  474,  516. 
ignarus,  without  knowledge ,  80, 
531 ;  with  the  genitive,  150. 
ignoscere,  with  quod,  387. 
ille,  position  of  in  a  sentence,  479; 

with  gen.,  125. 
ille  quidem,  552.  5. 
illud,  with  the  genitive,  147;  with 
a  verbum  sentiendi  or  dicendi , 
385. 

illudere,  177. 

imbecillus,  not  imbecillis,  551. 
imitari,  186. 
immemor,  150. 
immensum  est,  225. 
immunis,  198.  1. 


506 


LATIN  INDEX. 


irnrao  (imo),  340. 
impar,  166  8. 

impatiens,  with  the  genitive,  151. 
impedire,  with  quominus,  399 ; 

construe,  of,  545. 
impellere,  with  ut  or  ne,  377. 
imperare,  178;  with  ut  and  the 
acc.  and  the  inf.,  376,  377. 
imperitus,  150. 
implere,  197.  2. 
imponere,  178. 

impotens,  with  the  genitive,  152.2. 
imprimere  in,  545. 
imprimis,  550. 
improvidus,  150. 

imprudens,  contrary  to  one's  will , 
80,  531 ;  with  gen.,  150. 
in,  when  it  governs  an  acc.  and 
when  an  abla.  ?  27.  1 ;  when 
omitted?  68  1,70;  when  used 
with  an  abla.  ?  70 ;  when  with 
an  acc.  of  place  ?  71 ;  when 
used  to  denote  time  ?  75  ;  with 
other  substantives,  when  trans¬ 
lated  ?  213. 

in  primis,  especially ,  550. 
inaequalis  166.  8. 
inanis,  152  1,  197.  1. 
incidere,  178;  with  ut,  378. 
incidere,  177,  545. 
incipere  ab,  545. 
incumbere,  178. 

indicare,  194  ;  with  acc.  and  inf., 
380. 

indigere,  160,  197.  2. 
indignari,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  387. 
indignus,  196 ;  with  qui,  309. 
inducere  (animum),  with  ut,  or  ne, 
376. 

induere,  177. 
inesse,  177. 

infans,  n  childhood. ,  531. 

infensus,  165. 

inferre,  177. 

infestus,  165. 

infinitum  est,  270. 

inaratus,  163.  3. 

inhaerere,  177. 

inimicus,  165. 

iniquus,  construe,  of,  165. 

injucundus,  163.  3. 

injuratus,  active,  457. 

inquam,  position  of  in  the  sen¬ 


tence,  487  ;  in  the  oratio  recta, 
432  ;  I  mean,  namely ,  534. 
insciens,  inscius,  without  know¬ 
ledge,  80,  531. 

inscius,  construe,  of,  150,  463. 
inscribere  in,  construe,  of,  545. 
insculpere  in,  construe,  of,  545. 
instar,  138. 

instituere,  with  ut,  377. 
instructus,  used  for  a  periphrasis, 
544. 

intelligere,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
intercedit,  construe,  of,  545. 
intercludere,  545. 
interdicere,  construe,  of,  177 ; 
with  ne,  377;  with  quominus, 
399. 

interesse,  with  dative,  176;  con¬ 
strue.  of,  178;  to  concern ,  to  be 
interested  in,  157. 
interpellare,  with  quominus,  399. 
interrogare,  with  two  accusatives, 
185. 

intimus,  165. 
inutilis,  163.  1. 
invadere,  545. 
invehi,  545. 

invenire,  with  two  accusatives, 
184. 

invidere,  170. 

invitus,  against  one's  will,  80, 531 . 
involvere,  545. 

ipse,  instead  of  sui,  112;  very , 
even,  126 ;  with  another  pro¬ 
noun,  in  what  case?  127;  posi¬ 
tion  of  in  the  sentence,  126, 484, 
479. 

ipsius  and  ipsorum,  for  suus,  118. 
irasci,  170;  with  quod,  387. 
ire,  with  the  supine,  438. 
is,  ea,  difference  between  and  sui, 
108— 115  ;  is  —  qui.  524. 
is,  with  ut,  378. 
is,  ea,  id,  when  omitted  ?  539. 
iste,  not  in  oratio  obliqua,  434  ; 
position  of,  479. 

ita,  with  a  verbum  sentiendi  or  di¬ 
cendi,  385 ;  with  ut,  378  ;  does 
not  always  have  a  sentence 
with  ut  after  it,  390 ;  position 
of  in  a  sentence,  478. 
ita  est,  335. 

itane?  itaneest?  334.9. 


LATIN  INDEX 


507 


itaque,  position  of  in  a  sentence, 
474. 

jubere,  186  ;  with  the  acc.  and 
the  inf,  187,  377. 
jucundus,  163.  3  ;  jucundum  est, 
with  the  acc.  and  the  inf., 387. 
judicare,  184  ;  with  acc.  and  inf. 
380 

jungere,  177. 

jurare,  followed  by  fut.  inf.,  402. 
jus,  with  ut,  377. 
jus  fasque,490. 

justum  est,  ut  or  the  acc.  with 
the  inf.,  397,  382. 
juvare,  186  ;  juvat  me,  188. 

f 

L.  / 

Laborare,  545;  withut,  ne,376. 
laetari,  200;  with  the  acc.  and 
the  inf.,  387. 
laetus,  200. 
lamentari,  201. 
laudare,  with  quod,  387. 
laxare,  198.  2. 
levare,  198.  3. 
levis,  163  4. 
lex,  with  ut,  377. 
liberare,  198.  2. 
libens,  463. 
liceri,  .194,  545. 

licet,  although,  282.4;  with  acc. 
and  inf ,  380 ;  it  is  lawful ,  405  ; 
in  the  future  perfect,  250. 
locare,  to  let  out ,  194;  to  place , 
545;  with  the  verbal  adjective 
in  andus  and  cndus ,  362. 
loco,  in  the  place,  70. 
locupletare,  197.  2. 
longum  est,  225,  270. 
ludere,  545. 

ludi,  with  the  distributive,  101.3. 
lugere,  201. 

M. 

Maerere,  201 .  2. 
magis  and  plus,  547. 
magnus,  with  the  dative,  163.  2. 
male  emere,  vendere,  195. 
maledicere,  170. 

malle,  with  the  inf.,  347;  with 
ut,  376 ;  with  acc.  and  inf., 
396. 

mandare,  withut, 377. 


manere,  construe,  of,  178. 
manifestum  est,  with  acc.  and  inf., 
382. 

mari,  by  sea,  70. 
maxime,  especially ,  550. 
rnederi,  170. 

medius,  in  the  middle,  84. 
mehercule,  in  answers,  338. 
mei,  tui,  sui,  133,  135. 
memento,  with  an  :nf.,  344 
meminisse,  154  ;  with  acc. and  inf.,. 
380 ;  when  by  inf.  pres,  and 
perf.,  385. 
memor,  150. 

memoratus,  rnodo,  supra,  wheth¬ 
er  correct  ?  537. 
mentem  in,  mihi  venit,  154. 
mentionem  facere  alicujus  rei, 
137. 

mereri,  545. 

meritum  in  (erga)  aliquem,  545. 
metuens,  151. 

metuere,  168,  178 ;  with  ne,  ne 
non,  406. 

metus  est,  with  ne,  ne  non,  406. 
militiae,  abroad,  69. 
mille,  millia,  99. 

minari,  minitari,  177 ;  with  the 
inf  future,  402. 
minime,  in  answers,  338. 
minari,  with  acc  and  inf.,  387. 
minus,  with  the  genitive,  147. 
minimum,  with  the  genitive,  147. 
miserere,  misereri,  miserescere, 
155. 

miserari,  construe,  of,  155. 
mittere,  177;  with  the  verbal  ad¬ 
jective  in  andus  and  endus ,  362. 
moderari,  178. 
modo,  as,  like  as,  138. 
modo,  modo  ut,296  ;  rnodo  ne, 296. 
moerere  201. 

molae,  with  the  distributive  num¬ 
bers,  101.  3. 

moleste  fere,  molestum  esse,  with 
the  acc.  and  the  inf.,  387. 
molestus,  163.  3. 

monere,  154;  with  ut  or  ne, 
377  ;  with  acc.  and  inf.,  396 
rnoram  afferre, with  quominus, 399. 
morari,  with  quominus,  3 j'J. 
more,  as,  like  as,  138. 
mos  est,  with  ut,  378. 


508 


LATIN  INDEX 


movere,  with  ut  or  ne,  377. 
mutare,  It >4. 

multum,  with  the  genitive,  147  ; 

inultum  est,  225. 
multum  abesse  ut,  378. 
munus,  with  ut,  377. 

N. 

Nam,  placed  first  in  a  sentence, 
469  ;  after  the  interrogative, 463. 
narrari,  whether  with  the  inf.  and 
nom.  ?  412. 
nascitur,  with  ut,  378. 
nasci  ex,  545. 

natus,  with  the  acc.,  180 ;  with 
loco  and  others,  544. 
ne,  mode,  49.  3,  281  ;  its  use,  342  ; 
diir.  between  and  quin,  399;  ne 
vivam,  374  ;  interrogative,  318, 
328  ;  ne —  an,  324;  for  nonne, 
332;  for  nuin,  332;  for  quomi¬ 
nus,  399  ;  ne  alter  words  deno¬ 
ting  fear,  4(;6. 

ne  quidem,  position  of  in  the  sen¬ 
tence,  472. 

necne,  324  ;  nec  vero,  528. 
necopinans,  contrary  to  expecta¬ 
tion. ,  80,  531 . 
necessarius,  163.  2, 167 
necesse  esse,  followed  by  the  con¬ 
junction  that  or  the  inf.,  405; 
by  acc.  and  inf.,  382. 
nedum,  540.  3. 

negare,  with  acc  and  inf.,  380  ;  | 
for  dicere  —  non,  529  ;  before 
nec  and  nequidem,  529. 
negligens,  151. 
nemo  est,  qui,  303. 
nequaquam,  in  answers,  338. 
neque, et  non,  525  ;  neque  vero, 
enim,  tamen,  528. 
nescio  quomodo,  with  what  mode  ? 

333;  nescio  an,  334  10. 
nescio  quis  and  nescio  quid,  333. 
nescius,  without  knowledge,  531; 

with  gen.,  150. 
neu,  neve,  342. 
neuter,  106. 

ni,  nisi,  278;  nisi,  si  non,  548; 

nisi  forte,  278,  279. 
nihil,  147,  149  ;  for  nemo,  87.  2; 
with  the  comparative;  87,  2; 
nihil  est,  quod,  277,  303. 


nihil  vero  minus,  in  answers, 
340. 

nimium,  147. 
nisi,  see  ni. 

niti,  199.  3  ;  with  ut,  or  ne,  376. 
nolle,  with  the  inf,  347 ;  with 
ut,  376;  with  the  acc  and  the 
inf.,  316 ;  noli,  with  the  inf., 
344.  b. 

nomen  alicui  est,  174  ;  dare,  in¬ 
dere,  174. 
nominare,  184. 

non,  position  of,  476,  477;  in  a 
question,  330 ;  non  est  quod, 
277,  303  ;  non  quo,  277,  2b2 ; 
non  quin,  282, 287.  b,  400  ;  non 
enim,  when?  528;  non  modo, 
for  non  modo  non,  when  ?  540; 
non  enim,  vero,  tamen,  528  ; 
non  nisi,  position  of,  477  ;  non, 
for  nonne,  329  ;  nonne,321,329 ; 
in  the  second  question  on.y 
non,  322. 

nostri,  with  the  genitive  of  the  ge¬ 
rund,  372 
noxius,  163.  1. 
nubere,  170. 
nudare,  198.  4. 
nudus,  198.  1. 

nullus,  neuter,  106;  nullus  est, 
qui,  303  ;  nullus  est  locus,  quo 
non,  for  usquequaque,  558. 
num,  and  the  like,  331  ;  nuin  — 
an,  323  ;  num  for  ne,  332. 
numerare  in,  with  the  abla  ,  545. 
numero  in  aliquor,  habere,  137. 
numquis,  numquid,  333.  6. 
nuncupare,  184 

nuntiare  with  acc.  and  infi,  380. 
nusquam,  with  the  gen  ,  161. 

O. 

O  si,  with  the  subj.,  282.  3. 
obire,  with  the  acc.,  186. 
oblivisci,  154  ;  with  acc.  and  inf., 
380. 

obruere,  197.  2. 
observans,  151. 
obsistere,  with  quominus,  399. 
obstare,  with  quominus,  399. 
obtrectare,  177. 
occumbere,  177. 
occurrere,  with  ut,  378. 


LATIN  INDEX. 


509 


occupatum  esse  in  aliqua  re,  545. 
officere,  with  quominus,  391). 
officium  est,  ut,  377. 
omittere,  with  quod,  387. 
omnis,  with  pronouns,  position  of, 
486  ;  as  a  synonyme,  550.  (t). 
onustus,  197.  1. 
operam  dare,  ut,  376. 
opinio,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
opinor,  ut  opinor,  placed  within 
the  sentence,  485. 
oportere,  189  ;  with  the  acc.  and 
inf.  or  the  subj.,  405. 
opplere,  197.  2. 
opportunus,  165. 
optare,  with  ut,  376,  377. 
opus  esse,  130 ;  with  acc.  and  inf., 
382. 

orans,  when  implied,  424. 
orare,  with  ut  or  ne,  377. 
oratio  obliqua  and  recta,  419  et 
seq. 

orbare,  198.  4  ;  orbus,  adjec.,  198. 

1. 

ordiri  ab,  545. 

ornatus,  used  for  a  periphrasis, 
544. 

ostendere  se,  184  ;  with  acc.  and 
inf.,  380. 

P. 

Paene,  with  the  indie.,  (270.  a.). 

par,  166.  8;  with  acc.  and  inf., 382. 

paratus,  166. 

parcere,  170. 

partem  magnam,  181. 

particeps,  152.  1. 

parum,  161. 

pati,  with  ut  and  the  acc.  with  the 
inf.,  397. 

patiens,  with  the  gen.,  151. 
pavere,  with  ne,  ne  non,  406. 
pavor  est,  as  pavere,  406. 
pendere,  to  value.,  153. 
per,  to  denote  the  instrument  or 
means,  208.2;  with  a  substan¬ 
tive  to  express  an  English  ad¬ 
verb,  211. 1. 
per  me  licet,  542. 
percipere,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
percontari  (percunctari),  185. 
perferre,  545. 

perficere,  with  ut  or  ne,  376. 

43* 


perfrui,  203. 
perfungi,  203. 

perhibere,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
periculosus,  163  1. 
periculum  est,  with  ne,  ne  non, 
406;  periculum  alicujus  facere, 
137. 

perinde  ac  si,  283. 
periodus,  and  the  different  kinds 
of,  553  et  seq. 
peritus,  150. 

permittere,  with  ut  or  the  acc. 

with  the  inf.,  397. 
permutare,  194. 
perniciosus,  163.  1. 
perspicuum  est,  with  acc.  and 
inf.,  382. 
persequi,  186. 

persuadere,  170  ;  with  ut  or  ne, 
377  ;  with  acc.  and  inf.,  396. 
pertinere  ad,  545. 
pervenire,  186. 

pervincere,  with  ut  or  ne,  376. 
petere,  178. 
pigere,  155,  189. 
placare,  545. 

placere,  when  in  fut.  perf.  ?  250 ; 

with  ut,  377. 
plenus,  152.  1,  197.  1. 
plorare,  201. 
pluere,  177. 

plurimum,  diff.  between  and  maxi¬ 
me,  550. 

plus,  diff.  between  and  magis, 547. 
poenas  dare  —  ,  545. 
poenitere,  155,  189. 
polliceri,  with  the  inf.  fut.,  402; 

with  acc  and  inf.,  380. 
ponere  in  aliqua  re,  545. 
poscere,  185  ;  with  ut  or  ne,  377. 
posse,  with  the  inf.,  347  ;  with  an 
inf.  of  an  impersonal  passive, 
220  ;  when  in  fut.  perf.  P  250  ; 
possum,  /  could ,  225,  270. 
post,  with  abl.,  77  ;  with  a  parti¬ 
ciple,  464. 

postquam,  with  the  perf.  indie., 
238,  273  ;  why  used  but  sel¬ 
dom  ?  273. 
postremus,  last,  82. 
postridie,  quam,  77.  5,  273. 
postulare,  185  ;  with  ut  or  ne,377 ; 
with  acc.  and  the  inf.,  396. 


510 


LATIN  INDEX. 


potens,  with  gen.,  152.  2. 
potiri,  construe,  of,  203. 
potissimum,  especially,  550. 
potius,  diff.  between  and  magis, 

547. 

potus,  active,  457. 
praebere,  184. 
praecedere,  177. 
praecellere,  177. 
praecipere,  with  ut,  377. 
praecipue,  especially ,  550. 
praedicere,  with  ut,  377. 
praeditus,  with  an  abi.,  544. 
praefidens,  199.  2. 
praescribere,  with  ut,  377. 
praesens,  in  the  presence  of,  531. 
praesertim,  especially ,  550. 
praestare,  178,  184,  545. 
praeterire,  186  ;  with  quod,  388. 
praeterquam  quod,  with  what 
mode  ?  277. 
praevenire,  186. 
pransus,  active,  457. 
precari,  construe,  of,  185. 
pridie,  quam,  77.  5  ;  mode,  298. 
primus,  first,  82  ;  in  the  beginning, 
84. 

prior,  82, 

priusquam,  with  what  mode  ?  298. 
privare,  198.  4. 

probare,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
proclivis,  166. 
procreare,  545. 

prodere,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
profecto,  in  answers,  335. 
proficisci  ad  aliq.  locum,  71 . 4. 
prohibere,  with  quominus,  399. 
proinde,  mode,  281. 
promittere,  with  the  inf.  fut.,  402; 

with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
promptus,  166. 
prope  esse,  with  ut,  378. 
prope,  with  indic.,  (270.  a.) 
propensus,  166. 
properare,  with  the  inf.,  438. 
propinquus,  167. 
propitius,  165. 
proprius,  167. 

propterea  quod,  with  what  mode  ? 
277. 

prospicere,  178  ;  with  ut  or  ne, 
376. 

providere,  168, 178;  with  ut,  376. 


providus,  150. 
provocare,  545. 
prout,  285. 

proximum  est,  with  ut,  378. 
prudens,  150. 
pudere,  155,  189. 
puer,  in  boyhood ,  531. 
pugnare,  with  quod,  387. 
pulchrum  est,  with  acc.  and  inf., 
3-2 

purgare,  545. 

putare,  to  value,  153  ;  to  consider 
as,  184  ;  with  the  acc.  and  the 
inf.,  often  in  the  subj.,  (270.  d.). 
5,  380. 

Q. 

Quaerere,  178. 

qualiscunque,  with  the  indicative, 
(270.  b.). 

quam,  when  not  to  be  omitted  with 
the  comparative,  93  ;  quam  qui 
for  quam  ut,  398. 
quamdiu,  with  indie.,  297. 
quamquam,  mode,  272. 
quamvis,  mode,  283. 
quamvis  licet,  mode,  283, 
quando,  with  si,  122. 
quando,  quandocunque  and  the 
like,  274. 

quantum,  how  much ,  with  the 
gen.,  148. 

quantus,  how  great,  148.  2. 
quantumvis,  283. 
quantuscunque,  (270.  b.). 
qua  re,  qua  de  re,  etc.,  55,  520. 
quasi,  283  ;  with  partic.,  461. 
quatenus,  275;  quat. — eatenus, 
524. 

que,  as  a  synonyme,  550.  (if). 
que,  placed  after,  470. 
quemadmodum,  in  oratio  obliqua, 
431. 

queri,  201;  with  quod,  387. 
qui,  quae,  quod,  its  case  in  the 
sentence,  37  ;  its  gender  in  con¬ 
nection  with  two  subst.,  103;  in 
the  subordinate  and  principal 
sentence,  521 ;  position  of  in  a 
sentence,  495,  496  ;  attracts  the 
substantive  into  its  own  case, 
124  ;  refers  to  all  persons,  216  ; 
for  hic,  haec,  hoc,  495 ;  used  to 


LATIN  INDEX. 


connect  sentences,  519  ;  is  put 
in  the  same  case  as  the  nearest 
clause,  521;  in  the  abl.  before  a 
comparative, 523;  qui  expressing 
a  reason,  313,  314  ;  with  the  in¬ 
die.  and  subj.,  299 — 314;  for  ut, 
308;  forquum,  313;  for  quod, 
that,  314.  9  ;  after  esse,  deesse, 
303  ;  after  reperire,  invenire, 
nancisci,  habere,  307;  after  dig¬ 
nus,  indignus,  aptus,  idoneus, 
309;  after  tam,  tantus,  talis,  is, 
ejusmodi,  310;  after  mittere, 
praemittere,  remittere,  deligere, 
311;  in  oratio  obliqua,  430;  qui 
instead  of  ut  ego,  etc.,  398 ;  as 
a  synonyme,  550.  (&,. 
quia,  mode,  276;  in  oratio  obli¬ 
qua,  431 . 

quicunque,  mode,  (270.  b.). 
quid,  with  the  gen.,  147 ;  quid  est, 
with  the  comparative,  87.  2. 
quid  est  causae,  cur,  for  cur,  558. 
quid  est  quod,  diff.  between,  when 
followed  by  the  indie,  and  the 
subj.,  303. 

quid  est,  quod,  with  the  subj.,  49.8, 
277;  for  cur,  558. 
quidam,  position  of,  505. 
quidem,  position  of,  471;  ille  qui¬ 
dem,  471  ;  joined  to  the  pro¬ 
noun  is,  107. 
quidni,  mode,  332.  2. 
quidquam,  diff.  between  and  ali¬ 
quid,  122. 

quidquid,  147;  quidquid  est,  quod, 
303. 

quin,  that  not,  etc.,  49.  4,  287.  b  ; 
why  not  ?  287.  a  ;  for  qui  non, 
303  ;  when  used  ?  400  ;  diff. 
between  and  ne,  399  ;  non  quin 
287.  b  ;  quin  and  qui  non  with 
the  perfect,  261 .  b ;  for  quomi¬ 
nus,  399. 

quippe,  in  oratio  obliqua,  431; 
quippe  qui,  313. 

quis,  which  ?  106  ;  any  one,  122  ; 
quis  est  with  the  comparative, 
87.  2 ;  quis  est,  qui,  mode,  303 ; 
for  quis,  nemo, -558 ;  quis  est, 
qui  non  (quin)  for  omnes,  558  ; 
with  si,  etc.,  122  ;  diff.  between 
quis  est,  qui,  when  followed  by 


511 

the  indic,  and  the  subj., 306  ;  as 
a  synonyme,  550.  i 
quis  or  quisquam,  used  in  a  ques¬ 
tion  implying  a  negative,  or  to 
which  a  neg.  answ.  is  expected, 
331,  332.  4. 

quispiam,  position  of,  505. 
quisquam,  diff.  between  and  ali¬ 
quis,  122. 

quisque,  position  of,  58,  480  ;  with 
ordinal  numbers,  100,  482. 
quisquis  with  indie.,  (270.  b.)  ; 
quisquis  est,  qui  non  (quin)  for 
<  mnes,  55«. 

quo,  after  that,  77.  5  ;  with  subj. 
49.  2,  282.  2;  how  far ,  to  what 
degree?  with  the  gen.,  161.  2; 
inhere?  161  ;  with  the  acc., 
181.  5  ;  for  ut  eo,  308,  398;  al¬ 
so  for  eo,  495 ;  non  eo,  quo,  277. 
quoad,  297 ;  interrogative,  315. 
quod,  with  the  gen.,  147 ;  that,  be¬ 
cause,  387,  388 ;  diff.  between 
construction  with  quod  and  ut, 
394  ;  mode,  277  ;  as  far  as,  314. 
quodsi,  278. 

quominus,  mode,  282;  when  used? 
399 ;  diff.  between  and  quin, 
399. 

quoniam,  mode,  276. 
quoque,  placed  after  the  word  to 
which  it  belongs,  56,  471. 
quotquot,  with  indie.,  (270.  b.). 
quotusquisque  est,  qui,  21 4,  303. 
quum  (cum),  mode,  288 — 292  ; 
with  the  perf.,  230,  239,  244 ; 
with  quum  primum,  292.  Rem. ; 
quum,  by,  in  that ,  that,  when , 
since,  288. 

R. 

Rationem  habere  alicujus,  137. 
recidere,  545. 
recipere,  178,  545. 
recordari,  154  ;  with  acc.  and  inf., 
380;  followed  by  pres,  and  perf., 
385. 

rectum  est,  with  acc.  and  inf., 382. 

recusare,  with  quominus,  399. 

reddere,  184. 

redimere,  194. 

redundare,  197.  2. 

refercire,  197.  2. 


512 


LATIN  INDEX, 


referre, 157 ;  construe,  of, 178, 545 ; 

with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
refert,  157. 

refertus,  152.  1,  197.  1. 
relaxare,  198.  2. 
relevare,  198.  3. 

relinquitur,  with  ut  and  acc.  with 
the  inf.,  378,  379,  397. 
reliqui,  ceteri,  549. 
reliquum,  with  the  gen.,  147  ;  re¬ 
liquum  est,  ut,  for  ceterum,  558 } 
reliquum  est,  ut,  390. 
reminisci,  154. 
renuntiare,  184. 
reor,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
reperire,  184. 

reponere  in  aliqua  re,  545. 
reportare,  545. 
reposcere,  185. 

reprehendere,  with  quod,  387. 
repugnare,  with  quominus,  :i99. 
res,  per  phrasis,  ,.5}  position  of, 
505. 

rescribere,  177. 

resistere,  with  quominus,  399. 
respicere,  545. 
respondere,  178. 

restat,  ut,  for  ceterum,  558 ;  res¬ 
tat,  ut,  378,  390. 
reverens,  151. 
ritu,  as,  like ,  Like  as,  138. 
rogare,  1 85 }  with  ut  or  ne,  377. 
rudis,  150. 

rus,  in  answ.  to  the  quest,  where  ? 
69}  whither  ?  71 . 3 }  whence  ?  73. 

S. 

Sagax,  150. 

salubris  (saluber),  163.  1,  551. 

salutaris,  163.  1. 

sane,  in  answers,  335. 

satiare,  197.  2. 

satis,  161.  1 . 

saturare,  197.  2. 

scatere,  197.  2. 

sciens,  with  knowledge ,  80,  531 ; 

with  the  gen  ,  150. 
scientiam  habere  alicujus,  137. 
scire,  with  the  inf.,  347  ;  with 
acc.  and  inf.,  380  }  haud  scio  an, 
334.  10. 

scribere,  177  ;  with  ut,  377}  with 
acc.  and  inf.,  380. 


sectari,  186. 

securum  esse,  with  ne,  ne  non, 40b. 
sed,  first  in  a  sentence,  469 }  as  a 
synonyme,  550.  (a). 
senatus  populusq.  R.,  with  sing, 
verb,  63. 

senex,  in  old  age,  531. 
sentire,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
sequi,  186}  sequitur  with  ut  and 
the  acc.  and  inf.,  397. 
sestertium,  with  a  numeral  adv., 
214. 


si,  mode,  278 ;  si  forte,  278 }  si 
quidem,  278}  si  non,  nisi,  diff. 
between,  548. 

sic,  with  a  verbum  sentiendi,  or  di¬ 
cendi,  385 ;  with  ut,  378 }  not 
always  followed  by  ut,  390} 
position  of,  478. 
sicarius  —  inter  sicarios,  156. 
similis,  construe,  of,  166.  8. 
simul,  simulae,  238,  273  }  simulae, 
simulatque,  551. 

sin,  first  in  the  sentence,  469} 
mode,  278 }  sin  minus,  aliter, 
548. 


sinere,  with  ut  and  the  acc.  with 
the  inf.,  397. 

singuli, distributive  number, 101 . 3. 
sitiens,  151. 

sive  —  sive,  mode,  278,  280  ;  as  a 
synonyme,  550.  (t). 
socius,  152.  1. 

solere,  with  an  inf.  of  an  impers. 

pass.,  220. 
solus,  82. 

solvere,  178,  198.  3. 
sortito,  as  abla.  absolute,  455. 
sperare,  with  inf.  fut.,  402 }  with 
acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
spes  est,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
spes  metusque,  490. 
spoliare,  198.  4. 

spondere,  with  acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
sponte,  with  mea,  tua,  536. 
stare,  to  cost,  153,  194  ;  in  other 
significations,  206. 
statu,  in  abla.,  70. 
statuere,  with  the  infin.,  347  ; 
with  ut,  377 }  with  acc.  and  inf., 
380. 


studere.  170  }  wi'h  the  inf.  and 
ut,  376 }  with  the  acc.  and 


LATIN  INDEX. 


513 


inf.,  3%  ;  with  the  dative  of 
the  gerund,  356. 
studiosus,  151. 
suadere,  with  ut  or  ne,  3.7. 
suasor,  counsel ,  463,  531. 
suavis,  163.  3. 
sub,  case,  27.  2. 
subire,  186. 
subter,  case,  27.  3. 
subterfugere,  186;  with  ex,  188. 
succensere,  170;  with  quod,  387. 
sui,  sibi,  se,  diff.  between  and  ejus, 
ei,  eum,  108 — 115. 
sumere  supplicium  de,  545. 
summus,  on  the  highest  part  or 
surface ,  84. 
super,  case,  27.  4. 
superbus,  202. 
superest,  with  ut,  378. 
supersedere,  177,  545. 
supplere,  1 1>7.  2. 
supplicare,  construct,  of,  176. 
suppoenitere,  155,  189. 
suppudere,  155,  189. 
sursum,  deorsum,  490. 
suscipere,  with  verbal  adjective 
in  andus  and  endus,  362. 
suus,  diff.  between  and  ejus,  eo¬ 
rum,  116 — 121. 

T. 

Taedere,  155,  189. 
talis,  with  ut,  378. 
talis— qualis,  524. 
tam,  with  ut,  378. 
tarndiu — quamdiu,  524. 
tamen,  with  qui,  520  ;  position  of 
in  a  sentence,  475,  517. 
tametsi,  mode,  272. 
tamquam,  283;  with  particip., 
461. 

tandem,  strengthening  word,  334. 
9;  position  of  in  the  sentence, 
473. 

tantopere  with  ut,  378. 
tantum,  so  much ,  with  gen.,  147  ; 
tantum  abest  ut,  410 ;  with  ut, 
378. 

tantus,  so  great ,  148.  2. 
tantus  —  quantus,  524. 
temperare,  178. 

tempus  est,  with  the  inf.  and 


the  gen.  of  the  gerund,  352 ; 
with  ut,  378. 
tenax,  150. 

tenere,  with  quominus,  399. 
tentare,  with  the  inf,  347. 
tenus,  position  of,  28.  2,  492. 
terni,  diff.  between  and  trini, 
101.  3. 

terra,  by  land ,  70. 
timere,  178  ;  with  ne,  ne  non, 406. 
timor  est,  with  ne,  ne  non,  406. 
tot  —  quot,  524. 
toties  —  quoties,  524. 
totus,  with  words  denoting  place, 
68,  69,  70  ;  as  a  synonyme,550. 
tradere,  with  the  verbal  adjective 
in  andus  and  endus,  362  ;  with 
acc.  and  inf.,  380. 
tribuere,  with  dative,  173. 
triumphare  de,  545. 
tueri  ab  — ,  545. 
tutari  ab  — ,  545. 

U. 

Ubi,  where,  with  the  gen.,  161; 
for  ibi,  495  ;  when  with  perf. 
indic.  P  238,  273  ;  with  subj.  to 
denote  repeated  actions,  273. 
ubicumque,  with  indie  ,(270.  b.). 
ullus,  diff.  between  and  aliquis, 
122  ;  position  of,  505. 
ultimus,  last ,  82  ;  at  the  end ,  84. 
ultro  citroque,  490. 
unde,  for  inde,  495;  for  ut  inde, 
308. 

universus,  as  synonyme,  550.  (t). 
unus,  alone,  82 ;  when  in  plural, 
101.  3;  with  ex,  de,  and  when 
with  the  gen.  ?  145.  3. 
unusquisque,  with  the  distributive 
number,  101.  1. 

usque,  usque  ad,  diff.  between,  74. 
usque  eo,  with  ut,  378. 
usus,  used  for  a  periphrasis,  544. 
ut,  uti,  as,  when,  mode,  273,  285  ; 
ut  ut,  (270. b.),  585 ;  ut  qui,  313; 
ut  quisque  with  the  superlative, 
95;  ut,  in  oratio  obliqua,  431; 
ut  ait,  in  oratio  recta,  432 ;  ut 
after  words  denoting  fear,  406; 
ut  with  a  verb  and  its  subject, 
position  of,  487 ;  ut  credo,  arbi- 


514 


LATIN  INDEX. 


tror,  opinor,  position  of  in  the 
sentence,  485  ;  ut,  that,  49.  1, 
286;  ut,  to,  49.  1,286;  ut  ne, 
373 — 377  ;  in  questions  of  won¬ 
der,  334.  7 ;  often  omitted  with 
the  subj.,  392  ;  ut  ita  dicarn,  po¬ 
sition  of  in  the  sentence,  489  ; 
ut,  when ,  as  soon  as,  with  the 
perf.  indie.,  238. 
utcumque,  mode,  (270.b),  285. 
uter,  106;  construe,  of,  145.  1; 

uter,  utri  (plural),  535. 
uterque,  with  the  gen  ,  145 ;  with 
a  singular  verb,  145.  ],  535; 
uterque,  utrique,  535. 
uti,  203 

utilis,  163. 1  ;  utile  est,  with  ut 
and  the  acc.  with  the  inf.,  397, 
382. 

utinam,  with  the  subj.,  49.  5,  282. 

3 ;  tense,  228. 
utpote  qui,  ut  qui,  313. 
utrum,  interrog.,  326 ;  utrumne, 
327  ;  utrurn  —  an,  323. 
utsi,  mode,  283. 

V. 

Vacare,  198.  2. 
vacuus,  198.  1. 

valere,  with  the  inf.,  347  ;  con¬ 
strue.  of,  545. 

ve,  position  of,  470  ;  as  a  syno- 
nyme,  550.  (»). 
vel,  as  a  synonyme,  550.  (/). 
velirn,  followed  by  the  present  or 
perfect,  228  ;  followed  by  the 
subj.,  376,  395  ;  with  the  subj. 
for  the  imperative,  344. 
velle,  with  the  inf.,  347;  with 
ut,  376  ;  with  the  acc.  and  the 
inf.,  396  ;  diff.  between  acc.  and 
inf.  with,  and  ut  and  subj.,  395 
note  ;  when  in  fut.  perf.  ?  250. 
vellem,  followed  by  the  imperf.  or 
pluperf,  228;  with  the  subj., 
376. 

velut,  283;  with  the  particip.,  461. 


venalis,  194. 
vendere,  194. 

veneficum  —  de  veneficiis,  156. 
ven  ire,  to  be  for  sale,  194. 
venit  in  mentem,  154. 
verba  sentiendi  and  dicendi,  380; 
in  pass.,  411  ;  timendi  with  ne, 
ne  non,  4C6. 

vereri,  with  ne,  ne  non,  406 
verisimile  est,  with  ut  and  the  acc. 

with  the  inf.,  397,  382. 
vero,  but,  placed  after,  470 ; 
strengthening,  332.3;  really ? 
334.  9  ;  in  answers,  335,  336. 
versari  in  aliqua  re,  545. 
versus,  preposition,  position  of, 
28.  2,  495. 

vero  as  a  synonyme,  550.  (■/). 
verum,  bat,  placed  first  in  the  sen¬ 
tence,  469;  as  a  synonvme,  550. 

(*)•  '  L 
verum  est,  with  ut  and  the  acc. 

with  the  inf.,  397,  382. 

vesci,  203. 

vestri,  with  the  gen.  of  the  ge¬ 
rund,  372. 

vetare,  186;  with  the  acc.  and  the 
inf.,  377. 

via  Appia,  etc.,  78,  490. 
vicinus,  167. 
victoriam  ferre  ex,  545. 
videre,  to  care  for,  with  ut,  ne, 
376,  407 ;  to  see,  acc.  and  the 
inf.,  380 ;  with  the  participle, 
417;  vide,  videte,  videndum  est, 
ne,  1  fear,  406. 
videri,  it  seems  that,  413. 
vindex  esse  alicujus,  137. 
vindicare,  545. 

viritim,  with  the  distributive,  101. 
vitare,  with  quominus,  399. 
vituperare,  with  quod,  387. 
vivere,  206. 

vivus,  in  one's  life,  80,  463,  531. 
vix,  239. 

vocare,  with  two  accusatives,  184. 
volarn,  fut.  often  for  volo,  234. 


CORRIGENDA. 


Page  50,  line  2,  read  Siciliam  for  Sciciliam  ;  p.  66, 1.  25,  dicere  for 
discere  ;  p.  84,  1.  34,  servitus  for  servitus  ;  p.  87, 1.  25,  most  for  more ; 
p.  120,  1.  38,  esse  for  esso  ;  p.  130, 1.  32,  privatim  for  privatim ;  p.  152, 
1.  26,  contingere  for  contigere;  p.247,1.11,  dicere  for  dicere  ;  p. 
309,  1.  31,  reipublicae  for  republicae  ;  p.  395,  1.  16,  igitur  for  igitur; 
p.  399,  in  the  last  word  two  l’s  have  fallen  out ;  p.  405, 1. 5,  Licinia  for 
Licinio;  p.  431,  1.  29,  ei  —  cui  for  ci  —  eui ;  p.  558,  1.  10,  best  for 
ebst. 


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